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Didactics(didaktos - teaching, didasko - study (from Greek)) - part of pedagogy that studies the problems of teaching and education (learning theory).

The word didactics was first introduced by the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke. Ya. A. Komensky interpreted didactics as the universal art of teaching everyone everything. At the beginning of the 19th century, the German teacher I. Herbart introduced the theory of educational teaching into didactics.

Didactics- the science of training and education, their goals and content, methods, means and achieved results.

1) teaching - the ordered activity of a teacher in the transmission of knowledge, their understanding and practical application;

2) learning - a process during which new forms of behavior and activity arise on the basis of knowledge, exercises and social experience;

3) training - a systematic, purposeful, specially organized process of interaction between teachers and students, aimed at transferring knowledge and developing creative abilities;

4) education - the result of training, the system of the volume of knowledge acquired during the training process;

5) knowledge - understanding, storing in memory and the ability to reproduce the basic facts of science and the resulting theoretical generalizations;

6) skills - mastery of ways to apply knowledge in practice, which is manifested in activities;

7) skill - automatic ability to accurately and quickly perform actions based on existing knowledge (as a result of repeated performance of a certain action);

8) academic subject - area of ​​scientific knowledge;

9) educational material - the content of an educational subject, which is determined by GOST;

10) the goal of learning is what learning strives for and what its efforts are aimed at;

12) teaching method - a way to achieve a goal;

13) teaching aids - subject support for the educational process (teacher’s voice, classroom equipment, technical assistance);

14) learning outcomes - what learning comes to, the specific implementation of intended goals.

Subject, tasks and contradictions of didactics:

Didactics covers the entire educational system in all subjects.

Didactics happens:

• General- the concept of teaching, learning; factors influencing the learning process; conditions in which learning takes place and results
• Private- methods of teaching academic subjects, an academic subject that has its own teaching specifics

The main tasks of didactics:

1) development of problems - what to teach, how to teach, whom to teach;

2) study the patterns of educational and cognitive activity of students and ways of its activation in the learning process;

3) organization of cognitive activities to master scientific knowledge and skills;

4) develop students’ cognitive mental processes and creative abilities;

5) develop more advanced organizations of the learning process, introduce new teaching technologies in teaching;

Didactics performs the following functions:

1) educational- transfer of the ZUN system at each age stage of personality development;

2) developing- formation and development of mental qualities of the individual, their change;

3) educational- the connection between knowledge and attitudes towards the world around us, towards ourselves and other people.

The driving forces of learning are contradictions - opposing opinions colliding in conflict:

a) contradictions between students’ interest and the subject;

b) the contradiction between teaching and learning;

c) the contradiction between the level of previous knowledge and new knowledge;

contradictions between the required and achieved level of students’ attitudes towards learning, i.e. motive for learning and practically acquired knowledge.

Didactic concepts (Ya. A. Komensky, I. F. Herbart, J. Dewey, P. P. Galperin, Sh. A. Amonashvili):

In didactics there are 3 main concepts of teaching:

A) traditional- the main role in it is played by teaching and the activities of the teacher (Ya.A. Komensky, I.F. Herbart, A. Disterverg and I.G. Pestalozzi);

b) pragmatic- main role is devoted to the teaching and activities of students (D. Dewey, L. Tolstoy, V. Lai);

V) modern- the main role of the interaction between teaching and learning, the activities of the teacher and students (Zankov, Davydov, Elkonin, Ilyin).

The concept of didactics first appeared in his work “The Great Didactics.” He said that children at school should be accepted equally: noble and plebeian, rich and poor. He introduced the principle of clarity, which he called the “golden rule of didactics.” A great merit is the introduction of a class-lesson system of school education. The concept of “lesson” and “recess” appeared, the year was divided into quarters and holidays were allocated. The class consists of a permanent group of children.

In the “Great Didactics” it is highlighted 4 six-year stages of development, including years of training and education of a young person:

Maternal school (from birth to 6 years);

Mother tongue school (from 6 to 12 years old);

School Latin language(from 12 to 18 years old);

Academy and travel (from 18 to 24 years old).

Training programs have been developed for all these levels. Ya. A. Komensky paid more attention to 3 human characteristics: mind (connection with thinking), hand (connection with activity), language (connection with speech). Thanks to these features, a person is capable of self-development.

Sh. Amonashvili “Technology of humane pedagogy.”

He studied the possibilities for students to master new content concepts. His technique was called “The Theory of the Stage-by-Step Formation of Mental Actions.” The theory is based on an algorithm - this is a strict sequence of actions leading to a given result.

This training is widely used in primary schools and has the following steps:

1) preliminary familiarization with the action, the conditions for its implementation (oriented stage);

2) formation of the action as externally verbal (pronunciation);

3) formation of actions in inner speech (consciousness);

4) the transition of external actions into internal ones (interiorization) and the action becomes an act of thinking.

The assimilation of information must occur in the process of targeted learning. In the beginning, learning theory gave preference to the inductive method (learning from the particular to the general), and then the deductive method (from the general to the particular).

7.1. General concept of didactics. Subject and tasks of didactics

The term didactics comes from the Greek word didaktikos- educational and didasko- studying. The term didactics was first introduced into use in Germany in 1613. It was then that Christoph Helwig and Joachim Jung, analyzing the activities of the famous linguist and supporter of language learning native language Wolfgang Rathke (1572 - 1635), prepared "A Brief Account of Didactics, or the Art of Teaching Ratihia". Already from the title of the work it follows that the authors interpreted didactics as the art of teaching.

J. A. Komensky (1592 - 1670) interpreted this concept in a similar way in his famous work “The Great Didactics, or the Universal Art of Teaching Everyone Everything.” However, Comenius believed that didactics is not only the art of teaching, but also education.

This concept persisted until the beginning of the 19th century, when Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776 - 1841), a famous German teacher and philosopher, developed the theoretical foundations of didactics, making it an internally holistic and consistent theory of educational teaching, subordinate to pedagogy. Considering the role that I. Herbart and his followers assigned to the process of mastering educational material, the most important task of didactics, in accordance with the Herbartian concept, should have been the analysis of the teacher’s actions aimed at familiarizing students with new material.

This understanding of the subject and tasks of didactics did not suit the supporters various options the so-called "new education", live pedagogical activity which unfolded at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The largest representatives of this trend, in particular the American scientist John Dewey (1859 - 1952), assigned students a more active role in the learning process compared to the Herbartians. In this regard, they abandoned Herbart’s concept of “transfer of knowledge,” which provided primarily for enriching the memory of students and demanded the formation and development of their abilities and intellectually? activities, as well as practical skills. This concept could not but influence the way of understanding both the subject and the tasks of didactics, which began to be identified not so much with the theory of teaching as with the theory of learning. The most important task of such didactics was the analysis of the actions of the student, and not the teacher. At the same time, it was believed that teaching is a function of learning, and the teacher’s actions are determined by the cognitive activity of students, and not vice versa.

Nowadays, these two types of activities are not opposed to each other. Teaching is inextricably linked with learning; these two aspects of the process form an integrating integrity in the form of the learning process. Among the factors that ensure the unity of the learning process is not only the general goal of education, but also the methods, organizational forms and teaching methods used.

Thus, on modern stage didactics understand how the science of teaching and learning, about the laws operating in the field of the subject. Those studies, about the dependencies that determine the course and results of the learning process; on this basis, it establishes appropriate patterns, determines methods, organizational forms and means of teaching students. In other words - didactics - this is the science of training and education, their goals and objectives, content, methods, forms, means, organization, results achieved.

A notable contribution to the development of world didactics was also made by J. Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827), A. Diesterweg (1790 - 1866), K. Ushinsky (1823 - 1870), G. Kerschensteiner (1854 - 1932), V. La (1862 - 1926).

For the development of domestic didactics in late XIX- early 20th century The works of P.F. Kapterev, N.K. Krupskaya, S.T. Shatsky, P.P. Blonsky, A.P. Pinkevich, M.M. Pistrak, G.G. Vashchenko, I.L. had a noticeable influence. Ogienko, I.M. Steshenka, S.F. Rusova, Ya.F. Chepiga and many others.

During the Soviet period, P. Gruzdev, Sh. Ganelin, E. Golant, L. Zankov, B. Esipov, M. Danilov, M. Skatkin, V. Onischuk, A. Aleksyuk, V. Kraevsky, V. worked fruitfully in the field of didactics. Zagvyazinsky, I. Lerner, M. Makhmutov and others.

The subject of didactics are the processes of education and training, which are inextricably linked with upbringing and are its organic component. Society constantly ensures that the experience, knowledge, skills and abilities accumulated by previous generations, which it possessed at the current stage of development, are absorbed by the younger generations in the most reliable and fruitful ways and means. Education and training serve this purpose as systematically carried out processes equipping people with knowledge, skills and abilities, reflecting the accumulated and generalized experience of mankind.

The task of didactics at all stages of its historical development was to: a) determine the content of the formation of new generations; b) find the most effective ways to equip them with useful knowledge, skills and skills; V) reveal the patterns of this process. Therefore, it is clear that didactics is defined as the theory of education and learning. Considering, however, the fact that the learning process is always associated with education, primarily mental and moral, there are grounds for didactics to be designated as a theory of education and training, and, at the same time, upbringing. This includes, first of all, the formation of students’ worldview.

The subject of didactics at the present stage of its development, the process of education and training, taken as a whole, that is, the content of education, is implemented in curricula, textbooks, methods and means of teaching, organizational forms of training, the educational role of the educational process, as well as conditions promoting the active creative activity of students and their mental development.

Distinguish general And subject didactics.

The subject of the study of general didactics is the learning process taken as a whole, and main task - disclosure general patterns learning process, are objective in nature, and characteristics of the conditions for their detection. Modern didactics has proven that the true indicator of the effectiveness of the educational process is not only the volume of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities, which is certainly important, but also high level mental development of students, their continuous penetration into the essence of educational subjects, processes and phenomena and the transformation of an average and even weak student in academic performance into a stronger one and the production of this.

Didactics is designed to explore the interaction of teaching and learning carried out in the learning process and to find out the conditions under which this interaction ensures the movement of students’ consciousness from the emergence of a cognitive task to its solution, the transition from ignorance to knowledge, from inability or imperfect skills to the formation of rational skills and quick skills of use knowledge in practice.

Didactics, which studies the general laws of the learning process, faces the question: what is common in the learning process of various academic subjects? So common element is a natural connection between teaching and training. When studying any academic subject, under the influence of the teacher’s activity, awareness of the cognitive task is realized, identification of educational objects of the surrounding reality, formation of ideas about their signs and properties, establishment of connections of these objects with other objects and phenomena and formation of concepts about them Analysis of ways of using these concepts and their transition into new concepts.

In researching the laws of the learning process, general didactics uses the achievements of many sciences, in particular, philosophy, psychology, developmental psychology, cybernetics, etc. It was cybernetics that largely determined the development in didactics of programmed learning, algorithmization and a system-structural approach in organizing the educational process .

Using the data of psychology, didactics carries out an extremely complex analysis of the internal aspects of learning, patterns in the field of cognitive activity of students, and the conditions for the formation of the motivational-need sphere of students. Educational psychology studies patterns psychological development students in the conditions of education and training, reveals the mental content of these processes and provides a psychological analysis of the requirements imposed in the educational process in the student’s personality.

Developmental and educational psychology helps the teacher organize training and education taking into account the laws of the child’s psyche.

Developmental physiology provides didactics with an understanding of the mechanisms of extremely complex processes, which were the result of learning (intellectual, emotional, volitional).

Philosophy serves as the basis for the development of didactics of personality-oriented learning, and the theory of knowledge is the methodological basis of the learning process, in the structure of which the nature and direction of students’ cognitive activity is formed.

General patterns of learning, studied by general didactics, do not cover specific features of teaching and learning individual academic subjects. Meanwhile, for teachers of these disciplines, it is the specific features of the manifestation of general patterns of learning that are extremely important. Moreover, didactics itself, as a general theory of the learning process, cannot develop successfully without generalizing the specific patterns of teaching all academic subjects in all the richness of their specific content.

The disclosure of these patterns, as well as the determination of the content, methods and forms of organization of teaching of individual academic subjects, including educational problems implemented in the learning process, is the prerogative of special pedagogical sciences - subject didactician Until recently, these sciences were called methods of teaching individual subjects. However, such practical aspect does not reflect the content of these sciences.

It is not difficult to notice the relationship between general didactics, educational psychology and subject didactics, depending on the development of each of these branches of pedagogical science and the success of the neighboring area. The special effect of scientific achievements takes place in the conditions of complex research current problems theories and practices of teaching.

The main concepts of general didactics as a science are: "teaching", "learning", "school subject", "learning material", "learning situation", "teaching method", "teacher", student "," lesson"and others. These are specific concepts of didactics as a science. Didactics also operates with other concepts, namely, “education”, “enlightenment”, “self-education”, “upbringing” and others.

Teaching - orderly activity of the teacher, aimed at realizing learning goals (educational objectives), ensuring awareness, education, awareness and practical use knowledge.

Exercises (training) - a process in which, on the basis of cognition, exercise and experience, new forms of behavior and activity arise and previously acquired ones change.

Education - orderly interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a specific goal. The educational (didactic) process includes the following main links of interaction:

Activities of a teacher

1. Explaining to students the goals and objectives of learning.

2. Communication of new knowledge.

3. Managing the process of awareness and acquisition of knowledge and skills.

4. Managing the process of cognition of scientific patterns and laws.

5. Managing the process of transition from theory to practice.

6. heuristic and research activities.

7. Checking and assessing changes in the learning and development of students.

Student activities

1. Creating positive motivation for learning.

2. Perception of new knowledge and skills.

3. Analysis, synthesis, comparison, juxtaposition, systematization.

4. Knowledge of patterns and laws, understanding of cause-and-effect relationships.

5. Acquisition of skills and abilities, their systematization.

6. Independent solution educational problems.

7. Self-monitoring, self-diagnosis
achievements.

Let us briefly recall the essence of some other categories of didactics.

Education - a system of knowledge, abilities, skills, and ways of thinking acquired during the learning process.

Knowledge - a set of human ideas that express theoretical mastery of a particular subject.

Skill - mastering ways (techniques, actions) to use acquired knowledge in practice.

Skills - skills brought to automation, high degree perfection.

Target (training, educational) - what learning strives for; the future to which all efforts are directed.

Organization - streamlining the didactic process according to certain criteria, giving it the necessary form in order to best implement certain tasks.

Form - a way of existence of the educational process, a shell for its internal essence, logic and content. The form, first of all, is related to the number of students, the place and time of training, the order of its implementation, etc.

Method - the way to achieve the goals and objectives of learning.

Means - subject support of the educational process. The means are the voice (speech) of the teacher, his skill in a broad sense, textbooks, school supplies, etc.

Result (learning products) are the final consequences of the educational process, the degree of realization of the intended goal.

In connection with the intensive processes of differentiation and integration in modern science, didactics operates with concepts borrowed from other areas of knowledge, such as “system”, “structure”, “function”, “element” and others.

In didactic research one can often find such psychological concepts as “perception”, “learning”, “ mental development", "thinking", "memorization". From cybernetics, the concepts of "feedback", "dynamic system", etc. came into use in didactics.

The widespread use of categories and concepts from other sciences in didactics does not mean that its conceptual apparatus is a disordered collection. All relationships and concepts of didactics are grouped around the main categories of “teaching” and “learning.” Concepts borrowed and used in didactic research from other sciences reflect only individual aspects and phenomena of learning and contribute to a deeper theoretical understanding of its own subject and object.

Didactics, like other sciences, is in a stage of continuous updating and development of its scientific terminology. Developing a clear and unambiguous terminology system is a necessary condition further development of didactics as a science. This will allow us to analyze the learning process by elements and in the system of their interaction, to systematically explore, more fully and deeply, the essence of education and training.

In addition, on the basis of an orderly own conceptual system, one can understand the essence of existing didactic concepts and develop specific modern teaching systems, design an educational process with certain characteristics.

Didactics. Basic categories of didactics. Types of training.

What is didactics?

Didactics is an integral part of pedagogy that studies the laws of the learning process.

The word "didactics" comes from the Greek "didaktikos", which means "teacher". It is the science of learning, the theoretical part of the learning process.

Main tasks of didactics are:

Description and explanation of the learning process and the conditions for its implementation;

Organization of the educational process;

Development of more modern learning processes, new learning systems, new learning technologies

In other words, didactics answers the questions: why teach? How to teach? Where to study? In what organizational forms?

It provides a scientific basis for the goals, content of education, the choice of means and methods of teaching, and determines the forms of organization of training.

1. History of didactics.

Didactics as a theory of learning and education has its roots going back centuries. Learning has always existed as long as man has existed. The theory of learning began to take shape already when a meaningful need arose to pass on to descendants not only the accumulated achievements, but also how to pass them on. The Czech teacher Jan Amos is considered the founder of didactics. Comenius(1592-1670). For the first time, as far as is known, the term “didactics” appeared in the writings of the German educator Wolfgang Rathke (1571-1635) to denote the art of teaching. As a branch of pedagogical science, didactics received its clearest formulation in the work of John Amos Comenius “The Great Didactics” (1632), in which didactics was defined as “the universal art of teaching everyone everything.” At the beginning of the 19th century, the German educator Johann Friedrich Herbart gave didactics the status of a holistic theory of educational education. In domestic pedagogy, didactics received active development at the end of the 19th century thanks to the works of K. D. Ushinsky, K. Yurkevich, G. Skovoroda.

1. Main categories of didactics

Didactics as a branch of pedagogy, which has its own subject and area of ​​research, while solving a clearly defined range of issues, operates with a certain range of concepts. The most important and significant of them, which therefore have the character of didactic categories, are:

- learning process

- teaching principles,

- methods,

- forms of training organization.

Learning process- this is a purposeful process of interaction between a teacher and students, during which the education, upbringing and development of students is carried out.

Principles of trainingrepresent a system of the most important didactic requirements, observing which it is possible to ensure the effective functioning of the educational process.

The study of each academic subject involves the acquisition of knowledge and the formation of certain skills.

Teaching methods -these are ways of interconnected activities of teachers and students to equip students with knowledge, skills, their education and general development in the learning process.

Forms of training organizationreflect the features of bringing together students for classes organized by the teacher, during which educational and cognitive activities are carried out.

1. Types of training.

Depending on the nature of the organization, the specifics of the content of educational material, the use of teaching methods and means, and the historical era, the following can be distinguished: types of training:

1) Socratic type of training,

2) dogmatic teaching

3) developmental training

4) explanatory and illustrative (traditional) teaching

5) problem-based learning

6) programmed training

7) modular training

1.SOCRATES METHOD- formed in Ancient Greece, called so by the name of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates.

This method is sometimes called “Socratic or heuristic conversation.” It was based on a question-and-answer training system. Socrates, talking with each student, sought to lead him to a contradiction in his reasoning, after which, through induction, he led him to the correct judgment. An important role in this method was played by the consistency, systematicity and logic of questions asked by the teacher and providing the opportunity to gain new knowledge. In a word, Socrates not only gave new knowledge, but also developed logical thinking in his students.

2. DOGMATIC TRAINING

A typical feature of dogmatic teaching is authoritarianism, expressed in the minimal role of not only students, but also teachers. With dogmatic training, the canonized content of education had to be learned in the form in which it was given. Any independent thought of the student was suppressed, the subject of knowledge was, as it were, taken out of brackets, learning goals were imposed by the teacher, and the assessment of the student’s capabilities was reduced to spontaneous diagnosis. The purpose of the exams was to determine the student's position in relation to others. With this style of teaching the problem cognitive activity personality is not stated.

3. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAINING, in which:

1) the central figure in the learning process is not the teacher, but the student;

2) the teacher’s function is not to transmit knowledge, but to organize educational activities students and the development of their thinking;

3) pedagogical process within the framework of developmental education, it is in the nature of a paired dialogue - a teacher with a student, during which the student develops together with the teacher.

IN A MODERN SCHOOL the principles of developmental education prevail and three are used relatively isolated and differing in a number of characteristics type of training:

Explanatory and illustrative, also called traditional,

problematic,

Programmed and developed on its basis computer training.

4. EXPLANATORY-ILLUSTRATIVE TRAINING

(or it is also called traditional teaching): the teacher explains new material, generalizes, organizes practical work; student - perceives educational information, follows the teacher’s instructions. The main burden of work in the lesson falls on the teacher, the student’s task is reproductive: to perceive and reproduce what the teacher requires. The most common type of training.

Explanation combined with visualization are the main methods of such teaching, listening and memorization are the leading activities of students, and error-free reproduction of what has been learned is the main requirement and the main criterion of effectiveness.

Explanatory and illustrative teaching has a number of important advantages. It saves time, saves the energy of teachers and students, makes it easier for the latter to understand complex knowledge, and ensures fairly effective management of the process.

Positive point in it is the leading, guiding, main role of the teacher.

Negative - the passivity of the student, the student (according to K.D. Ushinsky) turns into a “vessel filled with knowledge.”

4.PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

its advantages: independent acquisition of knowledge through one’s own creative activity, high interest in educational work, development of productive thinking, lasting and valid learning results.

The inclusion of students in active cognitive activity is based on a number of stages that must be implemented consistently and comprehensively.

An important element problem-based learning is creating a problematic situation, representing a feeling of mental difficulty. The educational problem, which is introduced at the moment a problem situation arises, should be quite difficult, but feasible for students.

At the second stage of problem solving (“closed”), the student sorts through, analyzes the knowledge at his disposal on this issue, reveals that it is not enough to obtain an answer, and is actively involved in obtaining the missing information.

The third stage (“open”) is aimed at acquiring in various ways knowledge necessary to solve problems. This is followed by the stages of solving the problem, checking the results obtained, comparing them with the initial hypothesis, systematizing and generalizing the acquired knowledge and skills.

6. PROGRAMMED TRAINING (SW) – (from the term " program", which denotes a system of sequential actions (operations), the implementation of which leads to a pre-planned result). The main purpose of the software is to improve the management of the educational process. The software features are as follows:

1) educational material is divided into separate portions (doses);

2) the educational process consists of successive steps containing a portion of knowledge and mental actions to assimilate it;

3) each step ends with control;

4) when correct execution test assignments the student receives a new portion of material and takes the next step in learning;

5) if the answer is incorrect, the student receives help and additional explanations;

6) each student works independently and masters the educational material at a pace that is feasible for him;

7) the results of completing all control tasks are recorded and become known both to the students themselves (internal feedback) and to the teacher (external feedback);

8) the teacher acts as an organizer of training and a consultant in case of difficulties, provides an individual approach;

9) are widely used in the educational process specific means Software (programmed training aids, simulators, control devices, etc.).

Modular training

7. Technology modular training is based on the fact that the student must independently study the allocated part of the course on individual scheme. The teacher gives the student a so-called educational module, which consists of a complete block of information, an action program, the purpose of which is to study this information in the most in full, recommendations for successfully achieving the goal and solving the tasks set in the module.

This teaching technology forces the pupil (student) to learn not just to cram textbooks and reference books, but to independently understand the information he is looking for and find the necessary knowledge. At the same time, the learner develops a feeling of satisfaction from the work done, and the acquired knowledge is firmly lodged in memory.

At the end of the period allotted for studying the module, the knowledge acquired, its completeness and compliance with the task must be checked. This form of training allows not only to force the student to take a creative approach to the process of self-education, but also to learn to obtain the necessary information without outside guidance.

The fundamental difference between modular learning and the standard education system is that the student receives an individual task (block, module) with written recommendations on how to rationally complete it and the goals of the task itself. The learning process becomes as independent as possible, but it is not prohibited, and even recommended, to consult with the teacher on issues that arise during the implementation of the module. Thanks to this method of teaching, the teacher and student have more opportunities to interact according to an individual learning plan. This scheme has always been more effective than simultaneous communication with an audience of 20-30 people. In addition, the student, working most of the time individually, learns goal setting and self-planning, independently organizes his working time and controls his own work.

Didactics is a field of pedagogy that studies the learning process and its components. The field of study of didactics includes the learning process itself, its patterns and principles, the content of education, methods, techniques and means of teaching, organizational forms of learning, and assessment of the quality of the educational process.

In this book, the material is presented on the basis of ideas developed and being developed in the didactics laboratory of the Institute of Theory and History of Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Education. These are the ideas of M.N. Skatkina, V.V. Kraevsky, I.Ya. Lerner, L.Ya. Zorina, I.K. Zhuravleva, N.M. Shakhmaev and other scientists, as well as laboratory staff currently working: E.O. Ivanova, T.M. Kovaleva, L.B. Prokofieva, D.V. Ryazanova, I.V. Shalygina and others.

The need to indicate the source theoretical provisions arises due to the fact that there is no unambiguous view on many issues in pedagogy. In different scientific schools they are solved differently.

Teachers often say: “Didactics is a theory of learning.” Application of the concept “theory” in in this case is not accurate. What is a theory? This is the highest, most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of ​​the patterns and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality - the object of this theory.

Let us note that in the definition of the concept “theory” a holistic idea of ​​the object is highlighted, i.e. training. Currently, such integrity in didactic knowledge is not observed. There are theories that determine the selection of educational content, there are theories that describe certain areas of pedagogical reality - differentiated learning, student-centered learning, etc. Note that authors usually call their sets of statements concepts, not theories.

Theory is a more rigorous concept than concept. The theory suggests:

1. The initial empirical basis is a set of facts recorded in this area;

2. Initial theoretical basis– a set of primary assumptions, postulates, axioms, general laws theories that collectively describe the idealized object of the theory;

3. The logic of the theory - the set of rules of logical inference and proof acceptable within the framework of the theory;

4. The “corpus” of a theory is a set of statements derived in the theory with their evidence, constituting the main body of theoretical knowledge.

It is clear that these components are not present in all theories; physical (deductive) theories, for example, Newton's mechanics, Einstein's theory of relativity, most clearly correspond to this structure. They highlight the initial postulates, a tool of logical inference, derived from the initial theoretical basis of the investigation, which are confirmed by practice.

In other sciences, not as highly developed and theoretical as physics, there are descriptive theories: these include the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the physiological theory of I.P. Pavlova, modern psychological theories, etc.

Descriptive theories directly describe a specific group of objects; their empirical basis is extensive, and the theory itself solves the problem of ordering the facts related to it. These theories are qualitative in nature. Such theories also include didactic theories, namely theories, and not one holistic theory of learning. Such a thing has not yet been created in didactics. Therefore, when we say “learning theory”, it is more a tribute to tradition than precise definition didactics.

However, the fact that didactics contains scientific knowledge is undeniable. Let's correlate didactic knowledge with scientific criteria. In the methodology, the criteria include the truth of scientific knowledge, intersubjectivity, consistency and validity.

All science, all human knowledge is aimed at achieving true knowledge that correctly reflects reality. True scientific knowledge helps people transform reality and predict its further development.

Didactic knowledge makes it possible to improve the learning process: for example, research on problem-based learning has made it possible to find ways to develop creative thinking in students. Didactic knowledge makes it possible to predict the result: for example, research shows that taking into account the perceptual characteristics of students (auditory, visual, kinesthetic) during the learning process most helps kinesthetic learners (i.e., those who perceive material sensually, through manipulations with objects). In traditional teaching, the educational process is built on a verbal basis (the teacher speaks, the students listen), i.e., basically, you need to perceive information aurally. When using clarity, visual perception is activated. Therefore, auditory and visual learners adapt best to the learning process, while kinesthetic learners have the most difficulty adapting. If the peculiarities of perception are not taken into account, then we can predict that kinesthetic learners will fall into the category of underachieving students, feeling significant psychological discomfort at school.

What is intersubjectivity of scientific knowledge? Scientific knowledge is a coherent system of logically interconnected statements that record knowledge of objective connections and laws of reality. From the results scientific activity everything subjective related to the specifics of the scientist himself and his worldview should be excluded. Recently, doubts have arisen in science that the personality of a scientist does not influence the pattern he discovers. Although scientific knowledge is objective: if more than one scientist had discovered it, another would have done it; but the personality of the scientist, of course, leaves an imprint on the form of expression of scientific knowledge and the course of research. This is especially evident in didactics, as well as in other humanities: different scientists formulate didactic principles in different ways and resolve the question of whether laws exist in didactics or not.

Didactics is a developing branch of scientific knowledge, so its structure is only being established.

The third criterion of scientific character is the systematicity and validity of scientific knowledge. Scientific statements are systematized in a certain way; in didactic research, the acquired knowledge is substantiated and verified. For this purpose, in the course of scientific research in didactics, a pedagogical experiment and experimental work are organized, theoretical methods of justification are used: analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.

Scientific knowledge includes two levels: empirical and theoretical. Empirical knowledge provides a direct connection between a person and the surrounding reality. It supplies science with facts, while recording stable connections and patterns of the surrounding world. For example, the conclusion that the more a student solves similar problems using a certain formula, the more firmly he will grasp this formula, it is empirical. In order to be able to use a learned formula in various, including non-standard situations, it is necessary to solve problems that require different approaches. This is also empirical knowledge.

Theoretical knowledge complements and advances empirical knowledge, promotes awareness of the essence of processes, and reveals patterns of development. In theoretical knowledge, there is no direct practical interaction with objects; idealized objects are isolated and studied. For example, if differentiated instruction is studied at a theoretical level, then the researcher abstracts from specific schools and students and builds a model of differentiation of instruction in school, which makes it possible to formulate certain patterns.

The methodology of science distinguishes descriptive, explanatory, and predictive functions of scientific knowledge. It is clear that all these functions are also implemented by didactic knowledge. If we describe the course of a lesson, study the teacher’s activities during the lesson, and the behavior of students, then it is clear that we are implementing a descriptive function. The descriptive function of science allows you to collect empirical facts and make simple generalizations based on them.

The implementation of the explanatory function by didactics allows us to explain observed phenomena and reveal their essence. Let me give you an example. One of the schools decided to create an advanced class in parallel to the 8th grade. They selected well-performing children into this class, but did not make any changes to the learning process. According to teachers, they differentiated the learning process. What happened? The creation of an advanced class turned out to be ineffective: students began to study worse, and their performance decreased.

Why did this situation arise? Firstly, due to a misunderstanding of the essence of differentiated learning. If a school creates an advanced class, changes must occur in the learning process in this class: enrichment of the content of education, an increase in the volume of search and research work, widespread use of group forms of the educational process, discussions, conferences.

Moreover, it was necessary to take into account age characteristics students: at the age of 13-14 years, children approximately determine what interests them more, which subjects are easier for them, think about the prospects for further education, therefore, studying all academic subjects at elevated level inappropriate.

It would be more correct to organize in-depth study of individual subjects in the 8th grade, or introduce elective courses, i.e. Offer students areas in which their knowledge will be enriched.

In didactics, as in other humanities, the explanation of observed phenomena differs from the explanation in natural sciences. There are many factors at work in the situation being studied, some of them are clearly observed, but some are hidden from the researcher. Each student is a unique individual. Each student has his own opinion and attitude to what is happening, and he does not always report his inner experiences to the researcher.

If we observe that a certain student in the 9th grade begins to study better, there may be many reasons for this: he set a goal related to further education in a higher educational institution, the system of priorities has changed - he no longer believes that it is a shame to study well, to be “ "nerd" is shameful, but maybe he changed in class class teacher, or the student does not want to look like a “low student” in the eyes of a classmate who values ​​​​learning. Thus, we will not be able to unambiguously, with complete confidence, name the factors that influenced the student.

The predictive function of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that it not only explains a fact or phenomenon, but can predict them. When a teacher influences a student, he necessarily foresees the result, although his predictive activity may be curtailed and not recognized by the teacher, but an analysis of the situation, a synthesis of available data, a generalization, and a choice of means of pedagogical influence necessarily occur.

In pedagogy, there may be a discrepancy between the forecast and the actual development of an event. This is due to many factors operating in a certain pedagogical situation. Let me give you an example. 9th grade student Sasha R. pushed a 6th grade girl Sveta N. so hard that, leaning her hand against the wall, she broke her arm. Girl in the hospital. The director comes to class in the 9th grade, reports the incident and says to the culprit: “Sveta is in the hospital, and you’re sitting here! Go home, I'm expelling you from school for the rest of the week. And then we will decide whether you can study at our school.”

Student Sasha R. really values ​​studying at his school, he has many friends, so the principal’s words cause confusion. He comes home and is very worried, although he justifies his actions by the fact that a 6th grade girl laughed at him and even kicked him from behind. But, in general, reflecting on his action, he comes to the conclusion that, of course, his response did not correspond to Sveta’s actions.

It would seem that the educational influence achieved its goal: Sasha R. thought about his action, felt guilty, wants to correct the situation and apologize to Sveta. But then events develop in a way that the director could not predict. The entire 9th grade comes to his office and asks him not to expel Sasha. There are witnesses who saw how Sveta was the first to start hurting Sasha. Sasha’s friends inform him about all events by mobile phone.

On Monday he is allowed to come to school, and he... becomes the center of attention. Guys even from other classes come up to him and respectfully ask: “Did you break a sixth-grader’s arm? We need to be friends with you! Otherwise you’ll break me!” And Sasha, alas, becomes the hero of the day, eclipsing even his friend, who at the same time hid a cool magazine. Of course, no one foresaw such a development of events; the pedagogical impact did not achieve any results, although at first everything went as the teachers predicted.

What does the described situation indicate? The fact that forecasts in the sciences that study man do not always turn out to be effective, and this is due, as already indicated, to many factors (both obvious and hidden) operating in each pedagogical situation.

Having examined the features of didactic knowledge, let us move on to the basic concepts of didactics.

Let's start with the concept of “learning process”. Learning process in didactics it is defined as purposeful interconnected activity teachers and students aimed at achieving learning goals.

“The learning process” and “training” in didactics are used as synonyms, although if we consider these concepts more strictly, the differences can be identified: the learning process is a more strict, scientific term, learning is a word in everyday language. There is some difference in the terms “learning process” and “educational process”. When the concept of “learning process” is used, it means some abstract process in which goals, content, methods, etc. can be identified. The concept of “educational process” is more specific and applicable to a specific educational institution.

In pedagogy there is the concept of “education”. Let's try to determine how it differs from the concept of “training”. There are many definitions of both education and training, and the consideration of the didactic aspects of teaching activity largely depends on their understanding.

Education we consider it as giving the individual a certain “human image”, creating the conditions for the formation of personality.

Education can be considered in a broad sense: the totality of influences exerted on an individual by the environment during his life. These impacts can be either targeted (for example, the impact of funds mass media, pedagogical influences of teachers, parents), and not targeted (impact of certain social events, unfavorable living conditions, etc.)

Education in the narrow sense is purposeful, carried out by certain social institutions (schools, institutions additional education, higher educational institutions, etc.) impact on the developing personality.

The formation of the “image of a person” affects his intellectual, emotional, and volitional spheres, involves the formation of a system of values, attitudes towards the world around him, assimilation certain knowledge and methods of action, gaining life experience.

Education includes both training and upbringing. These processes in science are considered separate, having their own laws and principles. It is clear that in reality teaching and education are interconnected. Learning presupposes the formation of an attitude towards the material being studied, towards the process of cognition itself, i.e. performs educational functions.

Education as its element presupposes training - the organization of the assimilation of certain knowledge (about etiquette, for example), methods of action. Both in the process of learning and in the process of upbringing, the transfer of social experience occurs.

So, we will consider education as the formation of the “image of a person” in the process of introducing it to cultural values ​​and social experience. Training is a narrower concept than education.

In didactics there is such a concept as didactic cycle of the learning process. It was developed by L.Ya. Zorina. This concept is based on the idea of ​​the process of mastering the content of education by a student. The didactic cycle includes five structural units:

1) Setting a general didactic goal and accepting it by students;

2) Presentation of a new fragment of educational material by the teacher and its conscious perception by the student;

3) Organization and self-organization of students in the process of comprehending educational material;

4) Organization of feedback, control over the assimilation of the content of educational material and self-control;

5) Preparing students for work outside of school.

The didactic cycle can be fully implemented in one lesson, or it can be completed over the course of several lessons. various types: lectures, laboratory, practical work, excursions, tests, etc.

The learning process includes the student's exposure to certain educational content.

During the learning process, one can single out a single cell, the smallest cell. Considering it, we highlight the very core of the learning process, abstracting from equally important, but not central elements.

A unit cell is a triune relationship of the following interconnected components - teacher, student and educational content.

During the learning process, interaction between teacher and student occurs precisely through the content of education. The teacher, aware of the learning goals and using various teaching methods, organizes the student’s mastery of the content of educational material. The student operates with the content of education, assigning it, and in the form of feedback provides the teacher with information about its assignment (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Structure of a single cell of the learning process.

There is an approach in which the content of education is identified with the fundamentals of science that the student must learn. Another approach considers the content of education as knowledge, abilities, skills that must be developed in the student, and this is not necessarily the basics of science; knowledge can include everyday, practical information, elements of mythology. The pragmatic approach includes in the content of education only those knowledge, skills and abilities that will be directly useful to the student in life.

The socially-centered approach suggests that in selecting the content of education, one should be guided, first of all, by the interests of society and the state. Person-centered approach at the center of everything educational process puts the developing personality of the child. The content of education is not fixed in this case; in this approach there is no specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that need to be transferred to the child. The child decides for himself what is interesting to him and what he will study.

The Laboratory of Didactics at the Institute of Theory and History of Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Education works in line with the cultural approach to the formation of the content of education, which states that the content of education should include some social experience (of course, not all), and in the course of its assimilation, the student should form his own personal experience . This will be discussed in more detail below, in 1.4. The content of education is implemented in the learning process using teaching methods.

Teaching methods– methods of purposeful interrelated activities of teachers and students aimed at mastering the content of education.

Along with teaching methods, didactics distinguishes training– i.e. everything that ensures the educational process. Teaching aids include textbooks, technical means, educational equipment, etc.

In didactics there are also organizational forms of training. On the one hand, these are frontal, individual, group forms of work. On the other hand, this is a lesson, lecture, excursion, laboratory work, etc.

The most common are frontal forms of work, when the teacher organizes the work of the entire class. The frontal form includes the teacher's explanation and story: the teacher speaks, the whole class listens. Students are often surveyed in the form of a frontal conversation: the teacher asks a question to the whole class, and all students look for the answer to it.

During the lesson, it is organized and individual work students, when each student independently studies the material and performs tests and practical work.

Currently, there is a growing interest in group forms of work, since it is in group work that students actively communicate and develop communication skills. The group form of work allows students to master the organization of their own activities, when, having received a task, students in a group determine the goal of the activity, choose methods and means, carry out the activity, and write a report on it. In addition, the ability to work in a group, distribute responsibilities, take on the functions of a leader or performer are skills that are vital for a person at the present time.

Of course, group work requires specific preparation: choosing problems that will be solved in a group, forming a group, teaching students to work in a group, mastering by the teacher technological techniques for activating group work of schoolchildren, but the importance of group work in solving the problems posed to education today is so great that the proportion of group work in the learning process should be increased.

I would like to talk about one more didactic concept. This is a concept teacher's didactic system. It includes general pedagogical, didactic, methodological, subject knowledge that guides the teacher in his activities. The didactic system reflects the pedagogical values ​​of the teacher: one teacher considers the personal growth and development of students to be the main thing for himself, the other considers the deep and lasting assimilation of knowledge; one teacher believes that it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the student, protect him from the effects of unnecessary stressful situations, another teacher believes that it is necessary to harden the student, train him, as he will meet in life sufficient quantity difficulties, etc. Each teacher, mastering pedagogical skills, chooses for himself any preferred methods of work: one teacher is good at explaining the material in the lesson in the form of a heuristic conversation, another - in the form of a story or lecture. There are physics teachers who are not good at demonstrating in class, but they are great at teaching children how to solve physical tasks. Each teacher, knowing his own characteristics, can effectively organize the learning process for students, but the methods, techniques, and forms of teaching used by different teachers will be different. Moreover, in the learning process, the teacher can use various compensatory possibilities. So, for example, a physics teacher who is having trouble with demonstrations in class can involve students who love and can work with instruments in setting them up.

Sometimes a school director, coming to a teacher for a lesson, sees that the teacher does not work like the majority of teachers in the school, as the director is used to seeing. It is very important not to make hasty conclusions and demand that the teacher restructure the work. It is important to try to understand his style of activity, his didactic system, and correlate the phenomena observed in the lesson with the results.

Didactics- an integral part of pedagogy, the science of teaching and education, exploring the laws, patterns, principles and means of teaching. The object of didactics is learning. Didactics performs 2 main functions: 1) theoretical (diagnostic and prognostic) 2) practical (normative and instrumental)

There are general and "private didactics"- teaching methods for individual academic subjects, individual categories students (methodology primary education, didactics of higher education), in different types educational institutions and forms of education. Subject of didactics - the connection between teaching (the activity of the teacher) and learning (the cognitive activity of the student), their interaction.

Didactics objectives:

Describe and explain the learning process and the conditions for its implementation;

Develop more modern learning processes;

Organization of the educational process;

New training systems;

New teaching technologies.

Subject of study: Didactics are the goals, content, patterns and principles of learning. Didactics is a theory of education. To ensure that students master the content of education, it is necessary to rely on the laws of learning, development and strengthening of mental abilities, knowledge of which allows us to develop effective teaching methods. By exploring them, Didactics is also a theory of learning. The unity of both sides of Didactics - theoretical and normative-applied - ensures the continuous development of pedagogical science, maximum efficiency and scientific validity of practice. Didactics uses various research methods: observation of the educational process, conversations with students, analysis of their work, conversations with teachers, questioning, experiment, mathematical methods. The use of these methods makes it possible to identify empirical patterns of learning. To reveal the internal mechanisms of action of these patterns and build a theory, recent attempts have been made to apply methods of information modeling, functional, structural and genetic analysis of complex systems. Didactics is related to sociology - it uses its data, concepts and methods in developing learning goals. Didactics is associated with general, social and developmental psychology and higher physiology nervous activity. Based on the objective laws of mental and physiological processes known by these sciences, as well as on information theory and cybernetics, Didactics develops effective ways to manage student activity processes. Didactics is closely related to methods of teaching academic subjects: it develops and defines teaching principles common to all particular methods and summarizes the results of research that reveal patterns of teaching that depend on the specific content of various academic subjects.

2. Formation and development of didctics toXIXV. By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. in classical pedagogy, two theories were identified school education. Representatives of the theory of formal education (I.F. Herbart and his followers) considered the mental development of students to be the main task of education. Herbart identified two main acts of mental activity - deepening and comprehension, which consist in identifying and connecting individual parts. Considering the problems of the relationship between teaching and upbringing, Herbart introduced the concept of educational training.

The term “didactics” was used in pedagogical works already in the 17th century. Ya. A. Komensky in the “Great Didactics” (1657) developed critical issues Didactics: content of education, didactic principles and rules of clarity, consistency, natural conformity, etc., organization of the classroom system. Comenius made a revolution in the practice of teaching that had developed over centuries, contrasting medieval rote learning with a new system of educational work that corresponded to the age and psychological characteristics of children. Comenius' didactic ideas received further development in the works of progressive teachers of the 18th and 19th centuries. I. G. Pestalozzi, A. Disterweg and others, who built their theory of learning on the basis of the principle of conformity with nature, taking into account the psychological development of students. They attached great importance to the development of concepts in children, the development of their activity and initiative, wide application clarity when teaching. P. F. Kaptereva created the work “Didactic Essays”, with the advent of which pedagogy acquired theory general education, based on the latest for that time (late 19th - early 20th centuries) scientific data and experience in the development of schools in Russia and Western Europe. In an integral system, he developed such important problems as the essence of the educational process, the content of school courses, teaching methods, forms of organizing training, and the role of the teacher.

3. Western didactics. Problems of modern foreign didactics.

Western European pedagogy in the first half of the 20th century was characterized by J-Dewey’s pedocentric didactics, the main principle of which is learning based on personal experience child, Dewey placed the accumulation of personal experience by children above the mastery of systematized scientific knowledge. In school practice, this approach leads to the fact that curricula do not provide students with a sufficiently deep and systematic assimilation of theoretical knowledge. One of the most important problems of didactics is the establishment of natural connections between cognition and learning. One of the pressing problems of didactics is identifying the relationship between teaching and upbringing. The main idea of ​​the authors of this theory is that modern school It functions not to teach individual subjects, but to educate a full-fledged, versatile, educated personality in society.

4. Domestic didactics of the 19-20 centuries. In the 2nd half of the 19th century. in Russia, a complete didactic system was created by the Russian teacher K. Didactics Ushinsky. Relying heavily on materialist philosophical ideas, psychology and physiology, he made a significant step in the scientific substantiation of the learning process. Ushinsky showed the harm of one-sidedness of formal (aimed only at developing the abilities, thinking, imagination, memory of students) and material (pursuing only the goal of imparting to students the maximum knowledge necessary for life) education, revealed the similarities and differences between scientific knowledge and teaching, and developed in detail the issues of perception and assimilation and consolidation of knowledge, development of thinking in the learning process. Ushinsky’s followers N.A. Korf, V.P. Vakhterov and others made a significant contribution to the development of a system of primary education based on deep scientific knowledge and taking into account the age and psychological characteristics of students, and respect for the child’s personality. An outstanding role in the turn of Russian pedagogy from idealism to materialism was played by Russian revolutionary democrats - V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. A. Dobrolyubov and N. G. Chernyshevsky. They fought for the true scientific nature of education, against the vulgarization and simplification of knowledge, they saw in science a means of liberating man from the power of nature and a weapon in the struggle for his happiness; exclusively great value contributed to the development of students' interest in scientific studies and independence of thought. The development of the theory of special education and training in higher education was facilitated by Russian scientists M. V. Lomonosov, N. I. Lobachevsky, A. G. Stoletov, K. A. Timiryazev, Didactics I. Mendeleev, N. E. Zhukovsky and others.
Soviet Didactics preserved and enriched the classical heritage of the past, raising it to a new, higher level. The general methodological basis of didactics is the Marxist-Leninist worldview and dialectical materialism. K. Marx and V.I. Lenin, with the system of their ideas, created a theoretical basis for truly scientific pedagogy and the most progressive, socialist education system. This system is based on the principles of universal education, labor and polytechnic training, the connection of school with politics and learning with life, the consciousness of students mastering the fundamentals of science, the formation in them of communist ideology and conviction, a materialistic worldview, and the moral qualities of a person in a socialist society in the process of education and upbringing. . Special significance For didactics, there is a Marxist-Leninist theory of knowledge, which makes it possible to determine the main ways of students’ cognitive activity and ways of guiding it.
N.K. Krupskaya, relying on the Marxist-Leninist methodology, made a significant contribution to the development of such didactic problems as the connection between learning and socially useful work, the foundations of constructing various educational subjects from the point of view of the tasks of forming a scientific worldview and developing dialectical thinking of students, activity and independence of students, etc. In the 60s. Problems of didactics of the Soviet higher, secondary specialized and vocational schools began to be actively developed (especially in the field of intensification of the educational process with the help of audiovisual teaching aids, cybernetic devices, etc.).

In the middle of the 19th century. F. Disterweg expressed the idea, innovative for his time, that human development occurs only in activity, and thereby laid the foundations of developmental education, formulated in 33 laws and rules (principles of education).

In Russia, the problems of education were considered in the works of educators and democratic writers A.N. Radishcheva, V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, who played a significant role in bringing Russian pedagogy closer to the progressive didactic ideas of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
5. Conceptual system and main categories of didactics. the concepts used in didactics are built in a certain system. Specific basic concepts (categories) of didactics reflect the essence and specificity of its subject. From this point of view, the didactic categories are “teaching” and “learning”, taken in their unity.
. Categorical-conceptual apparatus of modern pedagogy: education, training, upbringing, pedagogical system, pedagogical interaction, etc. Modern didactics has a developed conceptual apparatus. The basic concepts are called CATEGORIES. They reflect the most essential properties and relationships of didactic reality. The main categories of didactics: teaching, learning, learning, education, knowledge, skills, as well as the purpose, content, organization, types, forms, methods, means, results (products) of training. Recently, it has been proposed to assign the status of the main didactic categories to the concepts of the didactic system and teaching technology.
Main categories of didactics:
- Teaching is the ordered activity of a teacher to implement the goals and objectives of learning (educational objectives), ensuring information, education, awareness and practical application knowledge.

Learning is a process (more precisely, a co-process), during which, on the basis of cognition, exercise and acquired experience, new forms of behavior and activity arise, and previously acquired ones change.

Education is the orderly interaction of a teacher with students, aimed at achieving a set goal.

Education is a system of knowledge, abilities, skills, and ways of thinking acquired in the learning process.

Knowledge is a set of human ideas in which theoretical mastery of this subject is expressed.

Skills – mastering ways (techniques, actions) of applying acquired knowledge in practice.

Skills are skills that have been brought to automaticity and a high degree of perfection.

Organization – Streamlining the didactic process according to certain criteria, giving it the necessary form in order to best achieve the goal.

Form is a way of existence of the educational process, a shell for its internal essence, logic and content. The form is primarily related to the number of students, the time and place of training, the order of its implementation, etc.

Method is the way to achieve (realize) the goals and objectives of training.

The tool is substantive support for the educational process. The means include the voice (speech) of the teacher, his skill in a broad sense, textbooks, classroom equipment, etc.

Results (products) are what learning comes to, the final consequences of the educational process, the degree of realization of the intended goal.
6. The concept of the learning process.

learning is a specialized process aimed at meeting human needs. This is a controlled process of interaction between a teacher and a student, with the goal of mastering knowledge, abilities, skills, the formation of worldviews, the development of mental abilities, and spiritual strength of students. The learning process is called the educational or didactic process. The learning process is one of several simultaneously interrelated ongoing processes of education and development. Formations. It intertwines: cognitive, intellectual, psychological, physiological components. Consists of the processes of perception and accumulation of information: identification and recognition, assimilation, systematization, processing, comparison, remembering, searching and finding information, remembering, understanding meanings. Software leads to behavioral changes and improved adaptation to the environment. There are many definitions of software. In the writings of ancient and medieval thinkers, learning was understood as overcoming. By 19-20, the concept of learning began to include 2 components: teaching and learning. Teaching was understood as the teacher’s activity in organizing and mastering educational material. Teaching is the activity of students to assimilate the proposed knowledge. The concept of teaching also reflects the managerial activity of the teacher in developing ways of cognitive activity in students and the joint activity of the teacher and student. Education began to be viewed as the formation of the ability to learn, and to independently acquire knowledge throughout life. In the modern understanding, teaching is characterized by the following characteristics: goal (general, like adaptation to life), joint activity of the teacher and student, teaching (the student’s own work), organization of the process, compliance with patterns age development, a combination of technology and creativity, meeting the requirements of life, simultaneous implementation of education, development, formation.

7. functions of the learning process. The learning process is designed to carry out three functions: educational, educational and developmental.

The objectives of the educational process cannot be reduced only to the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities. Learning has a complex impact on personality, despite the fact that the educational function is most specific to this process.

The educational function primarily involves the assimilation of scientific knowledge, the formation of special and general educational skills. Scientific knowledge includes facts, concepts, laws, patterns, theories, and a generalized picture of the world.
Special skills include practical skills and abilities specific only to the academic subject and branch of science.

In addition to special ones, in the process of education one should master general educational skills that are relevant to all subjects.

Educational function - forms the student's worldview, moral, labor, aesthetic ideas, views, beliefs, ways of behavior and activity, a system of ideals, etc. The most important aspect of the implementation of the educational function of education is the formation of motives for educational activities. The educational function organically follows from the content and methods of teaching. There is a non-one-way connection between education and upbringing: from education to upbringing.
Education and upbringing develop personality. In this case, there is no need to talk about the developmental function. But life shows that learning fulfills this function more effectively if it has a special focus and includes students in activities that develop their sensory perceptions, motor, emotional, volitional, and motivational spheres.

In connection with this, the term “developmental education” is used in didactics. He assumes that during training, in addition to the formation of knowledge and special skills, it is necessary to take special measures for the general development of schoolchildren.

All three functions of teaching cannot be imagined as three parallel, non-crossing lines in the flow of influences of the educational process. All of them are in complexly intertwined connections: one precedes the other, is its cause, the other is its consequence, but at the same time a condition for the activation of the root cause.

The main functions of training are implemented in practice

8. Contradictions in the learning process. There are 2 groups of contradictions: external and internal.

External contradictions are contradictions that arise between the ever-increasing requirements of society for the learning process and the current, current state this process.

Internal contradictions are contradictions that arise within the learning process itself.
Internal contradictions of the learning process: -1) contradictions between the theoretical and practical tasks put forward in the course of learning and the current level of training, education and development of students. As a rule, when starting training, a student does not have even basic concepts about the discipline. At this stage, the teacher needs to interest the student.; 2) contradictions between the requirements of the teacher and the capabilities of the students. If a task is much higher than the student's level of development, then it will most likely not be completed or completed incompletely. This situation can completely deprive the student of motivation to learn. On the other hand, if the task turns out to be too simple, then it will not contribute to his development, because he did not put in enough effort to achieve the goal.

; 3) contradictions between the content of students’ personal experience formed before the start of training and its insufficiency for solving theoretical and practical cognitive problems;

4) contradictions that arise between individual aspects of the content of the academic subject and the corresponding scientific discipline, etc.
9. Stages of knowledge acquisition. basis assimilation knowledge is the active mental activity of students, directed by the teacher. 1) Primary diagnosis and updating students’ previous knowledge to support the upcoming educational work on the stock of knowledge that the students had previously acquired2) The teacher sets a goal and the students’ awareness of cognitive tasks: announcing the topic, asking questions, performing various activating tasks, problems of a problematic and creative nature.3) The initial stage of familiarization with the educational material, or “first meeting ” with him is of great importance for the entire process of assimilation. The first one is perception object, which is associated with the selection of this object from the background and the determination of its essential properties. 4) The stage of perception is replaced by the stage of comprehension, at which the most significant extra- and intra-subjective connections and relationships are discerned. 5) The next stage of knowledge formation involves the process of imprinting and remembering the selected properties and relationships as a result of their repeated perception and fixation. 6) Then the process moves into the stage of active reproduction by the subject of the perceived and understood essential properties and relationships. 7) The process of assimilation of knowledge completes the stage of its transformation, which is associated either with the inclusion of newly acquired knowledge in the structure of past experience, or with its use as a means of constructing or isolating other new knowledge. 8) Quality control of acquired knowledge and skills is an important link in the educational process .9) Generalization as a link in the educational process completes the previous links and presupposes the assimilation and awareness by students of cause-and-effect relationships in the phenomena of the surrounding world, fragments of which they study, assimilation scientific concepts, some laws of development of nature and society. Knowledge is systematized in a specific academic subject, intra-subject and inter-subject connections are established.
10. The concept of the content of education. The content of education (training, educational process) is a specific answer to the question of what to teach the younger generations. Content is understood as a clear system of knowledge, skills, and abilities selected for study in a certain type of educational institution. This system contains knowledge about the surrounding world, modern production, culture and art; generalized intellectual and practical skills in acquiring knowledge and how to use it; skills of cognitive activity, creative solving of theoretical and practical problems, mastery of which provides a certain level of intellectual, social and spiritual development students. The category of educational content reflects social experience in which known to people knowledge about nature, man, society; acquired knowledge about human skills in performing known methods of activity; experience in solving new problems that arise in society; experience of social and interpersonal relations; experience of knowing the world and people in it; value judgments about life, nature, the world around us, etc. Sometimes the social experience of humanity is called universal human culture.

Selected information is transmitted to students using certain teaching aids and sources of information (the teacher’s word, textbook, visual and technical aids).

11. Principles of forming the content of education. Chief among them are the following:

Scientificity, manifested in accordance with the knowledge studied at school latest achievements scientific, social and cultural progress;

Sequence, which consists of planning content that develops in an ascending line, where each new knowledge builds on and follows from the previous one;

Historicism, which means the reproduction in school courses of the history of the development of a particular branch of science, human practice, coverage of the activities of outstanding scientists in connection with the problems being studied;

Systematicity, which involves consideration of the knowledge being studied and the skills being formed in the system of constructing all educational courses and the entire content of school education as systems included in each other and in the general system of human culture;

Connections with life as a way of verifying (checking) the effectiveness of the knowledge being studied and the skills being developed and as a universal means of reinforcing school education with real practice;

Compliance with the age capabilities and level of preparedness of schoolchildren for whom this or that system of knowledge and skills is offered for mastery; if the material that students master is too easy, then both knowledge and cognitive powers grow slowly, disproportionate to their capabilities;

Accessibility, determined by the structure of curricula and programs, the way scientific knowledge is presented in educational books, as well as the order of introduction and the optimal number of scientific concepts and terms studied

12. General requirements for the content of education. The requirements for the content of education in our state are determined by the general goal of forming a human citizen of today's and tomorrow's society. The processes of upbringing and education of citizens have been declared a priority. The state realizes its leadership role through the creation and implementation of the State Education Standard. The educational standard distinguishes two components - an invariant (unchangeable) core of education, which is reviewed and changed relatively rarely, and a variable part - for quickly responding to the needs of society. Structure of the standard: standard (basic) curriculum of general education institutions, general characteristics of the invariant and variable components of the content, state requirements for the level of general education training of students.

ensuring the self-determination of the individual, creating conditions for his self-realization; development of society; strengthening and improving the rule of law.

an adequate global level of general and professional culture of society; formation in the student of a picture of the world adequate to the modern level of knowledge and the level of the educational program (level of study); integration of the individual into national and world culture; formation of a spiritual and moral personality; reproduction and development of the human resources potential of society.

3. Vocational education at any level should ensure that students receive a profession and appropriate qualifications.

4. The content of education should promote mutual understanding and cooperation between people and nations, regardless of racial, national, ethnic, religious and social affiliation, take into account the diversity of ideological approaches, and promote the realization of students’ right to free choice of opinions and beliefs.