Cognition can be defined as a process of human activity, the main content of which is reflection objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him. Scientists distinguish the following types of knowledge: everyday, scientific, philosophical, artistic, social. None of these types of cognitive activity is isolated from the others; they are all closely interrelated with each other.

In the process of cognition there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In a narrow sense, the subject of knowledge usually means a cognizing person, endowed with will and consciousness; in a broad sense, the entire society. The object of cognition, accordingly, is either the object being cognized or, in a broad sense, the entire the world around us within the boundaries within which individuals and society as a whole interact with it. Also, a person himself can be an object of knowledge: almost every person is capable of making himself an object of knowledge. In such cases they say that self-knowledge takes place. Self-knowledge is both knowledge of oneself and the formation of a certain attitude towards oneself: towards one’s qualities, states, capabilities, i.e. self-esteem. The process of a subject analyzing his consciousness and his attitude to life is called reflection. Reflection is not just the subject’s knowledge or understanding of himself, but also finding out how others know and understand the “reflector”, his personal characteristics, emotional reactions and cognitive (i.e., related to cognition) representations.

There are two stages of cognitive activity. At the first stage, which is called sensory (or sensitive) cognition (from German sensitiv - perceived by the senses), a person receives information about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world using the senses. The three main forms of sensory cognition are:

a) sensation, which is a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects in the surrounding world that directly affect the senses. Sensations can be visual, auditory, tactile, etc.;

b) perception, during which the subject of cognition forms a holistic image that reflects objects and their properties that directly affect the sense organs. Being a necessary stage of the cognition process, perception is always more or less associated with attention and usually has a certain emotional connotation;

c) representation - a form of cognition in which a sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is retained in consciousness, which allows it to be reproduced mentally even if it is absent and does not affect the senses. The idea has no direct connection with the reflected object and is a product of memory (i.e., a person’s ability to reproduce images of objects, in at the moment have no effect on it). There is a distinction between iconic memory (vision) and echonic memory (hearing). Based on the time information is retained in the brain, memory is divided into long-term and short-term. Long-term memory provides long-term (hours, years, and sometimes decades) retention of knowledge, skills, and abilities and is characterized by a huge amount of stored information. The main mechanism for entering data into long-term memory and fixing it, as a rule, is repetition, which is carried out at the level of short-term memory. Short-term memory, in turn, ensures rapid retention and transformation of data directly coming from the senses.

The role of sensory cognition of reality in ensuring the entire process of cognition is great and is manifested in the fact that:

1) the senses are the only channel that directly connects a person with the outside world;

2) without sense organs, a person is not capable of either cognition or thinking in general;

3) the loss of even part of the sense organs complicates and complicates the process of cognition, although it does not exclude it (this is explained by the mutual compensation of some sense organs by others, the mobilization of reserves in the active sense organs, the individual’s ability to concentrate his attention, etc.);

4) the senses provide that minimum of primary information, which turns out to be necessary and sufficient in order to cognize the objects of the material and spiritual world from many sides.

However, sensitive cognition also has some significant drawbacks, the most important of which is the well-known physiological limitations of the human sense organs: many objectively existing objects (for example, atoms) cannot be directly reflected in the sense organs. A sensory picture of the world is necessary, but it is not sufficient for a deep, comprehensive knowledge of the world. Therefore, the second stage of cognitive activity is rational knowledge (from the Latin ratio - reason).

At this stage of cognition, relying on data obtained as a result of direct interaction of a person with the surrounding world, with the help of thinking, they are streamlined and an attempt is made to comprehend the essence of cognizable objects and phenomena. Rational knowledge is carried out in the form of concepts, judgments and inferences.

A concept is a form (type) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of cognizable objects or phenomena. The same object can appear both in the form of a sensory representation and in the form of a concept. According to the degree of generality, concepts can be less general, more general and extremely general. In scientific knowledge, the concepts of particular scientific, general scientific and universal, i.e. philosophical, are also distinguished. In relation to reality (in terms of the depth of its reflection, comprehension and direction), philosophical scientists distinguish four classes of concepts:

1) concepts that reflect the generalities in objects;

2) concepts that cover the essential characteristics of objects;

3) concepts that reveal the meaning and meaning of objects;

4) concepts-ideas.

The next form of rational knowledge is judgment. A judgment is a form of thought in which a connection is established between individual concepts and, with the help of this connection, something is affirmed or denied. When making a judgment, a person uses concepts, which, in turn, are elements of judgment. Although a proposition finds its expression only in language, it does not depend on a particular language and can be expressed by different sentences of the same language or different languages.

Obtaining new judgments based on existing ones using the laws of logical thinking is called inference. Inferences are divided into deductive and inductive. The name "deductive" comes from Latin word deductio (removal). Deductive inference is a chain of reasoning, the links of which (statements) are connected by relations of logical consequence from general statements to private. In contrast, inductive inferences (from the Latin inductio - guidance) are arranged in a chain in sequence from particular to general. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “derived” from other thoughts, while inductive reasoning only “suggests” a thought.

Rational cognition is closely related to the reflected reality, that is, with sensory cognition, which serves as its basis. However, in contrast to sensory cognition, which exists in consciousness in the form of images, the results of rational cognition are fixed in sign forms (systems) or in language. Rational cognition has the ability to reflect the essential in objects, while as a result of sensitive cognition, the essential in an object or phenomenon is not distinguished from the inessential. With the help of rational cognition, the process of constructing concepts and ideas occurs, which are then embodied in reality.

However, although sensory and rational knowledge play a huge role in obtaining new knowledge, nevertheless, in many cases they are not enough to solve any (especially scientific) problems. And then important role in this process one gains intuition.

Intuition is a person’s ability to comprehend the truth through its direct assimilation without justification with the help of any evidence. Intuition - This is a specific cognitive process that directly leads to new knowledge. The prevalence and universality of intuition is confirmed by numerous observations of people both in everyday conditions and in non-standard situations in which, having a limited amount of information, they carry out right choice their actions, as if anticipating that they need to act this way and not otherwise.

A person’s intuitive ability is characterized by the following features:

1) the unexpectedness of the solution to the task;

2) lack of awareness of the ways and means of resolving it;

3) the direct nature of comprehending the truth.

U different people intuition can have varying degrees of distance from consciousness, be specific in content, the nature of the result, the depth of penetration into the essence of a phenomenon or process. The intuitive work of thinking occurs in the subconscious sphere, sometimes in a state of sleep. Intuition should not be overestimated, just as its role in the process of cognition should not be ignored. Sensory cognition, rational cognition and intuition are important and mutually complementary means of cognition.

2. Truth and error. Criteria of truth

The essence of the cognition process is to obtain the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the world around us. Different philosophical schools answered the question about the possibility of understanding the world and obtaining true knowledge in different ways. Agnostics believed that it was impossible to obtain reliable knowledge, empiricists believed that this could only be done with the help of sensations, and rationalists argued that only reason could be the criterion of truth.

In the history of philosophy, there are various definitions of the concept “truth”. The classic definition is that truth is the correspondence of a person’s thoughts to the surrounding reality. In modern science, the most commonly used definition is the following: truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge.

A characteristic feature of truth is the presence of an objective and subjective side to it.

The objective side shows us the truth in that part of it, the content of which does not depend on us, since it exists in objective reality. The objective side of truth is a prerequisite for such a feature as concreteness. The specificity of truth is the dependence of the acquired knowledge on the connections and interactions inherent in certain phenomena, on the conditions, place and time in which they exist and develop.

The subjective side points to the fact that truth is always subjective in its form, since when it is received in the process of cognition, there is an interaction between the object and the subject of cognition, in which the consciousness of the latter takes a direct part.

It is customary to distinguish between absolute truth and relative truth. Absolute truth is complete, unchangeable, once and for all established knowledge about any object or phenomenon. However, in reality this is practically unattainable. In most cases, we are dealing with relative truth (or truths), which is incomplete, limited, correct only under certain conditions, knowledge that a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of its development.

Almost any truth is objective in its content, but relative in its form.

Philosophers distinguish several types of truth: ordinary (everyday), scientific (which, in turn, is divided into truth in the field of mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, history, etc.), moral, artistic, etc. In other words, types truths correspond to types of knowledge.

The driving force of the cognition process, as well as the criterion of truth, is practice. The practice is active work person in interaction with his environment material world. It is characterized by the following features:

a) purposefulness;

b) objective-sensual character;

c) transformation of the surrounding reality.

Purposefulness is manifested in the creation by people of certain ideal models, which they subsequently strive to embody in the surrounding reality. The object-sensory nature reflects the fact that in the process of practice a person directly encounters material objects. metas of the surrounding world (unlike, for example, mental, spiritual activity, within the framework of which such contact does not occur). And, as a result, it transforms and changes these objects. There are many types of practice:

a) social production (industrial and agricultural production; production of consumer products and means of production);

b) socio-political (creation of the state, formation of parties, reforms social structures and governing bodies, revolutionary movements, strikes, etc.);

c) scientific-experimental (social, physical, chemical, genetic and other types of experiment);

d) medical or medical (surgical, dental, therapeutic, etc.);

e) family-household, or everyday economic (construction and renovation of housing, gardening, cooking, etc.).

These forms of practice are basic because they cover the most important areas of human life. Moreover, this or that type of cognition has as a criterion of truth a form of practice corresponding to it.

There are other classifications.

Based on the results obtained, a distinction is made between creative (constructive) and destructive (destructive) practices. In terms of content and purpose, practice can be standardized (stereotypical-mechanical), involving repeated reproduction of the same result, and exploratory, aimed at obtaining new, cognitive information. Depending on the subject of activity, practice is divided into individual, microgroup, practice of a social stratum, class, nation (nationality), state, society. Any practice always has a social (public) character.

In the process of practice, not only the reality surrounding a person changes, but also the individual himself. Practice affects his senses, consciousness, and thinking. There is mutual enrichment of the individual, society and nature.

But practice is contradictory regarding the nature of the results of knowledge: on its basis, various types of misconceptions are formed. A fallacy is an unintentional discrepancy between any judgments or concepts and a cognizable object. Misconception - it is false knowledge accepted as true. The role of misconceptions in cognition is ambiguous. On the one hand, delusion leads the knower away from the truth and interferes with knowledge. But on the other hand, it can contribute to the creation of problematic situations that serve as an impetus for further study of reality.

In addition to practice, there are other criteria of truth, in particular, formal-logical, which is used in conditions where it is not possible to rely on practice (for example, identifying logical contradictions in mathematical reasoning).

The process of discovering the truth is a long process. Truths can take decades and even centuries to form. In fact, truth is a process; it is in constant development. Along with it, practice also develops, which, in spite of everything, still remains the most reliable criterion for establishing the truth.

3. Scientific knowledge

Today science is the main form of human knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on complex creative process mental and subject-practical activities of a scientist. The general rules of this process, which are sometimes called Descartes' method, can be formulated as follows. in this way:

1) nothing can be accepted as true until it appears clear and distinct;

2) difficult questions must be divided into as many parts as necessary to resolve;

3) one must begin the research with the simplest and most convenient things to know and gradually move on to the knowledge of difficult and complex things;

4) the scientist must dwell on all the details, pay attention to everything: he must be sure that he has not missed anything.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. The main task The empirical level of scientific knowledge is the description of objects and phenomena, and the main form of knowledge obtained is an empirical (scientific) fact. At the theoretical level, the phenomena being studied are explained, and the resulting knowledge is recorded in the form of laws, principles and scientific theories, which reveal the essence of the knowable objects.

The basic principles of scientific knowledge are:

1. The principle of causality.

The content of this principle can be conveyed famous saying ancient Greek philosopher Democritus: “Not a single thing arises without a cause, but everything arises on some basis due to necessity.” The principle of causality means that the emergence of any material objects and systems has some foundations in previous states of matter: these foundations are called causes, and the changes they cause are called consequences. Everything in the world is connected to each other by cause-and-effect relationships, and the task of science is to establish these connections.

2 The principle of the truth of scientific knowledge Truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. Truth is verified (proven) by practice. If a scientific theory is confirmed by practice, then it can be recognized as true.

3. The principle of the relativity of scientific knowledge According to this principle, any scientific knowledge is always relative and limited by the cognitive capabilities of people at a given moment in time. Therefore, the task of a scientist is not only to know the truth, but also to establish the boundaries of the correspondence of the knowledge he has received to reality - the so-called adequacy interval. The main methods used in the process of empirical knowledge are the method of observation, the method of empirical description and experimental method.

Observation is a purposeful study of individual objects and phenomena, during which knowledge is obtained about the external properties and characteristics of the object being studied. Observation is based on such forms of sensory cognition as sensation, perception, and representation. The result of observation is an empirical description, during which the information obtained is recorded using language or other symbolic forms. A special place among the above methods is occupied by the experimental method. An experiment is a method of studying phenomena that is carried out under strictly defined conditions, and the latter can, if necessary, be recreated and controlled by the subject of knowledge (scientist).

The following types of experiment are distinguished: 1) research (search) experiment, which is aimed at discovering new phenomena or properties of objects unknown to science;

2) a testing (control) experiment, during which any theoretical assumptions or hypotheses are tested;

3) physical, chemical, biological, social experiments, etc.

A special type of experiment is a thought experiment. In the process of such an experiment, the specified conditions are imaginary but necessarily comply with the laws of science and the rules of logic. When conducting a thought experiment, a scientist operates not with real objects of knowledge, but with their mental images or theoretical models. On this basis this type Experiments are classified not as empirical, but as theoretical methods of scientific knowledge. We can say that it is, as it were, a connecting link between two levels of scientific knowledge - theoretical and empirical.

Among other methods related to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge, we can distinguish the hypothesis method, as well as the formulation of a scientific theory.

The essence of the hypothesis method is to put forward and justify certain assumptions with the help of which it is possible to explain those empirical facts that do not fit into the framework of previous explanations. The purpose of testing a hypothesis is to formulate laws, principles or theories that explain phenomena in the surrounding world. Such hypotheses are called explanatory. Along with them, there are so-called existential hypotheses, which are assumptions about the existence of phenomena that are still unknown to science, but may soon be discovered (an example of such a hypothesis is the assumption about the existence of elements of D. I. Mendeleev’s periodic table that have not yet been discovered) .

Based on testing hypotheses, scientific theories are constructed. A scientific theory is a logically consistent description of the phenomena of the surrounding world, which is expressed by a special system of concepts. Any scientific theory, in addition to its descriptive function, also performs a prognostic function: it helps determine the direction of further development of society, the phenomena and processes occurring in it.

4. Features of social cognition. Social Forecasting

Cognition is the process human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his consciousness, and the result - gaining new knowledge about the world around us.

The main feature of social cognition as one of the types of cognitive activity is the coincidence of the subject and object of cognition. In the course of social cognition, society gets to know itself. Such a coincidence of the subject and object of cognition has a huge impact on both the process of cognition itself and its results. The resulting social knowledge will always be associated with the interests of individuals - the subjects of knowledge, and this circumstance largely explains the presence of different, often opposing conclusions and assessments that arise when studying the same social phenomena.

Social cognition begins with establishing social facts. A fact is a fragment of an already existing reality. There are three types of social facts:

1) actions or actions of individuals or large social groups;

2) products of material or spiritual activity of people;

3) verbal social facts: opinions, judgments, assessments of people.

The selection and interpretation (i.e. explanation) of these facts largely depend on the worldview of the researcher, the interests of the social group to which he belongs, as well as on the tasks that he sets for himself.

The purpose of social cognition, as well as cognition in general, is to establish the truth. However, it is not easy to establish it in the process of social cognition because:

1) the object of knowledge, and this is society, is quite complex in its structure and is in constant development, which is influenced by both objective and subjective factors. Therefore, the establishment of social laws is extremely difficult, and open social laws are probabilistic in nature, because even similar historical events and phenomena are never completely repeated;

2) the possibility of using such a method of empirical research as experiment is limited, i.e., reproducing the social phenomenon being studied at the request of the researcher is almost impossible. A social experiment is of a specific historical nature and can lead to different (often opposite) results in different societies. Therefore, the most common method social research is a scientific abstraction.

The main source of knowledge about society is social reality and practice. Since social life changes quite quickly, in the process of social cognition we can talk about establishing only relative truths.

Understand and correctly describe the processes occurring in society, discover laws social development is possible only when using a specific historical approach to social phenomena. The main requirements of this approach are:

1) studying not only the situation in society, but also the reasons that resulted in it;

2) consideration social phenomena in their interrelation and interaction with each other;

3) analysis of the interests and actions of all subjects of the historical process (both social groups and individuals).

If in the process of cognition of social phenomena some stable and significant connections are discovered between them, then they usually talk about the discovery of historical patterns. Historical patterns are called common features, which are inherent in a certain group of historical phenomena. Identification of such patterns based on the study of specific social processes in specific societies in a certain historical period and constitutes the essence of the specific historical approach and, ultimately, is one of the goals of social cognition.

Another goal of social cognition is social prediction, i.e. obtaining knowledge about the future of society, about what does not yet exist in reality, but what is potentially contained in the present in the form of objective and subjective prerequisites for the expected course of development.

Modern science has about 200 scientific methods, special techniques, logical and technical means of social cognition, of which the main five are:

1) extrapolation;

2) historical analogy;

3) computer modeling;

4) creating future scenarios;

5) expert assessment.

Depending on the content and purpose of social forecasts, there are four main types (types): search, normative, analytical forecasts and warnings.

Exploratory forecasts (sometimes called exploratory or realistic), starting from realistic assessments of current development trends in various fields public life, are compiled directly to reveal what the future might be. Regulatory forecasts, focused on achieving certain goals in the future, contain various practical recommendations for the implementation of relevant development plans and programs. Analytical predictions are typically made to determine educational value for scientific purposes. various methods and futures research tools. Warning forecasts are compiled to directly influence the consciousness and behavior of people in order to force them to prevent the expected future. Of course, the differences between these main types of forecasts are conditional: the same specific social forecast may contain signs of several types.

Social forecasting does not claim to have absolutely accurate and complete knowledge of the future: even carefully verified and balanced forecasts are justified only with a certain degree of reliability. The degree of this reliability depends on several factors:

a) on the future for which the forecast is made - close (20-30 years), foreseeable (most of the next century) or distant (beyond the specified limits). In the first case, it is possible to obtain very reliable forecasts; in the second, plausible knowledge predominates; in the third - purely hypothetical assumptions;

b) on the extent to which the given forecast is justified by knowledge of the corresponding laws: the unreliability of the forecast is greater, the more often when constructing it one has to resort to hypotheses about laws instead of the laws themselves;

c) on how systematically the forecast is given, how much it takes into account the entire complexity of the predicted state of society or its individual element.

Thus, social forecasting can be defined as a comprehensive interdisciplinary study of the prospects for the development of human society.

5. Development of knowledge about man

The search for an answer to the question of how and when man came into being and what his place is in the world around him has a long history.

In primitive forms of religion, plants or animals were considered the ancestors of humans. Later, religious teachings explained the appearance of man on Earth by the will of God. In the 19th century Charles Darwin created the evolutionary theory of human origin, which became the basis of the modern scientific theory of anthropogenesis. According to it, man descended from an ape-like ancestor. However, this theory still causes fierce debate in scientific circles.

As for philosophical analysis anthropological problems, its foundations were also laid in ancient times, especially in philosophical teachings East. Thus, ancient Indian philosophy considered man as a being capable of joining the highest extra-personal values, and called the meaning of human life following the laws established from above (in particular, the endless process of rebirth). In ancient Chinese philosophy, the surrounding world and man were understood as one whole, as a single living organism in which everything is interdependent and interconnected. The ancient Chinese considered the meaning of life to be the desire for harmony, for the perfection of a person’s inner world.

Philosophical anthropology was further developed in Ancient Greece. Ancient Greek philosophy gave man the highest place in the whole world, in the Universe. Man himself was viewed as a microcosm, reflecting the surrounding world (macrocosm). It was believed that man should build his existence in accordance with divine harmony, with the cosmic mind. It was as a microcosm, as a divine creation, that man was considered and later in Christian teaching. Medieval theologians argued that man was created by God, bears the imprint of the divine essence, and the divine principle is embodied in him.

European philosophy of modern times contributed to the emergence of a new view of man - man began to be seen as a product of natural and social forces. Criticizing theological concepts of human origin, some philosophers argued that the environment is the only factor influencing the formation of man.

German classical philosophy continued to develop the position according to which man was understood as “the measure of all things.” Its representatives believed that man is not a passive, but an active subject, endowed with reason and freedom, and must play an active role in the world around him, as well as in the knowledge of this world. I. Kant “introduced” man into philosophy as the central cognitive subject. Kant united all the interests of the human mind in three questions: 1. What can I know? 2. What should I do? 3. What can I hope for? Thus, Kant laid the foundation of modern philosophical anthropology. Another German philosopher of this time - G. F. W. Hegel - believed that the main ability of a person should be recognized as his ability to know himself, that self-knowledge is the highest stage of development of the spirit. It was Hegel who expressed, with the help of the triad “man - individual - personality,” the process of development of an individual subject.

The Marxist concept of man also considered him to be a social being. Marx emphasized the enormous role that his work activity, as well as his environment, has on the process of development and formation of a person. Such an assessment of man as an active, active being, as a subject of labor activity and the process of cognition, and subsequently the entire historical process as a whole, was characteristic of European philosophy late XIX V.

In the philosophy of the 20th century, the problem of man can be called central. Anthropological knowledge of this time is characterized by several features. Firstly, an important place in it is occupied by the problem of comprehending the inner, spiritual world of man, the logic of his development, as well as the reasons that predetermine the process of self-improvement of man, the creation of his existence. Secondly, modern philosophers pay attention to the extremely meager set of instincts with which man is endowed by nature. They call man a “non-specialized creature” and believe that it is precisely his weakly equipped instincts, which predetermine the rigidity of animal behavior, that gives man the freedom to choose one or another sphere of activity. Thirdly, modern anthropology is trying to solve the problem of the contradiction between the concepts of “universal” and “individual” by introducing the concept of “general individual” into scientific circulation. She is considering universal human values in inextricable connection with the actual values ​​of each individual person, rightly believing that only when the rights and interests of each person are guaranteed can we talk about the implementation of universal human values.

Without going into a detailed analysis, we will outline four directions in the philosophy of man of the 20th century, which can be characterized as the most significant:

1. Psychoanalytic (3. Freud, E. Fromm);

2. Philosophical anthropology (M. Sheller, A Gelen);

3. Existential (M. Heidegger, J.-P. Sarti A. Camus);

4. Catholic (G. Marseille, J. Maritain, John Paul II, Teilhard de Chardin).

The variety of existing approaches and philosophical movements that deal with issues related to the life and purpose of man and his place in the world around him indicate both the complexity of the above problems and the unrelenting attention to them.

The concept of “cognition”, its structure and stages

Humanity has always strived to acquire new knowledge. The process of mastering the secrets of the surrounding world is an expression of the highest aspirations of the creative activity of the mind, which constitutes the great pride of humanity. Over the millennia of its development, humanity has passed a long and thorny path of knowledge from the primitive and limited to an ever deeper and more comprehensive penetration into the essence of being. On this path, an innumerable number of facts, properties and laws of nature, social life and man himself were discovered, and constant changes in “pictures” and “images” of the world took place. Developing knowledge went hand in hand with the development of production, with the flowering of the arts, artistic creativity. The human mind comprehends the laws of the world not for the sake of simple curiosity (although curiosity is one of the driving forces of human life), but for the sake of practical transformation of both nature and man with the goal of the most harmonious life of man in the world. The knowledge of humanity forms the most complex system, which acts in the form of social memory, its wealth and diversity are transmitted from generation to generation, from people to people through the mechanism of social heredity and culture.

Knowledge does not arise on its own; it is the result of a special process - the cognitive activity of people.

So, cognition- this is the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement.

The process of cognition, no matter how it occurs, is always an interaction between a subject and an object, the result of which is knowledge about the world around us.

This is someone who wants to gain knowledge about the world around them.

This is what the subject’s cognitive activity is aimed at.

IN structure of cognition can be distinguished the following elements.

Man began to think about what knowledge is, what ways to acquire knowledge, already in ancient times, when he realized himself as something opposed to nature, as an agent in nature. Over time, the conscious posing of this question and the attempt to solve it acquired a relatively harmonious form, and then knowledge about knowledge itself emerged. All philosophers, as a rule, in one way or another, analyzed the problems of the theory of knowledge. There were two approaches to the question of how a person knows the world: some philosophers believed that we know the world through feelings, others - through reason. The group of first philosophers is called sensualists(, F. Bacon, L. Feuerbach), group of the second - rationalists(, R. Descartes, B. Spinoza). There is a third concept of knowledge - agnosticism- denial of the possibility of knowing the world (D. Hume).

Modern science considers sensory and rational cognition as two successive stages in the formation of cognition.

Historically and logically the first step cognitive process is sensory cognition- cognition through the senses. Sensory cognition in general is characterized by reflection of the world in in a visual form, the presence of a direct connection between a person and reality, a reflection mainly external parties and connections, the beginning of comprehension of internal dependencies based on the initial generalization of sensory data.

The basic feelings of a person were described by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle more than two thousand years ago. These are taste, touch, sight, hearing and smell.

Man's sensory cognition of the world is carried out in three main forms.

Sensations, perceptions and ideas in the process of cognition act interconnectedly and are influenced by rational forms of cognition and logical thinking.

Rational knowledge is most fully reflected in thinking. Therefore, it is necessary to clearly understand the content of this most important concept. - carried out during practice active process reflections of the surrounding world. Human thinking is not a purely natural property, but a function of a social subject developed in the process of objective activity and communication.

So, rational cognition- this is penetration into the essence of things, operating with ideal images using logical thinking. The main forms of rational knowledge are:

Sensory and rational cognition are two stages of cognition and do not contradict each other. These two forms of cognition are in constant interaction and form an inextricable unity of the cognitive process. Rational forms knowledge is impossible without forms of sensory knowledge, because this is where they get their source material. At the same time, sensory knowledge is influenced by rational knowledge. Sensations, perceptions and ideas of a person carry within themselves the characteristics of all spiritual and intellectual activity of consciousness.

Forms and methods of scientific knowledge

The birth of science occurred back in Ancient world. But they began to take shape in the 16th-17th centuries. During historical science developments have become a major force influencing all spheres of society.

This is a form of human activity aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth. Science in a broad sense includes all conditions and components scientific activity:

division and cooperation scientific work;

scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment;

research methods;

system scientific information;

the entire amount of previously accumulated scientific knowledge.

Modern science is an extremely ramified collection of individual scientific branches. The subject of science is not only surrounding a person the world, various forms and types of movement of matter, but also their reflection in consciousness - that is, man himself. The main task of science is to identify the objective laws of reality, and its immediate goal- objective truth.

Scientific knowledge is distinguished by the desire for objectivity, i.e. to study the world as it is, regardless of man. The result obtained should not depend on private opinions, preferences, or authorities. Therefore, scientific knowledge is inherent following signs :

objectivity;

consistency;

focus on practice;

evidence;

validity of the results obtained;

reliability of the conclusions.

Currently exists next classification of sciences:

natural sciences- study the natural world;

technical sciences - study the world of technology;

humanities - study the human world;

social sciences - study the world of society.

Every science includes four necessary components.

The subject of science is a researcher carrying out scientific activities.

The object of science is the subject of research, i.e. what area does this science study?

A system of methods and techniques characteristic of studying within the framework of a given science.

The language of science is its unique terminology (basic concepts, symbols, mathematical equations, chemical formulas etc.).

It is necessary to understand that scientific knowledge is an integral, developing system that has a rather complex structure. The structure of scientific knowledge includes:

1) factual material obtained experimentally;

2) the results of its initial generalization;

3) fact-based problems and scientific assumptions (hypotheses);

4) patterns, principles and theories;

5) methods of scientific knowledge;

6) thinking style.

Scientific knowledge is a developing system of knowledge that includes two main interconnected levels.

A form of knowledge, the content of which is that which has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known.

A form of knowledge containing an assumption formed on the basis of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof.

The most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and significant connections of a certain area of ​​reality.

In scientific knowledge, not only its end result, but also the path leading to it, i.e. method. Most common methods of scientific knowledge are:

analysis - decomposition of an object into components, which allows you to carefully examine the structure of the object being studied;

synthesis - the process of combining into a single whole properties, characteristics, relationships, identified through the analysis of the phenomena being studied;

analogy - assignment similar properties the object being studied, if it is similar to a familiar object;

induction - the transition from particular, isolated cases to a general conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations;

deduction - the transition from the general to the particular, from general judgments about phenomena to particular ones;

systematic approach- a set of methods, techniques and principles of cognition of phenomena as systems.

Methods for studying phenomena can be very diverse, but they must meet one necessary condition- do not contradict each other.

proposed his solution, which is based on the principle of correspondence: truth is the correspondence of knowledge to an object, reality. R. delusion is an incompletely known truth. How to distinguish true knowledge from error? In other words: what is the criterion of truth? In social science there are the following criteria of truth:

experimental data;

theoretically based knowledge;

compliance with the surrounding world.

Truth is objective in its content, but subjective in its form of expression. In any knowledge there is a subjective principle associated with the characteristics of the senses, nervous system, brain activity, with our abilities, interests, and attitude to the world.

Is it possible to have complete, absolute knowledge, in other words, absolute truth? Absolute truth completely exhausts the subject and cannot be refuted with the further development of knowledge. But, in this case, there is no absolute truth, it is always relative, since the world around us is endless and inexhaustible. At the same time, absolute truth can be considered as a model or limit to which our knowledge strives. Absolute truth appears in this case as an infinite sum of relative truths that humanity formulates throughout the history of its development.

Security questions

What is cognition?

Name the types of cognition.

What are the forms of sensory knowledge?

What are the forms of rational knowledge?

What types of sciences do you know?

What are the characteristics of scientific knowledge?

What are the levels and methods of scientific knowledge?

What is truth and what are its criteria?

Is absolute truth achievable?

3. COGNITION

3.1. Knowledge of the world. Forms of knowledge: sensory and rational.

Cognition– a set of processes, procedures and methods for acquiring knowledge about the phenomena and patterns of the objective world. Cognition is the main subject of the science of epistemology (theory of knowledge).

The first stage of knowledge is sensual cognition. Sensory cognition is based on a person’s experience, which he acquires by influencing cognizable objects with the help of the senses (taste, smell, touch, vision, hearing). It is always subjective, it connects a person with the outside world.

Forms of sensory knowledge:

Feeling– reflection of individual characteristics and properties of objects (temperature, color, taste).

Perception- a holistic image of an object or phenomenon.

Performance– storing images of objects in memory.

The second stage of knowledge - rational cognition. Rational knowledge allows a person to comprehend the inner nature of things - their structure, essence, laws.

Forms of rational knowledge:

Concept– reflection general principles and properties of objects (in words, symbols, signs).

Judgment– a connection of concepts with the help of which dependencies between things are reflected (in sentences, formulas).

Inference– connection between several judgments (more complex sentences, formulas where cause-and-effect relationships are present).

The process of cognition has some contradictions:

1. Contradiction between subject and object. It represents a discrepancy between human needs for the practical transformation of the world and the lack of knowledge about it.

2. Sometimes cognition is characterized by a contradiction between the data of the senses and the mental reflection of the external world.

3. Contradiction between the established theory and the established new scientific facts.

4. Contradictions between currents in science, between theories.

In the process of cognition, such non-rational forms of cognition as imagination, fantasy, emotions, faith, and intuition play an important role. Intuition– the ability to directly (immediately) comprehend the truth, that is, without relying on reasoning and evidence.

3.2. Truth, its criteria. The relativity of truth.

The goal of any knowledge is truth. Truth - correspondence of knowledge to the subject of knowledge.

Characteristic of truth objectivity(correspondence of knowledge about an object to the object itself), procedurality(truth can change in the process of cognition, since the knowable world is inexhaustible), specificity(truth is determined by specific conditions of place, time, situation).

Absolute truth - complete, comprehensive knowledge about the object. For example, all people are mortal.

Relative truth - incomplete, inaccurate, insufficient knowledge about an object. The relativity of truth is based on the understanding that the knowable world is limitless, and human cognitive capabilities are limited.

Knowledge that does not correspond to the object being cognized is called delusion. Misconceptions can be divided into three types:

An error is a misconception resulting from inattention or stupidity.

A lie is a deliberate delusion that occurs when it is advantageous to present as truth something that is not.

Illusion is a delusion that does not depend on the personal qualities of the subject.

3.3. Types of human knowledge

A person’s cognitive relationship to the world is carried out in various forms- in the form of everyday knowledge, mythological, artistic, religious, philosophical, and finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered as non-scientific forms.

Mythological knowledge- historically the first form of knowledge, aimed at comprehending nature and society, the experience of generations through semantic kinship with knowable reality.

Everyday practical (everyday) knowledge- a form of knowledge based on common sense, life experience, daily practical life.

Artistic-figurative knowledge- a form of knowledge that manifests itself in art through created images.

Religious knowledge - a form of knowledge based on belief in the supernatural.

Philosophical knowledge - a form of knowledge, the features of which are universalism (general character) and criticism (testing results by reason).

A special place in cognitive activity is occupied by self-knowledge (reflection) – a person’s comprehension of his mental activity, words and actions, in order to identify his own essence.

3.4. Scientific knowledge. Social cognition. Social sciences, their classification. Social and humanitarian knowledge

Scientific knowledge– cognition, the purpose of which is the discovery of objective laws based on generalization real facts and their relationships.

Traits of scientific knowledge:

study of significant, typical, stable connections, properties and relationships;

objectivity;

strict evidence, experimental verification, reproduction, repetition of results;

systematic knowledge, the formation of an integral system of concepts, symbols, formulas, theories;

using the acquired knowledge in real life.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical knowledge is focused on phenomena, sensory experience predominates in it, rational knowledge is subordinated to sensory. The main methods of empirical knowledge are observation, comparison, experiment.

Theoretical knowledge is focused on the essence of phenomena; it is based on rational knowledge. The main methods of theoretical knowledge are abstraction, formalization, modeling, thought experiment, systems approach, idealization.

Basic forms of scientific knowledge:

Scientific fact– a sentence that captures empirical (experienced) knowledge.

Scientific problem- a difficulty that can only be overcome through scientific research.

scientific idea– an intuitive explanation of the phenomenon.

Hypothesis- an assumption or assumption that needs proof.

Law– display of a significant, necessary or recurring connection between objects or phenomena.

Theory– the most developed form of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of ​​the laws of a certain area of ​​reality.

Social Cognition – knowledge of society, social relations. In this type of cognition, the subject and object of cognitive activity coincide. Social cognition is focused on the study of quality (significance of phenomena), rather than quantity (typicality, repeatability). Social cognition is aimed at studying the individual, unique on the basis of the general, natural. Social cognition studies not only social connections, but also people, which is why it is often called social and humanitarian.

The main social sciences are history, sociology, political science, and jurisprudence. Social sciences and humanities – psychology, cultural studies, philology, linguistics, religious studies.

The topic is considered difficult as we will study the essence internal processes brain and We will define the concept of TRUTH, and also highlight TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE. We begin each topic with a definition. So what is cognition? If it is human, then what is it for, what is it aimed at, what is its PURPOSE?

Let us remember what signs characterize human ACTIVITY? This is accordingly, these are signs of COGNITIVE ACTIVITY.

So, let's define it!

How is it characterized, what problems does it solve? The theory of knowledge is called GNOSEOLOGY (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge). Epistemology solves a number of important cognitive problems of order.

So, is the world knowable? If you answer YES, you are a GNOSTIC! If you answer negatively, meaning the weakness of human senses (it is well known that a dog’s sense of smell is much stronger than a human’s, vision birds of prey is many times greater than human vision), then you are an AGNOSTIC. The Irish philosopher D. Berkeley illustrated this discussion using the example of the dispute between the Greek sages Philonius and Hylas.

Truly, my opinion is that all our opinions are equally vain and unreliable. What we approve of today, we condemn tomorrow... And I don’t think that we could know anything in this life. Our abilities are too limited and too few.

Philonius. How! Are you saying that we cannot know anything, Hylas?

Gilas. There is not a single thing of which we can know its real nature or what it is in itself.

Philonius. Are you saying that I don't really know what fire or water is?

Gilas. You can, of course, know that fire is hot and water is flowing; but this means knowing no more than what sensations are caused in your own soul when fire and water come into contact with your senses. As for their internal structure, their true and actual nature, in this respect you are in complete darkness” (D. Berkeley).

Try to determine who is GNOSTIC here and who is AGNOSTIC? Gilas states:

“...Our abilities are too limited, and there are too few of them... There is not a single thing about which we could know its real nature... As for their internal structure, their true and actual nature, in this respect you are in complete darkness... "

He denies the possibility of TRUE knowledge, he is an AGNOSTIC. So, another important key term for our lesson:

TRUTH is the correspondence of our ideas about the cognizable object to its real essence.

Other important questions of theory are resolved depending on the type of WORLDVIEW - and (PRACTICAL). A person with a religious type of worldview will answer the question about the origin of the world, “This is an act of divine creation,” and a person with a scientific type will answer from the point of view of the “Big Bang” theory.

Both people will be right in this case... Right from the point of view of their type of worldview! Here we come to TYPES OF TRUTH. In this case - the truth. Both subjective points of view are equally generally accepted! Agnostics claim the impossibility of achieving complete knowledge about an object or phenomenon. In their opinion, it is impossible to comprehend the essence of things; one can only approach complete, exhaustive knowledge. This means they recognize the possibility of RELATIVE TRUTH. Gnostics, on the contrary, recognize the possibility of obtaining complete knowledge - ABSOLUTE TRUTH. Thus, there are two types of truth - ABSOLUTE TRUTH AND RELATIVE TRUTH.

ABSOLUTE TRUTH is comprehensive knowledge about a subject (phenomenon) that will never be refuted.

RELATIVE TRUTH - ? Think about the wording?

We see that the complexity of the topic is that one type of truth easily passes into another, and then can turn into So, the ideas of medieval people about the structure of the world were for them the ABSOLUTE TRUTH (the Earth is the center of the Universe), were refuted by the HELIOCENTRIC THEORY of Copernicus - Bruno, and today they seem to us to be a ridiculous delusion.

What is the mechanism of human COGNITIVE ACTIVITY? It begins with our senses, which, in contact with a cognizable object, supply information about it to the brain (vision, touch, smell, hearing, taste). This primary information is

Other forms of SENSUAL (EXPERIENTIAL, EMPIRICAL COGNITION) - (the assessment received from FEELING and - the image of the perceived object, which our brain, with the help of ABSTRACT THINKING, can reproduce at any moment, without even touching it with the senses.

What types of SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY are typical? But based on rational logical thinking. But, information is given to her by sensory knowledge, for example.

Science is conceptual knowledge. Accordingly, RATIONAL (mental) cognition begins with
CONCEPTS – definitions of the object being studied.
Concepts are linked in JUDGMENT – a completed thought.
A chain of logical judgments turns into CONCLUSION – final conclusion, which in science takes the form A THEORY that explains a cognizable phenomenon.

Thus, sensory knowledge is a prerequisite

The main ways of cognition that form as a result specific TYPES are

• RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE – based on faith;
• AESTHETIC – by means of art, based on ideas about beauty;
• SCIENTIFIC – based on theoretical and logical reasoning;
• ORDINARY – based on practical experience and everyday ideas of a person.

Now let’s consolidate the theoretical knowledge we acquired today by solving problems as an example! First, let’s complete task 27 of the test (using the example

We apply our knowledge on the topic “Types of knowledge” and fill in the missing words and phrases in the blanks.

And our answer, which we transfer to the form, is a digital sequence 769854. Now let’s do the difficult written task 25 from the demo version of the Unified State Exam 2016.

Task 25. What meaning do social scientists put into the concept of “relative truth”? Using your social science course knowledge, compose two sentences: one sentence containing information about the criterion(s) for determining truth, and one sentence revealing the features of this type of truth.

Let's reason! Today we have defined two truths - relative and absolute. This means that relative truth is a type of truth. Now let's remember what distinguishes it, its feature? For example, the result of a certain level of development of science.

Let's define:

“Relative truth is a type of truth that characterizes a certain stage in the development of science.”

In the definition of TRUTH we see that this is knowledge that corresponds to reality. We answer, adapting as much as possible to the wording of the question:

“The criterion for determining truth is compliance with cognizable reality.”

One sentence revealing the features of this (relative) type of truth. What else is characterized by RELATIVE TRUTH?

“Relative truth is characterized by subjectivity.”

And our full answer:

“Relative truth is a type of truth that characterizes a certain stage in the development of science.

1. The criterion for determining truth is compliance with cognizable reality. 2. Relative truth is characterized by subjectivity.”

Thus, today we have discussed with you two topics from – Types of knowledge. The concept of truth, its criteria.

Topic 1. Cognition and its forms

It is human nature to want to understand the world around us. Cognition is the process of a person acquiring knowledge about the world, society and himself.

The result of cognition is knowledge.

Subject of knowledge - this is the one who is engaged in cognition as a type of activity, that is, a person, groups of people or the whole society as a whole.

Object of knowledge - this is what or who the process of cognition is aimed at. This may be material or spiritual world, society, people, the person himself, knowing himself.

is a science that studies the features of the cognitive process.

Cognition has two forms (or levels).

Cognition, its levels and steps

There are two levels of knowledge: sensory and rational.

Sensory cognition - This is cognition through the senses: (smell, touch, hearing, sight, taste).

Stages of sensory knowledge

• Feeling - knowledge of the world through the direct influence of its objects on the human senses. For example, the apple is sweet, the music is gentle, the picture is beautiful.
• Perception – based on sensations, creating a holistic image of an object, for example, an apple is sweet, red, hard, and has a pleasant smell.
• Performance – creating images of objects that appear in a person’s memory, that is, they are remembered based on the impact on the senses that occurred earlier. For example, a person can easily imagine an apple, even “remember” its taste. Moreover, he had once seen this apple, tasted it, and smelled it.

The role of sensory cognition

• With the help of the senses, a person directly communicates with the outside world.
• Without sense organs, a person is not capable of knowledge at all.
• The loss of some sense organs makes the process of cognition more difficult. Although this process continues. Compensation sense organs is the ability of some sense organs to increase their capabilities in understanding the world. So, a blind person has more developed hearing, etc.
• With the help of feelings, you can obtain superficial information about the subject of knowledge. Feelings do not provide a comprehensive picture of the subject being studied.

Rational cognition – (from lat. ratio- mind) is the process of obtaining knowledge using the mind, without the influence of the senses.

Stages of rational knowledge

• Concept - this is a thought expressed in words and representing information about the properties of the subject being studied - general and specific. For example, tree- a general sign, birch- specific.
• Judgment – it is a thought that contains either an affirmation or a denial of something about a concept.

Example.

Birch - beautiful tree. Its snow-white trunk with black specks and delicate foliage are associated with its home.

Inference is a thought containing a new judgment that arises as a result of generalizing information obtained from judgments about a concept. This is a kind of conclusion from previous judgments.

So, in our example, a new judgment can become a conclusion:

I really like this beautiful tree - birch.

For rational cognition it is characteristic abstract thinking, that is, theoretical, not related to feelings. Abstract thinking is associated with language and speech. A person thinks, reasons, studies with the help of words.

Verbal language - this is human speech, words, language means with the help of which a person thinks.

Nonverbal language - this is the language of gestures, facial expressions, glances. However, even such a language is based on speech, because a person conveys thoughts with gestures.

Which of the two levels of cognition is the main one in human cognitive activity? Different views on this problem led to the emergence of several philosophical views and theories on the essence of knowledge.

Sensationalism - this is a direction in philosophy, according to which the main way of cognition is the sensory perception of the world. According to their theory, a person will not believe in the truth until he sees, hears, or tries (Epicurus, J. Locke, T. Hobbes).

Rationalism - this is a direction in philosophy according to which the source of knowledge is reason, since feelings do not always provide correct information about the subject or only superficial information (Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Kant, Hegel)

There is also an intuitive way of understanding the world. Intuition - this is insight, instinct, the ability to predict events and phenomena without explanation or understanding the source of knowledge.

The modern point of view is that both sensory and rational cognition play an important role in human life. We experience the world with both feelings and reason.

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna