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What and how history studies. What does historical science study?

LESSON PLAN

"What history studies"

Lesson objectives:

Subject – students will be able to define history as a science, will be able to list historical sources, and will be able to characterize auxiliary historical disciplines;
Cognitive – students will be able to compare types of sources and name distinctive features everyone;
Regulatory – students will be able to make decisions in a problem situation, evaluate their activities in the lesson
Communicative– students will be able to express their opinions, learn to negotiate and come to general decision V joint activities, working in pairs.
Personal – students will be able to express their opinion about the role of history in people’s lives, about the role of helping sciences.

Lesson type: lesson in learning new knowledge.

Goals:

Activity:

Forming in students the ability to reflect on a correctional-control type and implement a correctional form (fixing their own difficulties in activities, identifying their causes, constructing and implementing a project to overcome difficulties).

Consolidation and, if necessary, correction of the learned methods of action - concepts, algorithms.

Educational:

Determine the significance of the historical past for the present;
Using the knowledge of students, lead them to an answer to the problematic question that is expressed in the topic of the lesson.

Developmental:

continue speech development through answering questions;
continue the development of text skills
carry out an individual and differentiated approach (creative tasks);
develop thinking: the ability to compare, generalize, draw conclusions; develop cartographic skills.

Educational:

cultivate love for the Motherland;
a sense of pride in her past, present and future

development of cognitive interest in the subject;
for the purpose of aesthetic development, to instill in students a sense of beauty.

Objectives: as a result of studying the topic, students should be able to:

define the concepts of history, heraldry, historical sources, country, anthem, flag;
give examples of material, written and oral sources;
be able to correlate date and century;
know and name auxiliary historical disciplines;
develop the ability to fill out a table;
determine and explain your attitude to the events of the period under study;
solve educational and life problems from the perspective of a person in the 21st century.

Forms of student work:group, individual, written, oral, paired.

Necessary technical equipment: computer, projector, presentation.

Lesson plan:

I. Organizational moment.

II. Learning new material:

1. What is history.

2. Historical sources.

3. History assistants.

4. Chronology

5. What the historical map will tell you about.

6. Consolidation.

7. Homework

8. Summary

Lesson progress:

1. Creating a problematic situation

Lesson progress:

I. Organizational moment.

II. Updating knowledge.

1. What do you see on the slides? Name those that you know.

The legendary singer Bayan, talking about bygone times, our Slavic ancestors meeting overseas merchants. The canvas by Vasily Ivanovich Surikov depicts the Russian commander Suvorov, making a heroic transition through high mountains Alps, this is a painting by Alexander Pavlovich Bubnov “Morning on the Kulikovo Field”. In the center is a photograph of a rocket, symbolizing our country's development of outer space.

2. Explain what unites the paintings (pictures of the past of our Motherland)

3. What do you think we will talk about in class today? About the science of history

4. What will help us in our work? Textbook,

2. Formation of the problem. (written on the board)

Today we will talk about history. This is a very interesting and fascinating subject. We will travel in time. Today we will be historians.

What is history? Why is history needed?

The word "history" has many meanings. We often say: “I’ll tell you an interesting story...” or “It happened to me. interesting story…»

III. Learning new material.

1. What is history.

Why is history needed?

– What assumptions do you have, versions of how to solve the problem?

Writes under the educational problem keywords, highlighted by the authors of the versions themselves:

1) learn about the past;

2) understand why it happened this way;

– Using a dictionary, explain what the word “history” means.

1) Working with a dictionary.

The concept of “history” has several interpretations - an incident; story about what happened (narration); science.

This is how the encyclopedic dictionary defines history: STORY (from the Greek historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned),

1) the process of development of nature and society.

2) complex of social sciences ( historical science), studying the past of humanity in all its specificity and diversity.Facts, events and processes are studied on the basis of historical sources, which are dealt with by source studies and a number of auxiliary historical disciplines.

Find out two meanings of the word:

1) history – development process human society;

2) history is science, helping to restore humanity's past;

So, history is a science that studies the past of people. Yesterday is already HISTORY.

2) Working with a historical source.

Read the text. Answer the questions and retell it.

HISTORY AS A SCIENCE

History is the science of the emergence and development of human society! Man has existed on Earth for about two million years. Human society develops and changes. The process of development of human society has its own laws, and history studies and explains these laws. History tells us how people lived many thousands of years ago. This science is playing big role in the study of the life of society and the culture of the people.

Answer the questions.

1.What is history as a science?History is the science of the emergence and development of human society!

2.What does history study?History tells us how people lived many thousands of years ago.

3. Why this science plays important role in the life of society?The process of development of human society has its own laws, and history studies and explains these laws.

Guys, you get basic knowledge of history from a school textbook.

Where else can you learn about the past?

I will help you, look at the table and read where else you can get knowledge on history. – But there is a problem, all the definitions of the terms are mixed up.

Guys, try to match the correct definition of each term.

Hypotheses:

2. Historical sources

How do historians learn about the past? After all, it is not there, it has passed, disappeared! It disappeared, but not without a TRACE, but leaving TRACES.

We are used to calling footprints or paw prints. Historians call traces everything that remains from the past that can tell us about the past.

Analyze the text “Historical Sources” using the following icons.

"Historical Sources"

History is a serious, complex science that studies the past different countries and cities, the lives of great people of different centuries. To distinguish legends from real historical facts, historians use special sources. All schoolchildren who study history know what a historical source is. This is one of the main concepts in science, because it is with the study of historical sources that the study of this or that begins. historical fact. A historical source is an object or document that belongs to a specific era. This object serves as a kind of witness to some event. It is with these indications that the analysis of a particular historical event begins, and ideas about the reason for the actions of a particular historical figure are formed.

Historical sources - any traces human activity, accidentally or deliberately left on the ground. This is the entire complex of documents and objects of material culture that directly reflect the historical process and individual facts and events, on the basis of which the idea of a particular historical era, hypotheses are put forward about the causes or consequences of certain historical events. Historical sources are very diverse. The entire set of historical sources in modern historical science is usually divided into the following groups:

1. Written sources are all kinds of writings, including literary works the era under study, inscriptions of various contents that have reached us;

2. oral;

3. Material sources are various monuments of material culture (remains of buildings, tools and weapons, household items, coins, etc.);

4. Ethnographic sources are customs, rituals, beliefs, etc.,

5. Linguistic sources are language data (vocabulary, grammatical structure etc.);

6. Folklore sources are monuments of oral folk art(stories, songs, fables, proverbs, etc.) that have come down to us thanks to the fact that they were subsequently written down;

7. cinema - photographic documents;

8. phonodocuments –sound recordings.

For example, in a cave that was a refuge for ancient people, rock paintings were discovered. The cavemen depicted a hunting scene on the wall, where several men are trying to shoot a bull with a bow, and the rest of the inhabitants are throwing spears at the animals. Such a picture immediately gives historians several realistic conclusions. Firstly, already in those years the inhabitants of the cave hunted, and secondly, they were interested in large prey, and since they killed the animal together, it means they mental development already then it was on high level. In addition, they already knew how to make primitive weapons.

Historical sources- this is all that can tell us about people’s past.

Even children's rhymes and sayings can be traces of the past. “It’s raining, it’s raining more, I’ll give you the thicket”! - children shout during the rain and do not even suspect that this is an ancient promise of a gift to the god of rain. It remains from the times when our ancestors believed in such gods.

2) Working with a historical source according to options.

Option 1. Source #1.

“Archaeologists found a lot of bones in a garbage pit in an ancient village. Most belonged to wild animals and birds, there were much fewer bones of domestic animals: dogs, pigs, goats; cow bones - not a single one. Marrow bones, including dog ones, are crushed by sharp stones. Many shards of pottery were found among the garbage.”

Draw conclusions from these findings:

1.What activities were familiar to the residents of the village?

2. What was more developed - cattle breeding or hunting?

3. Which animals have already been domesticated?

Option 2. Source No. 2.

Imagine that in the mountains you see an inscription carved on a rock:

“I, the great king, the mighty king, the king of kings, set out on a campaign to neighboring country. I defeated the enemy army, killed six thousand soldiers, burned twenty cities, took one hundred thousand men and women captive, stole horses, camels, and countless sheep. Whoever destroys this inscription, may the terrible gods punish him.”

What will this written source tell scientists?

3) Practical work. Physical exercise.

Divide the sources into physical and written.

If a written source is called, the first option comes up.

If the source is called real, the second option arises.

1. certificates 2. weapons 3. coins 4. clothes. 5. shoes 6. documents 7. tools 8. household utensils 9. diaries 10. epics 11. medals 12. memories.

Written: 1,6,9,10,12.

1. certificates

6. documents

9. diaries

10. epics

12. memories

Real: 2,3,4,5,7,8,11.

2. Weapons

3. coins

4. clothes.

5. Shoes

7. tools

8. household utensils

11. medals

5) Creative task :

Which historical information can you learn from Russian fairy tales?

Difficulties in “reading” sources: finding, understanding, saving.

3. History assistants.

By studying sources, scientists are reconstructing the past bit by bit. Sometimes this work is like a puzzle, unknown letters, language, material, and scientists need to put all the information together.

Guys, look at the screen, what do you see??? (Table)

Let's imagine that the table top is the story, and the legs are its helpers. Let's remove the legs from the table, will it be a table?

No.

This means that history will not exist as a science if it does not have assistants. And history is helped by the following sciences.

1) Working with a dictionary. Familiarize yourself with supporting historical disciplines.

Which ones do you know?

List the sciences that help history

1. – archeology 2. – paleography 3. – onomastics 4. – heraldry 5. – sphragistics 6. – numismatics 7. – genealogy 8. – metrology

1. – archeology – historical discipline , studying the historical past of mankind from material sources

2. – paleography – an auxiliary historical discipline (special historical and philological discipline) that studies the history of writing, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, as well as monuments of ancient writing in order to read them, determine the author, time and place of creation.

3. – onomastics - a science that studies proper names of all types and their origin.4. –5. –

4. – heraldry – studyingcoats of arms , as well as the tradition and practice of their use.

5. – sphragistics - an auxiliary historical discipline that studiesprint (matrices) and their imprints on various materials.

6. – numismatics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation.

7. – genealogy - an auxiliary historical discipline that studiespeople , history of childbirth, origin of individuals, establishment of family ties, compilation And .

8. – metrology – the science of measurements , methods And ensuring their unity and ways to achieve the required accuracy.

2) Blitz tournament

I offer you a Blitz tournament to determine what science studies the subjects that I will show you.

A leaf from an old book – paleography.
Medal - faleristics.
Coat of arms - heraldry.
Coin – numismatics.
Printing – sphragistics
Family tree – genealogy.
Flag - flag studies

Vexillology is a historical discipline that deals with the study of flags and banners. It is related to heraldry. Indeed, flags have many features in common with coats of arms; very often flags were just one of the ways to convey a coat of arms. But still, coats of arms and flags should not be identified. Although they are “birds of a feather,” there are plenty of differences in their history.

Scoop – archeology
Kettlebell – metrology

4. Chronology is the science of time.

People at all times valued time, learned to count it correctly and save it. This is especially important for history. Without knowledge of dates there can be no knowledge of history. I have to complete a task on knowledge of chronology. Let's remember the national holidays of the Russian Federation.

1. Work in pairs, mutual testing.

Public holidays in Russia. Match the holidays and their dates.

New Year;
Spring and Labor Day;
Defender of the Fatherland Day;
Nativity of Christ;

	XVII	XVIII

5. What the historical map will tell you about

“There are seas, but you can’t swim,

There are roads - you can’t go,

There is land - you can’t plow it. What is this?"

That's right - this is a historical map.

It is good to know history, to visually represent events to us, and a historical map helps.

Which states Ancient world have you studied?

I suggest comparing roman state V different periods his existence.

Roman Republic in 4th – 3rd centuries. BC

What answer to the main question of the lesson can we give? Whose versions were confirmed?

IV Consolidation.

“History is the past of humanity and the science of the past of humanity”

Supposed conclusion to the problem:

History is needed in order to understand the past and understand the present, and historical knowledge helps us with this.

APPLYING NEW KNOWLEDGE

1) work in groups

Do you think we, people of the 21st century, should remember what happened in the past? Formulate your position and argue (explain) it. Write down your answer.

Position

I believe that _____________

_________________________

Argument(s)

Because _______________

_________________________

Game technique:

Students take turns (or at will) to express their opinion about history, starting with the words"The world of history is...". The one whose judgment you like will win more classmates.

V . I would like to end the lesson with the words of the ancient Roman orator Cicero: “Not knowing history means always being a child.”

Let's study history so we can grow up!FORWARD! INTO THE WORLD OF HISTORY!

Definition of history.

History is the science of the past of human society and its present, of the patterns of development public life in specific forms, in space-time dimensions. The content of history in general is the historical process, which reveals itself in the phenomena of human life, information about which is preserved in historical monuments and sources. These phenomena are extremely diverse and relate to the development of the economy, the external and internal social life of the country, international relations, and the activities of historical figures. Accordingly, history is a multidisciplinary science; it is made up of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: the history of economic, political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion and others.

Methodology of history.

The methodology of history is a system of principles and methods of historical knowledge. Until recently, the most widespread were positivist and Marxist orientations in historical knowledge. The first is based on positive (positive) knowledge based on experience. The second is based on materialist dialectics.

Theories of historical process.

A theory is a logical diagram that explains historical facts. Theories of the historical process are determined by the subject of history. A theory is a logical diagram that explains historical facts. One theory of the historical process differs from another in its subject of study and system of views on the historical process. Each of the theories offers its own version of the vision of the historical process. According to the subjects of study, three theories of the historical process are distinguished:

Religious-historical;

World historical;

Local-historical.

The subject of study of religious-historical theory is the connection between man and God. From the point of view of this theory, the meaning of history lies in the movement of man towards God as the Supreme Mind, the Creator, during which the formation of a free personality occurs.

The subject of study of world-historical theory is the global progress of mankind. All peoples go through the same stages, only for some it happens earlier, for others - later. There are several directions in this theory:

Materialistic (the development of society is driven by the struggle between different classes, which ultimately leads to the construction of a classless society);

Liberal (in history there is always a choice of development path, which depends on a strong person);

Technological (changes in society occur as a result of technological development).

Local historical theory studies local civilizations: their origin, formation, flourishing, decline and death.

Subject of history.

The history of Russia is a scientific discipline that studies the process of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, and the formation of the main state and public institutions. National history is an integral part of world history. This approach is based on the philosophical categories of general and special. The use of these categories makes it possible to show the features of the development of Russia as a multinational, multi-confessional state, which has traditions that have developed over many centuries and its own principles of life. Scientific disputes about its belonging to any type of civilization do not stop today. It is easy to notice that in the past and present of Russia the features of various civilizations are intricately intertwined. Not without reason, a number of scientists claim the existence of a special type of civilization - Eurasian, to which our country belongs.

Therefore, when studying the course, it is necessary to combine a civilizational approach with formational characteristics. Russia is a civilizational region, the unique development of which is determined by natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional (religious), sociopolitical and other factors. The uniqueness of Russia and its role in the world cultural and historical process were significantly influenced by its border position between Europe and Asia, which led to the contradictory influence of the West and the East on Russia. At the same time, recognition of originality does not mean isolation of Russia from the general historical development; The history of Russia is considered within the framework of the formation of world civilization.

The past of every nation is unique and inimitable. In the historical development of the Russian state, it is necessary to highlight a number of determining factors, which include the geographical location, the influence of natural and climatic conditions, the geopolitical factor, the specifics of the spread of religious teachings (multi-confessionalism), religious tolerance, the multinational composition of the population, which has absorbed various traditions of both the East and the and the West. Finally, a significant role in the history of Russia is played by the peculiarities of the national consciousness of Russians and the specifics of their mentality (worldview), as well as traditions social organization- the absence of a rigid structuring of society and the undividedness, in contrast to the West, of the interests of society, the state and the individual - conciliarity. However, this does not mean the absence of corporate interests separate groups and segments of the population, especially closely related to servicing the institutions of state power and administration. On the other hand, the vast expanses of the Russian state, poorly populated by tribes of different languages and customs, poorly connected with each other, could only be governed with the help of a strong centralized government. Without this, the collapse of a unique ethnocultural community would have been a foregone conclusion.

Historical schools.

Historical research involves historiographical analysis. Historiography is the analysis of concepts already existing in scientific and autobiographical literature. Studying the works of historians allows you to determine your own research topic, not repeat paths already taken, and not waste time developing refuted hypotheses.

Historical research can only be recognized as scientific when it has a clearly defined subject, poses a problem, puts forward a hypothesis, and uses appropriate scientific methods, checks the reliability of sources, relies on the historiography of the issue and, finally, argues the author’s concept. Historical knowledge exists in the form of facts and concepts.

Historical school is a concept of the 18th - 19th centuries, since from that time scientists began to create scientifically based theories. Ancient historians explained events by the personal qualities of outstanding rulers and commanders, the morals and traditions of the country, irresistible fate, fate, fate. Medieval historians looked for the causes of events in God's will and drew analogies with biblical stories. Under the influence of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, history began to be viewed from the point of view of the moral improvement of mankind, the ascent from barbaric customs to civilization. Since the 19th century Social, economic, biological and other theories are used to interpret facts.

Public school. The greatest contribution to Russian historical science XIX century contributed by N.M. Karamzin, SM. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky.

The main work of N.M. Karamzin - “History of the Russian State.” The author's main idea is that Russia perished from anarchy and was saved by wise autocracy. The state was declared the highest value, and the ideal form of government was an enlightened noble monarchy with a patriarchal pre-Petrine way of life. The historian preferred Ivan III and Alexei Mikhailovich, who strengthened the state through gradual transformations, and not through the bloody reigns of Ivan the Terrible and Peter.

The most prominent representative of the state historical school was S.M. Soloviev, who wrote “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 books. He considered the main factors of history to be the nature of the country, the character of the people and the course of external events. State - highest form historical development, since only in the state the people gain the opportunity for progressive development.

IN. Klyuchevsky, who developed as a scientist at the state historical school, believed that history is influenced by various factors: natural, economic, ethnic, personal. He noted the important role of the process of colonization of new lands in Russian history, which led to an extensive path of economic development. From the historian’s point of view, the character of the Russian people was significantly influenced by the temperate continental climate and forest-steppe landscape, adaptation to which developed the habit of hard but short-term work, patience, a desire to change places, and everyday unpretentiousness. Considerable attention from V.O. Klyuchevsky paid attention to the psychology of behavior of rulers and social groups.

In modern Russian historical science, there are several influential scientific schools that form the basis for the analysis of the past various factors. None of the schools can claim to have absolute truth; each has strong and weaknesses, successes and failures.

Marxist direction. Representatives of the movement are based on the position that the material conditions of people’s lives determine their conscious activity. Social structure, politics, law, morality, ideology, and partly art and science depend on the method of production of goods. K. Marx called the dominant mode of production in combination with its inherent superstructure a socio-economic formation. Humanity progresses from lower to higher formations: from primitive, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist to communist. For the countries of the East, Marxism proposed a parallel formation - the Asian mode of production, which is based on community, collective and state ownership of land.

In slaveholding, feudal, capitalist formations, society is divided into classes. A class is a large group of people occupying a specific place in the production and distribution of goods, and this place depends on the ownership of the means of production. In the formation there are classes of exploiters (property owners) and exploited. The transition from one formation to another is associated with the improvement of technology, which creates new sources of wealth appropriated by new classes. Having become economically dominant, the new class seizes political dominance. K. Marx illustrated this scheme with examples of bourgeois revolutions in Europe.

Domestic historians of the Soviet period made a significant contribution to the development of Russian historical science. Their works, created within the framework of the Marxist movement, have largely not lost their significance in our time.

The strength of the Marxist historical school is the materialist explanation of the past, the priority study of economic relations, social structure, and public policy. The weak point is Eurocentrism (transferring the development experience of Western European countries to the whole world). The forecast about the inevitable transition of the most developed bourgeois countries to communism, which was considered as the pinnacle of technical and scientific progress and the liberation of the individual from exploitation, turned out to be erroneous.

Civilization school. The founders of this school were N.Ya. Danilevsky and A. Toynbee. The history of the world is considered as a process of development of local civilizations. A. Toynbee considered the place of origin and religion to be constant criteria of civilization. Civilization goes through several stages: birth, growth, flourishing, breakdown, collapse, death. It develops through the work of the “Call-Response” system. Any problem in life can be considered as a Challenge - an enemy attack, unfavorable nature and climate, fear of death. There is a solution to the problem. The answer is a reflection of aggression, forms of farming, religion. The progress of civilization is associated with the development of spiritual and material culture, which is carried out by creative individuals. The masses imitate the creative minority and are unable to create something new. The breakdown of civilization is characterized by the emergence of hostile groups within the elite. The collapse of civilization is associated with the degradation of the ruling class, which ceases to be interested in state affairs, and is engaged in personal enrichment and intrigue. The old elite is being replaced by a new elite, formed from unprivileged strata. In the phase of the collapse of civilization, great empires are created, which take as a model either their past (archaism) or the utopian idea of a new system (futurism). The death of a civilization is associated with its conquest by another civilization and the spread of a different culture.

The strength of the civilization school is that it explains the development of all regions of the world, and history is recognized as a multifactorial process, so that at different stages different factors can dominate: economic, political, religious. The weakness of the civilizational approach lies in the vagueness of the “Challenge-Response” criterion, which states more than explains. In addition, this approach practically does not take into account the role of the masses in history.

Theory of ethnogenesis. Developed in detail in the works of L.N. Gumilyov. The history of humanity seems to be the history of ethnic groups. Ethnicity is a group of people with their own stereotype of behavior, which is acquired by offspring through conditioned reflex imitation. The ethnos exists for no more than 1500 years, going through the following stages in its development: passionary impulse, acmatic phase, breakdown, inertial phase, obscuration, homeostasis, memorial phase, degeneration.

Each stage has its own stereotype of behavior - during the passionary impulse and in the acmatic phase, the ideals of sacrifice and victory prevail. Breakdown is characterized by the desire for success, knowledge, and beauty. In the inertial phase, the desire for improvement without risk to life prevails. Obscuration is marked by the predominance of the ideal of a quiet, philistine life adapted to the landscape. In the last phases, the ethnic group turns out to be unable to conduct a productive economy, create a culture, and gradually degrades.

The historical age of an ethnos depends on the amount of passionarity - the biochemical energy of living matter, which gives the ability to supercharge forces. Passionarity comes from space in the form of radiation, affects people's genes and is inherited. In the first stages, energy is in abundance - ethnic groups wage wars and colonization. Over time, the amount of energy decreases, and ethnic groups create a culture. All great empires were created by passionate ethnic groups, but through a certain amount Generations of energy diminished and empires perished. The reason could be either conquest from without or collapse from within.

The strength of the school of ethnogenesis lies in the explanation of events in world history on the basis of a measurable value - passionarity. The theory allows us to predict the future of ethnic groups. The weak side of the school of ethnogenesis is the lack of proof of the very concept of “passionarity”. History takes on the characteristics of biology, when all problems can be reduced to an excess or lack of energy.

Most modern Russian historians do not directly connect their research with one school or another. However, when creating concepts, one can trace the influence of one of these schools. Currently, researchers quite rarely rise to the level of generalizations within the framework of world history, preferring to study the history of individual regions and periods, to deepen existing ideas about the past of Russia at a new qualitative level.

Principles of historical science.

What do we understand by the principles and methods of historical science, historical research?

It seems that principles are the main, fundamental principles of science. They come from the study of the objective laws of history, are the result of this study, and in this sense correspond to the laws. However, there is a significant difference between patterns and principles: patterns act objectively, and principles are a logical category; they exist not in nature, but in the minds of people.

In modern historical science, the following basic principles of scientific research are applied: historical research: objectivity, historicism, social approach to the study of history, comprehensive study of the problem.

The principle of objectivity is one of the principles that obliges us to consider historical reality as a whole, regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and preferences of the subject. Considering history from the standpoint of this principle means that it is necessary, first of all, to study the objective laws that determine the processes of socio-political development; that it is necessary to rely on facts in their true content; that it is finally necessary to consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency, to study all the facts in their totality.

The principle of historicism is one of the most significant for any historical discipline, including the history of Russia. Any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when, due to what reasons (political, ideological) this phenomenon arose, what it was like at the beginning, how it was assessed then, how it then developed in connection with changes in the general situation and internal content, how it was replaced its role, what path it has taken, what assessments it was given at this or that stage of development, what it has become now, what can be said about the prospects for its development. The principle of historicism requires that any person who studies history should not fall into the role of a judge when assessing certain historical and political events. The principle of historicism obliges us to soberly take into account the real forces that certain political forces had at their disposal when implementing their ideas, programs and slogans in specific historical periods.

An important principle when studying the history of Russia is the principle social approach. In this regard, the point of view of the outstanding Russian scientist and thinker G.V. Plekhanov is not without interest, who wrote: “Where a historian has to depict the struggle of opposing forces, he will inevitably sympathize with one or the other... In this regard, he will be subjective... But such subjectivism will not prevent him from being a completely objective historian, unless he begins to distort the real economic relations on the basis of which social forces have grown" (Plekhanov G.V. Selected philosophical works. T. 1. M., 1956. P. 671 ). IN modern conditions Russian historians began to call the principle of party membership the principle of the social approach, meaning by it the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social-class relations: in political struggle, in the economic field, in the contradictions of social and class psychology and traditions, in inter-class and extra-class contradictions. The principle of the social approach provides for simultaneous adherence to the principles of subjectivity and historicism. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to political history is especially necessary and essential in the study and evaluation of programs and real political activities political parties and movements, their leaders and activists. A few words should also be said on the principle of comprehensiveness.

The principle of a comprehensive study of history implies not only the need for completeness and reliability of information, but also the fact that it is necessary to keep in mind and take into account all aspects and all relationships affecting the political sphere of society.

Thus, the principles of objectivity, historicism, social approach, and comprehensiveness of study are based on the dialectical-materialist methodology for the study of historical processes.

Historical knowledge.

Historical knowledge is the result of the process of historical knowledge of reality, tested by practice and justified by logic, its adequate reflection in the human mind in the form of ideas, concepts, judgments, theories.

Historical knowledge can be conditionally divided (according to methods of cognition) into three levels.

1) reconstructive knowledge - fixation of historical facts in chronological order - formed in the process of the reconstructive activity of the historian. In the course of this activity (usually using special historical methods - textual, diplomatic, source studies, historiographic, etc.) the historian establishes historical facts. Reconstructive knowledge, a reconstructive picture of the past, is created in the form of a narrative (story, narration) or in the form of tables and diagrams.

2) empirical historical knowledge - knowledge about the regularities and relationships between various facts, phenomena, processes - is the result of reconstructive processing. Its purpose is to clarify repetition in the process of historical development. In the course of such research, the historian establishes facts of a higher level - empirical (open regularities - similar signs of processes, typology of phenomena, etc.).

3) theoretical historical knowledge - knowledge about typology and repetition, regularity of facts, phenomena, processes, structures - explains empirical facts in the course of theoretical knowledge. The task of theoretical knowledge is to formulate a theory, i.e. identifying the laws of historical development (but not functioning. For example, political science studies the laws of the functioning of state institutions, and history studies the laws of their development. Economics studies the laws of the functioning of economic systems, and history studies the laws of their development. Etc.). The function of historical theory is to explain the regularities of the historical process and model its development.

Sometimes the place of theory can be taken by an ideological construct, but this has nothing to do with science.

Since historical cognition and knowledge are forms of social consciousness, their functions (i.e. tasks, methods and results) are socially determined. The functions of historical knowledge include:

The need for the formation of social self-awareness,

Satisfying the need for social education,

Needs for political activity and politics itself,

Needs to explain, foresee and predict the future.

Functions of historical knowledge.

Cognitive - identifying patterns of historical development.

Prognostic - foreseeing the future.

Educational - the formation of civic, moral values and qualities.

Social memory is a way of identifying and orienting society and the individual.

Requirements for specialists graduating from a university.

According to the new State Standard, higher education should prepare highly qualified specialists who can solve professional problems at the level of the latest achievements of world science and technology and at the same time become cultural, spiritually rich people professionally engaged in creative mental work, development and dissemination of culture.

A specialist of the 21st century must:

1. have good general scientific (general theoretical) training in the natural sciences, which he receives in the course of studying mathematics, physics and other disciplines.

2. have deep theoretical and practical knowledge directly in their specialty - veterinary medicine.

3. have good humanitarian, including historical, training, a high level of general culture, high qualities of a civic personality, a sense of patriotism, hard work, etc. A specialist must gain a fairly complete understanding of philosophy, economic theory, sociology, political science, psychology, and cultural studies.

Historical consciousness and its levels.

Humanitarian training in Russian universities begins with National history. In the course of studying history, historical consciousness is formed, which is one of the important aspects of social consciousness. Historical consciousness is the totality of ideas of society as a whole and its social groups separately, about its past and the past of all humanity.

Like any other forms of social consciousness, historical consciousness has a complex structure. Four levels can be distinguished.

The first (lowest) level of historical consciousness is formed in the same ways as everyday consciousness, based on the accumulation of direct life experience, when a person observes certain events throughout his life, or even takes part in them. The broad masses of the population, as carriers of everyday consciousness at the lowest level of historical consciousness, are not able to bring it into the system, to evaluate it from the point of view of the entire course of the historical process.

The second stage of historical consciousness can be formed under the influence of fiction, cinema, radio, television, theater, painting, and under the influence of acquaintance with historical monuments. At this level, historical consciousness also has not yet transformed into systematic knowledge. The ideas that form it are still fragmentary, chaotic, and not chronologically ordered.

The third stage of historical consciousness is formed on the basis of historical knowledge itself, acquired in history lessons at school, where students first receive ideas about the past in a systematized form.

At the fourth (highest) stage, the formation of historical consciousness occurs on the basis of a comprehensive theoretical understanding of the past, at the level of identifying trends in historical development. Based on the knowledge about the past accumulated by history, generalized historical experience, a scientific worldview is formed, attempts are made to obtain a more or less clear understanding of the nature and driving forces of the development of human society, its periodization, the meaning of history, typology, and models of social development.

The significance of the formation of historical consciousness:

1. It ensures that a certain community of people understands the fact that they constitute a single people, united by a common historical destiny, traditions, culture, language, and a common psychological traits.

2. National-historical consciousness is a defensive factor that ensures the self-preservation of the people. If it is destroyed, then this people will be left not only without a past, without its historical roots, but also without a future. This is a fact long established by historical experience.

3. It contributes to the selection and formation of socially significant norms, moral values, the formation of traditions and customs, the way of thinking and behavior inherent in a given people.

General history as a field of historical science deals with the fundamental problems of the world-historical process. She studies the history of mankind from primitiveness to modernity, analyzes the multivariate socio-political, socio-economic and cultural development of regions, countries and peoples of the world in different chronological periods and eras. It illuminates historical reality in concrete historical and theoretical aspects.

Historical science is based on a solid foundation of facts that have survived to our time. And yet, for an objective judgment about the events that took place in ancient times, these facts are sometimes not enough. And written sources of eras that are past and close to our time (chronicles, memoirs, official documents) sometimes suffer from contradictions, subjective assessments, inaccuracies, and ideological distortions. By analyzing sources and, therefore, expressing your assumptions, you can answer the main problems of history: what drives the development of mankind? what is the role of personality in history? how it changed daily life people? How did art, science, technology develop?

The past of humanity then becomes a force when it is closely connected with its present. By learning the history of mankind, you can better understand yourself and your place in the living and complex flow of modern historical events, of which every person is destined to be witnesses and participants.

Objects of material culture created and preserved by man, written monuments, customs, rituals and much more carry information about the distant past. This - historical sources. Scientists strive to attract as many such sources as possible, which allows them to more reliably recreate the historical process. For hundreds of thousands of years, knowledge about the past was passed on orally from generation to generation; it was preserved, changing, in the memory of mankind in the form of myths, legends, and heroic songs. It is sometimes not possible to separate fiction from phenomena and events that actually took place in ancient times. For a scientist, oral folk art is the most difficult, but perhaps also the most fascinating area of research.

World History divided by periods. Main periods of world history: Prehistoric era, Ancient world, Middle Ages, Modern times and Modern times.

Russian scientist V. P. Alekseev believes that the emergence of man began with the formation of the family of hominids and labor activity. He divides the history of human formation into the history of the primitive period and the history of the subsequent period.

Prehistoric era

Ancient world

The history of the Ancient World begins with the appearance of man on Earth. This period ends in 476 AD. e., when the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist. This is the longest period of time in human history.

People have strived to know their past at all times, even in ancient times. One of the first historians - Herodotus - in his historical essay along with a description of actual events, he cites fantastic tales he heard in different countries. History at that time had not yet become a science. Then there was no separation between real events and fiction.

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages lasted more than a thousand years - from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (476) to the end of the 15th century. It should be said that the boundaries of historical periods cannot always be determined with an accuracy of a century; they are quite arbitrary. For example, some historians attribute the end of the Middle Ages to the end of the Age of Discovery, which lasted from the mid-16th to the mid-17th centuries.

New time

Modern times are a period of world history that lasted in Europe from the Great Geographical Discoveries (1492) to the end of the First World War (1918). According to some periodizations, the end of the New Time is considered to be 1918, the year of the end of the First World War.

Modern times

Modern times began in the 20th century, and cover the present, 21st century.

History of continents and states

America

Europe

Asia

East Asia: China, Japan.

Africa

Historical states

A scholar-historian must necessarily check the reliability and veracity of any information that he wants to report. Everything that once happened, that was done, has come to pass, scientists call fact. Translated from Latin, this word means “done.” The historian must necessarily prove that what happened is a fact. This means that the word “fact” also has another meaning - “truth”, “truth”. But for a historian it is not enough to just name what happened on the basis of facts. He must establish how and why events actually happened this way. In addition, it is imperative to name the places of events and indicate when they occurred, that is, name the date (day, month, year, century).

By studying documents and material sources, scientists reconstruct historical events.

The researcher's work does not end there. There is nothing accidental in history. Therefore, it is important to determine what happened before and after the events being studied and to establish a connection between them. And finally, you should understand the significance of this or that event for the history of the country or the whole world. Material from the site

Methods of historical research

Historical-typological method

The historical-typological method is widely used in source studies. In particular, archaeologists use it when studying the historical sources of archaeological cultures, ordering and comparing typical (homogeneous) artifacts.

Historical-genetic method

Historical and genetic methods make it possible to connect in time and space the formation of individual peoples according to the information embedded in human genes. Genetic code All people are designed in such a way that everyone has 23 pairs of chromosomes, which store all hereditary information, inherited from both parents. When a chromosome is formed, about half is taken from the mother's chromosome and about half from the father's. At the same time, one male chromosome— Y is passed down entirely from father to son. After a certain number of generations, its mutations occur, and the more mutations, the more ancient the common ancestor. However, it is not entirely clear whether there is a clear correlation between mutation rates and equal time intervals.

History is one of ancient sciences humanity, the subject of which is the study of facts and events of the past, their cause- investigative link. The cradle of history is considered Ancient Greece. Its founder father is the famous ancient Greek historian and philosopher Herodotus (5th century BC).

Why study history?

What does the study of history give us? A question that probably every person asked himself. The answer to it is simple and obvious - by studying the past, we build our future, guided by the rich experience of the generation that lived many centuries before us. It is not for nothing that the most ardent connoisseurs of history, the ancient Greeks, called her “the teacher of life.” The study of history opens up to us a colorful world of past reality. We become direct participants in events that have sunk into oblivion, which affected the formation of modern human society. History has no unimportant pages, because every century lived by humanity carries an instructive and mentoring character.

The main difficulty in studying history is that all historical facts are based on the works of participants and observers of events, and in most cases they are filled with political subjectivism and share all the misconceptions of their time. Therefore, the main thing in the study of history is that it is not enough just to state historical events, but also to trace their influence on subsequent times.

What is history?

History should be treated not only as a scientific discipline, but also as a fascinating way to understand the past. Here everyone will find something interesting for themselves, because history is not only a chronicle of bloody wars and revolutions, but also vibrant medieval knightly tournaments, exquisite balls of the Victorian era, traditions of the Slavic peoples that are important and dear to every Russian heart.

History painstakingly works with eternal human values, but it never makes judgments itself. She gives us this right. She acts as an impartial observer of the life of humanity, never pointing out the perpetrators and victims. We must do this through a deep analysis of historical facts.

Knowledge of the past history

The process of learning about the past is mandatory for every person, because history has repeatedly amazed humanity with its cyclical nature. Some historical events tend to repeat themselves to this day, but in a more modified form. History shows the impossibility of changing the past so that a person thinks about how he builds the present, because in a few years this will already be added to its lists.

History must be studied in order to have the right to be truly called educated person. After all, to know and remember how the statehood of one’s country was born, what path the people took in order to become a full-fledged society, how the culture of mankind developed is the sacred duty of a person and a citizen.

Once a person begins to study history, he cannot stop this long and such interesting process, and often it lasts a lifetime. After all, history can be studied not only in archives and when working with artifacts. It surrounds us in our cities and villages, it lives in our grandparents, in our present. You just need to have a desire to join its mysterious and fascinating content.

Class: 5

Item: History of the Ancient World

Teacher: history and social studies

Sergeeva Sargylana Alekseevna

Lesson topic: “What history studies”

Lesson objectives:

Subject– students will be able to define history as a science, will be able to list historical sources, and will be able to characterize auxiliary historical disciplines;

Cognitive– students will be able to compare types of sources and name the distinctive features of each;

Regulatory– students will be able to make decisions in a problem situation, evaluate their activities in the lesson

Communicative– students will be able to express their opinions, learn to negotiate and come to a common decision in joint activities, working in pairs.

Personal– students will be able to express their opinion about the role of history in people’s lives, about the role of helping sciences.

Lesson type: lesson in learning new knowledge.

Goals:

Activity:

Forming in students the ability to reflect on a correctional-control type and implement a correctional form (fixing their own difficulties in activities, identifying their causes, constructing and implementing a project to overcome difficulties).

Consolidation and, if necessary, correction of the learned methods of action - concepts, algorithms.

Educational:

Determine the significance of the historical past for the present;

Using the knowledge of students, lead them to an answer to the problematic question that is expressed in the topic of the lesson.

Developmental:

continue speech development through answering questions;

continue the development of text skills

carry out an individual and differentiated approach (creative tasks);

develop thinking: the ability to compare, generalize, draw conclusions; develop cartographic skills.

Educational:

cultivate love for the Motherland;

a sense of pride in her past, present and future

development of cognitive interest in the subject;

for the purpose of aesthetic development, to instill in students a sense of beauty.

Objectives: as a result of studying the topic, students should be able to:

define the concepts of history, heraldry, historical sources, country, anthem, flag;

give examples of material, written and oral sources;

be able to correlate date and century;

know and name auxiliary historical disciplines;

develop the ability to fill out a table;

determine and explain your attitude to the events of the period under study;

solve educational and life problems from the perspective of a person in the 21st century.

Forms of student work: group, individual, written, oral, paired.

Required technical equipment: computer, projector, presentation.

Lesson plan:

I. Organizational moment.

II. Learning new material:

1. What is history.

2. Historical sources.

3. History assistants.

4. Chronology

5. What the historical map will tell you about.

6. Consolidation.

7. Homework

Lesson progress:

1. Creating a problematic situation

Lesson progress:

I. Organizational moment.

II. Updating knowledge.

1. What do you see on the slides? Name those that you know.

The legendary singer Bayan, talking about bygone times, our Slavic ancestors meeting overseas merchants. The canvas by Vasily Ivanovich Surikov depicts the Russian commander Suvorov, making a heroic transition through the high mountains of the Alps with his soldiers, this is the painting “Morning on the Kulikovo Field” by Alexander Pavlovich Bubnov. In the center is a photograph of a rocket, symbolizing our country’s exploration of outer space.

2. Explain what unites the paintings (pictures of the past of our Motherland)

3. What do you think we will talk about in class today? About the science of history

4. What will help us in our work? Textbook,

2. Formation of the problem. (written on the board)

Today we will talk about history. This is a very interesting and fascinating subject. We will travel in time. Today we will be historians.

What is history? Why is history needed?

The word "history" has many meanings. We often say: “I’ll tell you an interesting story...” or “An interesting story happened to me...”

III. Learning new material.

1. What is history.

- Why is history needed?

– What assumptions do you have, versions of how to solve the problem?

Under the educational problem, writes down the keywords highlighted by the authors of the versions themselves.:

1) learn about the past;

2) understand why it happened this way;

– Using a dictionary, explain what the word “history” means.

1) Working with a dictionary.

The concept of “history” has several interpretations - an incident; story about what happened (narration); science.

This is how the encyclopedic dictionary defines history: STORY(from the Greek historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned),

1) the process of development of nature and society.

2) a complex of social sciences (historical science), studying the past of mankind in all its specificity and diversity. Facts, events and processes are studied on the basis of historical sources, which are dealt with by source studies and a number of auxiliary historical disciplines.

Find out two meanings of the word:

1) history – development process human society;

2) history – science, helping to restore humanity's past;

So, history is a science that studies the past of people. Yesterday is already HISTORY.

2) Working with a historical source.

Read the text. Answer the questions and retell it.

HISTORY AS A SCIENCE

History is the science of the emergence and development of human society! Man has existed on Earth for about two million years. Human society develops and changes. The process of development of human society has its own laws, and history studies and explains these laws. History tells us how people lived many thousands of years ago. This science plays a big role in the study of the life of society and the culture of the people.

Answer the questions.

1.What is history as a science? History is the science of the emergence and development of human society!

2.What does history study? History tells us how people lived many thousands of years ago.

3. Why does this science play an important role in the life of society? The process of development of human society has its own laws, and history studies and explains these laws.

Guys, you get basic knowledge of history from a school textbook.

Where else can you learn about the past?

I will help you, look at the table and read where else you can get knowledge on history. – But there is a problem, all the definitions of the terms are mixed up.

Guys, try to match the correct definition of each term.

Hypotheses:

1. Archive
2. Library
3. Museum

1. Archive	B. Place of storage of authentic written monuments of the past
2. Library	B. A place where books are collected and stored in order to be read.
3. Museum	A. A place where monuments of the past (clothing, weapons, paintings) are stored, studied, and shown to visitors.

2. Historical sources

How do historians learn about the past? After all, it is not there, it has passed, disappeared! It disappeared, but not without a TRACE, but leaving TRACES.

We are used to calling footprints or paw prints. Historians call traces everything that remains from the past that can tell us about the past.

- Analyze the text “Historical Sources” using the following icons.

What I knew		Not clear, doubtful	I want to know

"Historical Sources"

History is a serious, complex science that studies the past of different countries and cities, the life of great people of different centuries. To distinguish legends from real historical facts, historians use special sources. All schoolchildren who study history know what a historical source is. This is one of the main concepts in science, because it is with the study of historical sources that the study of a particular historical fact begins. A historical source is an object or document that belongs to a specific era. This object serves as a kind of witness to some event. It is with these indications that the analysis of a particular historical event begins, and ideas about the reason for the actions of a particular historical figure are formed.

Historical sources are any traces of human activity, accidentally or deliberately left on the earth. This is the entire complex of documents and objects of material culture that directly reflect the historical process and individual facts and events, on the basis of which the idea of a particular historical era is recreated, hypotheses are put forward about the causes or consequences of certain historical events. Historical sources are very diverse. The entire set of historical sources in modern historical science is usually divided into the following groups:

1. Written sources are all kinds of works, including literary works of the era under study, inscriptions of various contents that have reached us;

2. oral;

3. Material sources are various monuments of material culture (remains of buildings, tools and weapons, household items, coins, etc.);

4. Ethnographic sources are customs, rituals, beliefs, etc.,

5. Linguistic sources are language data (vocabulary, grammatical structure, etc.);

6. Folklore sources are monuments of oral folk art (stories, songs, fables, proverbs, etc.) that have come to us thanks to the fact that they were subsequently written down;

7. cinema - photographic documents;

8. phonodocuments – sound recordings.

For example, in a cave that was a refuge for ancient people, rock paintings were discovered. The cavemen depicted a hunting scene on the wall, where several men are trying to shoot a bull with a bow, and the rest of the inhabitants are throwing spears at the animals. Such a picture immediately gives historians several realistic conclusions. Firstly, already in those years the inhabitants of the cave were hunting, and secondly, they were interested in large prey, and since they killed the animal together, it means their mental development was already at a high level. In addition, they already knew how to make primitive weapons.

Historical sources - this is all that can tell us about people’s past.

2) Working with a historical source according to options.

Option 1. Source No. 1.

“Archaeologists found a lot of bones in a garbage pit in an ancient village. Most belonged to wild animals and birds; there were much fewer bones of domestic animals: dogs, pigs, goats; cow bones - not a single one. Marrow bones, including those of dogs, are crushed by sharp stones. Many shards of pottery were found among the garbage.”

Draw conclusions from these findings:

1.What activities were familiar to the residents of the village?

2. What was more developed - cattle breeding or hunting?

3. Which animals have already been domesticated?

Option 2. Source No. 2.

Imagine that in the mountains you see an inscription carved on a rock:

“I, the great king, the mighty king, the king of kings, set out on a campaign to a neighboring country. I defeated the enemy army, killed six thousand soldiers, burned twenty cities, took one hundred thousand men and women captive, stole horses, camels, and countless sheep. Whoever destroys this inscription, may the terrible gods punish him.”

What will this written source tell scientists?

3) Practical work. Physical training.

Divide the sources into physical and written.

If a written source is called, the first option comes up.

If the source is called real, the second option arises.

1. certificates 2. weapons 3. coins 4. clothes. 5. shoes 6. documents 7. tools 8. household utensils 9. diaries 10. epics 11. medals 12. memories.

Written: 1,6,9,10,12.

1. certificates

6. documents

9. diaries

10. epics

12. memories

Real: 2,3,4,5,7,8,11.

4. clothes.

7. tools

8. household utensils

11. medals

5) Creative task:

What historical information can be gleaned from Russian fairy tales?

Difficulties in “reading” sources: finding, understanding, saving.

3. History assistants.

Guys, look at the screen, what do you see??? (Table)

Let's imagine that the table top is the story, and the legs are its helpers. Let's remove the legs from the table, will it be a table?

This means that history will not exist as a science if it does not have assistants. And history is helped by the following sciences.

1) Working with a dictionary. Familiarize yourself with supporting historical disciplines.

- which of them do you know?

List the sciences that help history

1. –archeology 2. –paleography 3. –onomastics 4. –heraldry 5. –sphragistics 6. –numismatics 7. –genealogy 8. –metrology

1. –archeology – a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources

2. –paleography – an auxiliary historical discipline (special historical and philological discipline) that studies the history of writing, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, as well as monuments of ancient writing in order to read them, determine the author, time and place of creation.

3. – onomastics - a science that studies proper names of all types and their origin.4. –5. –

4. – heraldry - a special historical discipline that deals with the study of coats of arms, as well as the tradition and practice of their use.

5. – sphragistics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies seals (matrices) and their impressions on various materials.

6. – numismatics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation.

7. – genealogy - an auxiliary historical discipline, deals with the study of family relationships of people, the history of clans, the origin of individuals, the establishment of family ties, the compilation of generational lists and family trees.

8. – metrology – the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and methods of achieving the required accuracy.

2) Blitz tournament

I offer you a Blitz tournament to determine what science studies the subjects that I will show you.

A leaf from an old book – paleography.

Medal - faleristics.

Coat of arms - heraldry.

Coin – numismatics.

Printing – sphragistics

Family tree – genealogy.

Flag - flag studies

Scoop – archeology

Kettlebell – metrology

4. Chronology – the science of time.

1. Work in pairs, mutual testing.

Public holidays in Russia. Match the holidays and their dates.

New Year;
Spring and Labor Day;
Defender of the Fatherland Day;
Nativity of Christ;
Victory Day;
Day national unity;
Russian Independence Day;
International Women's Day.

2. Independent work in notebooks, at the blackboard.

Write the centuries in Roman numerals.

5. What the historical map will tell you about

“There are seas, but you can’t swim,

There are roads - you can’t go,

There is land, but you can’t plow. What is this?”

That's right - this is a historical map.

It is good to know history, to visually represent events to us, and a historical map helps.

- Which states of the Ancient World have you studied?

- I propose to compare the Roman state in different periods of its existence.

Roman Republic in 4th – 3rd centuries. BC

What answer to the main question of the lesson can we give? Whose versions were confirmed?

IVConsolidation.

“History is the past of humanity and the science of the past of humanity”

Supposed conclusion to the problem:

History is needed in order to understand the past and understand the present, and historical knowledge helps us with this.

APPLYING NEW KNOWLEDGE

1) work in groups

Do you think we, people of the 21st century, should remember what happened in the past? Formulate your position and argue (explain) it. Write down your answer.

I believe that _____________

_________________________

Argument(s)

Because _______________

_________________________

Game technique:

Students take turns (or at will) to express their opinion about history, starting with the words "The world of history is...". The winner is the one whose judgment is liked by the largest number of classmates.