Required condition normal breathing - a certain concentration of oxygen in the air. If it is not enough, then disorders occur in the body.

At an altitude of 5500 m, i.e. almost at the height of Elbrus, the atmospheric pressure is half that on the surface of the earth and is equal to 380 mm Hg. Art. The partial pressure of oxygen also decreases sharply. If at an atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg. Art. it is equal to 159 mm Hg. Art., then already at an altitude of 5500 m it drops to 80 mm Hg. Art. This causes insufficient oxygenation of the blood and, consequently, insufficient supply of it to the nervous tissue, muscles and other organs. The so-called oxygen starvation. This is especially noticeable when climbing mountain peaks or when flying in an airplane at high altitudes, if there are no special hermetic cabins with a constant oxygen concentration that provides normal breathing person. When there is not enough oxygen, the pulse and breathing become more frequent, fatigue and muscle weakness appear, hearing and visual acuity are lost, cyanosis appears, and in severe cases even neuropsychic disorders. This condition is called altitude, or mountain sickness. Similar disturbances in the body occur at an altitude of 4000 m or more. The height of Elbrus is 5630 m, and the oxygen concentration at its peak is so low that a person cannot be there without prior training.

At the dawn of aeronautics, three French aeronauts flew hot air balloon. They rose to a height of 8000 m. Only one of the aeronauts remained alive, but he also sank to the ground in a very in serious condition. The conditions for human existence at high altitudes were not yet known at that time, and the death of balloonists served as an impetus for the study of these issues. The outstanding Russian scientist I.M. Sechenov then first established that the death of balloonists occurred because they did not have enough oxygen due to the rarefied air in the upper layers of the atmosphere.

With oxygen deficiency, breathing becomes more frequent and deepens. At the same time, more air passes through the lungs per minute and oxygen saturation of the blood increases, which causes the number of red blood cells in the blood to increase and the amount of hemoglobin to increase, and therefore the binding and transfer of oxygen increases. The heart also starts in 1 min. pump more blood than under normal conditions, and, most importantly, tissue resistance to oxygen deficiency increases.

To combat altitude sickness great value has training. It adapts the body to low oxygen concentrations.

After training, a person can be at an altitude of 5 thousand m and even rise to a greater height without experiencing unpleasant manifestations of altitude sickness. Thus, through training, climbers achieved that without oxygen devices in the Pamirs they climbed to 7495 m, and on Chomolungma (Everest) to 8400 m. The body has such great capabilities if it is trained correctly. Even thin ones chemical processes processes occurring in cells can adapt to living conditions.

INHALE AND EXHALE

The lungs never stretch or contract on their own; they passively follow chest. The chest cavity expands due to the contraction of the respiratory muscles, which primarily include the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

When inhaling, the diaphragm lowers by 3-4 cm. Lowering it by 1 cm increases the volume of the chest by 250-300 ml. Thus, only due to contraction of the diaphragm, the volume of the chest increases by 1000-1200 ml. When the intercostal muscles contract, they raise the ribs, which rotate somewhat around their axis, resulting in chest cavity is also expanding.

The lungs follow the expanding chest, stretch themselves, and the pressure in them drops. As a result, a difference is created between atmospheric pressure and pressure in the lungs. As the pressure in the lungs drops below atmospheric pressure, air rushes into the lungs and fills them. Inhalation occurs. After inhalation comes exhalation. During normal exhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, the chest collapses and its volume decreases. At the same time, the lungs also collapse, and the air is exhaled out. With a strong exhalation, the abdominal press is involved, which, straining, puts pressure on the intra-abdominal organs. They, in turn, put pressure on the diaphragm, which protrudes even more into the chest cavity.

With each inhalation a person does significant work. This work can lift 1 kg of load to a height of 8 cm. If this energy could be used, then in an hour a load of 1 kg would be raised by 86 m, and overnight by 690 m.

Men and women breathe slightly differently. Men have abdominal breathing, and women have thoracic breathing. Different type breathing depends on which muscles are predominantly involved in respiratory movements. In men it is the diaphragm, and in women it is the intercostal muscles. But these types of breathing are not constant; they can change depending on the nature and working conditions.

We have already talked about the pleural fissure. It is formed between two layers of the pleura and is hermetically sealed. The pressure in it is below atmospheric. This is very important, since breathing is impossible if, when the chest is wounded, air enters the pleural fissure and the pressure in it becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.

The entry of air into the pleural fissure (or pleural cavity) when the integrity of its walls is violated is called pneumothorax. It is successfully used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. The doctor pierces the chest with a special needle and injects a certain amount of gas into the pleural slit. The pressure in it is artificially increased, and the movement of the lungs is significantly limited, and this creates rest for the diseased organ. Pleural cells have the ability to absorb air, so after some time they completely remove gas from the pleural fissure and low pressure is again established in it. The therapeutic value of pneumothorax is very great.

If you find an error, please highlight a piece of text and click Ctrl+Enter.

Tips and instructions

Part I

Elbrus - the highest point in Russia and Europe

Elbrus is an adornment and symbol of the entire Caucasus, a huge and majestic massif dominating the entire mountainous country. From the point of view of non-emotional science, this is extinct volcano in the central part of the Caucasus Mountains, located slightly north of the Main (Watershed) Range. The generally accepted name is of Persian origin, local names adopted by the Balkars, Karachais (Mingi-Tau) and Kabardians, Circassians (Oshkhamakho), have now found their place as the names of hotels, restaurants, and no one is seriously trying to challenge the main name. The word "Elbrus" has entered all Caucasian languages ​​and men with this name can be found among people from completely different nations.

The Asian origin of the name Elbrus only confirms that Elbrus is located in Asia rather than in Europe. In Soviet times, there was quite a long discussion on the topic of drawing the border between Europe and Asia. The main geographical authorities of the country, Tanfilyev, Dobrynin, Shchukin, Gvozdetsky, attributed the Greater Caucasus to Asia. The Geographical Society of the USSR held a special meeting on this issue in 1958. It was customary to consider the Kuma-Manych depression, which was once a strait between the Caspian and Black Seas, to be the border of two parts of the world. This provision was included in school textbooks and I remember very well how I proudly traced the map with a pointer: Ural Mountains - Ural River - Kuma-Manych Depression. True, the learned geographers themselves admitted that, in natural terms, the Black Sea region and the Kuban lowland should be classified as Europe. It is interesting that in an article devoted to this topic, Nikolai Gvozdetsky refers to the opinion of geographers of the Transcaucasian republics. They unanimously classify their countries as Europe, and North Caucasus- to Asia.

Everyone knows that the British, in principle, are not very interested in the opinions of their eternal opponents from Russia. And this time we thank them very much for this! The inclusion of Europe among the seven continents is a purely political decision, which considers itself a special European civilization. This is probably logical and fair. The inclusion of the Caucasus into Europe by European (English) scientists was apparently purely mechanical. They did not have meetings like ours. The Encyclopedia Britannica is considered by them to be a kind of “book of laws” and it identified Elbrus in Europe. Thank you!

Geological phenomenon of Elbrus

Elbrus is an extinct volcano with two peaks almost equal in height. The lower, Eastern peak (5621 m) has a clearly defined “horseshoe” crater, while the crater of the Western peak (5642 m) is more destroyed and obscure. Both peaks and both their craters are considered by geologists as new formations inside another, large and old crater.

Geologists say that 10-12 million years ago, in the place of the current mountains, there was the so-called Greater Caucasus Marginal Sea of ​​shallow depth, and about 5 million years ago, mountain growth began here, and it was most intense at first within the former shelf. Exactly central part Greater Caucasus (Elbrus, Kazbek region), which was included in mountain formation earlier than others, and became the highest in this region. But then it rose like an island among the seas and lakes that washed it - some of them were still discovered by primitive man.

The formation of Elbrus dates back to the time when the Caucasus mountains already existed, in fact we're talking about about the last 1.5 - 2 million years. As a result of tectonic disturbances that occurred at that time earth's crust, consisting of hard granite-crystalline rocks, a huge amount of molten lava erupted from the bowels of the earth. It is believed that the first eruption was of colossal force. Much later, when the molten masses had already cooled and began to undergo destruction, the newly awakened volcano ejected new masses of lava from its depths. This went on for many thousands of years: the volcano either subsided or resumed its activity again, and gradually, over many millennia, the main cone of the mountain was formed.

The last major eruption was about 2,500 years ago, and the last lava eruptions are only about a thousand years old. Strabo (1st century AD) has a depiction of Elbrus as active volcano. Nowadays, Elbrus practically does not remind of itself as a volcano. There are many stories about gases coming out in the area of ​​the saddle, there are warm mineral springs... Although there are countless predictions that predicted a new eruption, it is not yet in sight.

Elbrus is one of the most gentle high-mountain volcanoes. Its slopes are covered with a thick layer of ice, which smoothes out the steepness and unevenness of the volcanic pyramid.

The total area of ​​Elbrus glaciers was recently estimated at 130 km2 and is currently shrinking annually and exact figure no one knows. The most famous glaciers: Big and Small Azau, Terskol. All of them are retreating, due to which there is a constant change in landscapes - new lakes appear, trails change.

Climate

In general, the Central Caucasus region belongs to the zone of temperate continental climate, with a clearly defined altitudinal zone. There is significantly less precipitation here than in Black Sea coast and more than in the eastern regions. The Caucasus Mountains are located generally along the parallel, acting as a barrier to the northern winds, thanks to their high altitude they act as the main climate-forming factor in the region.

The very complex terrain of the territory, a significant difference in absolute heights above sea level, the influence of glaciers, the proximity of the Black Sea and a large volume of air exchange with the free atmosphere - all this ensures a rather sharp difference in the climatic features of the Elbrus region from others, even nearby ones. Elbrus is the most important climate-forming factor. This, in particular, significantly complicates the ability to accurately predict the current weather.

In general, the Elbrus region is distinguished by relatively high daytime air temperatures, although average daily fluctuations can be 19 - 22 degrees. The wind regime varies greatly depending on the height and location of the place - from the usual calm at the bottom of the valley to frequent hurricanes above 4000 m. Climbers climbing Elbrus must be prepared even in summer for arctic cold and strong winds. Average annual precipitation depends on altitude (increases with altitude) and ranges from 700 to 1200 mm and in individual years can increase to 950 mm in the valley.

During the year, westerly winds prevail at all altitudes. Mountain-valley winds are typical in the valleys. In Terskol and Azau, as a rule, there are no stormy winds. As you climb, their likelihood increases. At altitudes of more than 4000 m (the height of the rocks in the area of ​​​​the Shelter - 11 site), winds of storm force (up to 15 m/s) and hurricane force are observed; in February, at a temperature of -40 degrees, winds reach strengths of up to 40 m/s and higher. And they all blow from the west...

The northern Elbrus region is located in the so-called “rain shadow” zone, the strip between the Main Caucasus Range and the Rocky Range. The winds that bring the largest amount of moisture come here having lost their moisture. As a result, the amount of precipitation in these regions is an order of magnitude less than in the southern Elbrus region. Total amount: 400-600 mm per year, however, on the slopes of Elbrus itself the amount of precipitation is higher, although it does not reach the values ​​of the southern slope.

History of the region

The territory of the Elbrus region has been inhabited since ancient times. There are numerous archaeological sites testifying to this. The Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans, then the Sindians, Meotians, Zikhs, Kerkets and other peoples were the ancestors of the Adyghe tribes (Kabardians, Circassians, etc.), who for a long time dominated the lowland territories adjacent to Elbrus. The Balkar or Karachay-Balkar people were formed as a result of the mixing of North Caucasian and Alan tribes with the Bulgarians and Kipchaks who settled in the foothills of the Caucasus. For hundreds of years it has occupied a niche in the mountain valleys of the Central Caucasus. The Kabardino-Circassian language is part of the Abkhaz-Adyghe group of the Iberian-Caucasian family of languages. The Balkar language belongs to the Kipchak group of the Turkic family of languages.

At the beginning of the 13th century there were global changes, in connection with the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar conquerors, the ancestors of the Balkars, after a long struggle, retreated to the mountains. In subsequent periods, part of the Circassians received the name Kabardians and occupied modern territory resettlement. The Balkars in the mountain gorges were divided into 5 mountain societies that lived almost in isolation. The Baksan Gorge, which does not have natural protection in the form of narrowing mountain ranges, was without a permanent population for a long time. The ancestors of modern Balkars built permanent dwellings here only in the 18th century.

Russia's colonization of the Caucasus is a long process that intensified in the mid-18th century. Completion of the process of including the Elbrus region into the Russian Empire can be attributed to the years 1827-1829, when the regular armed resistance of the Karachay communities ceased... The almost hundred-year period of tsarist rule took place differently in different regions of the Caucasus. The Elbrus region was one of the most stable. The local Balkar community was structured under the control of the Urusbiev princes, who more or less successfully controlled all aspects of life in the region. In the process of communicating with guests from abroad and later from Russia, the princes were imbued with the ideas of enlightenment and stood out favorably against the general, rather sad background of the Caucasian reality of those years...

After the revolutions of 1917, turbulent events took place in the region, power changed several times, and a lot of blood was shed. Only in March 1920 did the Red Army establish full control over the territory of Kabarda, Balkaria and Karachay... In January 1921, Kabarda and Balkaria, as administrative districts, became part of the Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The political and administrative structure was finally enshrined in the 1936 Constitution of the USSR. During this period social structure society changed significantly, one way or another, the entire former elite of local peoples was eliminated. Including, little remains of the large Urusbiev family. The course towards industrialization and accelerated development of the country, the focus on new generations, in the mountainous regions found expression in the rapid development of tourism, in the emergence of roads, tourist centers, etc... Mountain peoples are more widely involved in the life of the country, education is becoming universal, radio and newspapers appear, people from Russia, Ukraine and other regions settle in the mountains...

During the war, closer to the truth...

In the summer of 1942, troops of the fascist coalition broke through the defenses of Soviet troops in the Rostov region. Events developed at lightning speed, ours retreated, the enemy invaded the North Caucasus. Soviet troops, by decision of Headquarters, hastily retreated to the borders of the Caucasus Mountains, Sunzhensky and Tersky ranges, offering only sporadic resistance. German and Italian troops (in their army there were also Romanian units, as well as formations of Cossacks and individual nationalities of the Caucasus) occupied city after city, village after village, approaching the mountainous regions. At this time, in Rostov, Captain Heinz Groth received an order from his superiors to climb to the top of Elbrus and hoist a fascist flag on it. It is generally accepted that this task was carried out by the elite units of the Edelweiss division. However, in reality, according to Grotto’s recollections, he hastily assembled a group of different parts located near the city. He himself had not been to the area before, and no one from his group had been to the Caucasus before, no one had even seen a map of Elbrus before... As for the “shooters from Edelweiss,” they arrived in the Caucasus later, actively participated in the hostilities, especially in its western part, where the Nazis made attempts to break into Transcaucasia. There were no active hostilities in Dombay and the Elbrus region at that time, but the Edelweiss men managed to remove wonderful videos for newsreels showing that these were real professionals.

Grot's group moved to the front line and was transferred to Karachay, where, out of nowhere, their own military formations arose, considering themselves representatives of an independent state. The Germans found with them common language and soon reached the Khotyu-Tau pass. At this time, a group of our military was at the Shelter of Eleven. By deception, Groth managed to convince them to vacate the premises, which they might not have been able to take by force. According to another, perhaps more accurate point of view, only meteorologists were at the Shelter, and the military at that moment went down to clarify the situation.

After resting for a day, Grot’s group set out to climb. The weather was not favorable, but the command was in a hurry, as there were rumors that the SS men wanted to climb up the northern slope first. It was not an easy walk, we had to go out more than once, at first we returned altogether due to bad weather, then the flags were not installed at the top. Moreover, on the descent one or two climbers died; they probably got lost in the fog and fell. However, the flags were installed on the twentieth of August 1942, and this was filmed. It is interesting that the newsreels included footage of the ascent in clear weather. Later it turned out that they were filmed by the leading mountain cameraman of those years, Hans Ertl, but... in the Austrian Alps!

It is well known what a fit of anger this news caused in Hitler. He burst into a prolonged hysteria about the fact that they came to the Caucasus not to engage in mountaineering, but to fight. Apparently, this was reported to the possessed dictator at the wrong time. Captain Grot, who carried out the order, received some kind of reward for climbing Elbrus and a vacation, during which he managed to replenish his family. By the way, he lived a long life and died in 1994.

Subsequently, Soviet troops carried out several unsuccessful attacks on the Shelter, and quite a lot of soldiers died, mainly from our side. The battle on September 27, 1942 was especially stubborn. Later, the Nazis occupied Terskol and held it until the start of a general retreat associated with the events at Stalingrad. After the liberation of the area, a group of climbers Soviet army and volunteers from among the Svan militias climbed to the top of Elbrus and instead of the fascist banner they strengthened the Soviet flag. This happened on February 17, 1943, the names of the heroes are inscribed in the history of the region, the history of the country: A. Gusev, E. Beletsky. N. Gusak, Y. Odnoblyudov, A. Sidorenko, B. Grachev, G. Khergiani, B. Khergiani, V. Kukhtin, N. Morenets, A. Gryaznov, A. Bagrov, N. Persiyaninov, L. Karataeva, G. Sulakvelidze, A. Nemchinov, V. Lubenets, E. Smirnov, L. Kels and N. Petrosov...

Post-war period and present

In March 1944, the Balkars and Karachais were resettled to the regions of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The deserted villages were partly inhabited by Circassians, Kabardians and Svans, and partly simply abandoned. In 1957, a decree was issued on the restoration of the national autonomy of the Balkar and Karachay peoples... At the same time, an extensive program began to transform the area into a zone for the development of mass tourism... Hotels and cable cars began to be built, an asphalt road was laid, and the infrastructure necessary for development was created. The pace of development of the region, especially in the early years, was very fast. The Elbrus region has become a fashionable and crowded resort. Although already in the 70s the pace of development decreased, clearly stagnant phenomena began to appear.

The Declaration of Sovereignty was adopted by the Supreme Council of the CBD on January 31, 1991. On July 1, 1994, the Russian Federation and the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic signed the Agreement “On the delimitation of jurisdiction and mutual delegation of powers between public authorities Russian Federation and government bodies of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic."

The changes in the country that occurred in the early 90s had an ambiguous impact on the development of the region. Significant objective difficulties have arisen associated with the destruction of old structures. The formation of a new image of the region has been delayed, despite the adopted development programs for the region. Along with positive points The development of market mechanisms still cannot ensure that the region reaches the levels of the 80s in terms of the number of tourists and climbers visiting the region. New hopes are associated with the establishment of stability in the region as a whole and with the activities of the new administration of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic under the leadership of the energetic and businesslike President Arsen Kanokov.

Very briefly on the history of mountaineering on Elbrus

The first ascent of Elbrus was made from the north in 1829 by the conductor of the Russian military-scientific expedition, Kilar Khashirov. He, by order of the commander, General Emmanuel, and for the promised reward, climbed to the Eastern Peak.

In 1868, three Englishmen (Douglas Freshfield remained as the leader in history) and two Balkar guide-porters Akhiya Sottaev and Dyachi Dzhappuev ascended along a different route from the south. In 1874, three Englishmen climbed the Western Summit with a Swiss guide, Peter Knubel. The first Russian climber and the first person to climb both peaks of Elbrus was the famous topographer, explorer of the Caucasus Andrei Vasilyevich Pastukhov, this was in 1890 and 1896...

During the entire pre-revolutionary period, 29 human ascents were made.

During Soviet times, Elbrus became the object of mass ascents. Statistics give the following data: 1929 - 36 ascents, 1930 - 48, 1931 - 87, 1933 - 386, 1935 - 2016! In the thirties, the tradition of mass alpiniads arose, in which hundreds of climbers took part. For a long time, the starting point for climbing was the famous “Shelter of the Eleven,” built before the war. In 1998 it burned down, but this did not stop the flow of climbers. Thousands of climbers climb to the top every year, although exactly how many are unknown; unfortunately, there are no uniform statistics. It should be noted that a significant part are foreign climbers, who are attracted precisely by the status of the peak, as highest point Europe. Elbrus is included in the prestigious list of “seven highest peaks of seven continents” for conquest.

In 1914, Swiss climbers Egger and Miescher climbed Elbrus on skis. However, it cannot be said definitely that this was the first descent, since the technology of those years did not allow them to fully descend. So the Italian communist Leopoldo Gasparotto (1929) or even the Muscovite Vadim Gippenreiter (1939) may have more rights to the first descent.

Serious development skiing in the Elbrus region began in the late fifties, when construction began on cable cars and hotels in the region. By the mid-60s, competitions and training camps were held here, and camp sites and hotels operated. Also, for a long time there was a sports school in Terskol, which trained many good athletes. In the mid-70s, the construction of cable cars to Elbrus and Cheget was declared completed. I would like to give a kind word to the pioneers of the development of the slopes of the region: Yuri Mikhailovich Anisimov and Alexey Alexandrovich Maleinov.

A new development plan has now begun to be implemented ski resort Elbrus region. The plan is grandiose and we are even afraid to talk about it out loud so as not to scare it away.

Climbing routes to Elbrus

According to the mountaineering classification Elbrus, the classic route is rated as 2A snow and ice, the passage of both peaks is 2B. There are other, more difficult routes, for example Elbrus (W) along NW rib 3A. There is also a grandiose Kyukurtlyu wall, made of volcanic rocks; it is a continuation of the western shoulder of Elbrus. There are routes on this wall highest category- up to 6b.

The standard climb to Elbrus begins from the Azau clearing at an altitude of 2200 meters. Usually climb to cable car(two lines) and then on the chairlift to Garabashi station (3800 m), where the “Bochki” shelter is located. IN recent years The activity of development of the Elbrus region has increased greatly and there is every reason to expect that in the coming years the structure of ski lifts and shelters will undergo significant changes.

The classic climbing route goes from Shelter 11, between two characteristic rock ridges, through the Pastukhov Rocks, then traverse to the saddle and further to the peaks of Elbrus. The ascent will require 7-8 hours for an average climber, the descent - 3-4 hours. summer time There is a clearly visible trail all the way. You should wear crampons! In summer, ice outcrops are rare, but there are areas of hard firn. At other times, this path may have long sections pure ice, from the end of the “ridges” to the beginning of the traverse. In this case, the route is accessible only to trained athletes. The long descent (3.5 km with a steepness of about 30°) is especially dangerous.

Further, the path goes up, slightly to the left (you can’t go far to the left, so as not to end up among the cracks) and is marked with markers. The steepness in some areas reaches 30°. About a kilometer from the saddle, the trail smoothly turns to the left, going around the rocky outcrops of the foot of the Eastern Peak from below. In this area, you can sometimes smell sulfur dioxide coming from the fumaroles on the southern slope. The steepness of the slope on the inclined traverse is 15°, in some places up to 25°. Further, the trail comes out to a saddle, which is a huge sloping snow field, with outcrops of stones, blown by north-west winds. If there is no wind, it can be quite warm here around 10 am. Climbers almost always take a break here before the decisive effort. Many decide wisely to abort the climb. When you reach the saddle, on the left along the way there are the remains of a destroyed hut; not far from it there are some glacial cavities where you can hide from the hurricane wind or even spend the night if necessary. The new hut, made according to the original design, took several years to build and was put into operation at the end of the summer of 2010. However, it did not last long; already in October the hut was destroyed by the wind.

Nowadays people rarely go to the Eastern peak from the saddle. There are several options for climbing through snow and scree; it takes 1.5-2 hours from the Saddle. The ascent to the Western Peak is along a steep snow-ice slope to the lower boundary of the rocky ridge (crampons are required). In this area, breakdowns periodically occur, with unpleasant, including tragic, consequences. You have to be very careful in positioning your feet. The steep section ends with access to the summit plateau. In the distance you can see the Western Peak, which rises ten meters above the almost flat area. At the very top, as if there was a specially placed summit stone, hung with souvenirs and memorial signs. It’s good that there is a characteristic place where you can take a photograph that clearly confirms the fact of the ascent. The usual time to climb from the saddle is 2 hours.

Climbing Elbrus gives you the opportunity to see the unique panorama of the Caucasus from above. The peaks, which seem huge from Shelter 11, gradually go down and are leveled into a continuous sea of ​​peaks and ridges. The dawn leaves a special impression when the rays rising sun in the west, a huge shadow from Elbrus rises above the horizon. Shadows from other peaks merge into a continuous purple stripe - the border between day and night.

Route from the west

In summer, thousands of climbers climb Elbrus from the Baksan valley. It’s great when there are so many like-minded people around, you meet old friends and meet new ones. But not everyone and not always is happy about it. This does not benefit direct communication with mountain nature. But very close, beyond the pass, there are routes on which you may not meet a single person. Our groups, following to the summit of Elbrus from the west, can feel the spirit of pioneers, without finding a single trace of their predecessors on their way. The route from the west begins from mineral springs called Karachay Dzhilisu. Further the path passes through a rarely visited gorge. In the lower part the route is ambiguous and presents a certain technical difficulty. Therefore, we recommend that you go out there only accompanied by an experienced, knowledgeable guide. But above 4000 meters, above the assault camp, the path to the top goes straight, with a smooth climb and brings real pleasure. Although we should not forget that weather conditions on Elbrus can change dramatically.

Route from the north

In addition to the route from the south, which is followed by the vast majority of climbers, there is a northern route, where small shelters have also been built.

The first ascent of Elbrus was made in 1829. It has been described many times in historical and mountaineering literature. Reread it, and you will certainly want to follow the path of General Emmanuel and guide Killar Khashirov. It is not difficult to organize, it is better with the help of our company. The route itself leaves quite a different impression from the standard route. There are few places in the world where everyone gets feelings similar to those expressed by Sergei Kirov with the words “What space!” Indeed, in the absence of nearby mountains comparable in height, Elbrus seems unusually gigantic. Great mountain!

Currently, there are two shelters on the northern slopes, two starting points for the assault. Although they are located somewhat low, at about 3800 meters. However, it is still better to use your own camps, with your own tents and services. And set up camps away from the established trail, and away from the shelters.

The route is a fairly smooth climb, passing along the rocks named after the participant of the first ascent, Academician Lenz. Before reaching them, you have to walk along the glacier, where new cracks may suddenly appear. To prevent the condition of the slope from bringing unpleasant surprises, go out on the route with a guide.

One nuance - as a rule, climbers from the north are limited to climbing to the nearest, Eastern peak of Elbrus. The path to Western is simply very long, and yet you still need to return. That's why the best option we count the ascent from the north to the East Summit, the traverse to the West Summit and the descent to the south. After semi-expedition wanderings, you will go straight down to habitable places with hotels, showers and restaurants.

Ascent speed

In September 2006, the famous Kazakh climber Denis Urubko ran to its western peak from the Azau clearing in less than 4 hours. In 2010, 22-year-old Pole Andrzej Bartel significantly improved the record, showing a time of 3 hours 23 minutes 37 seconds. Whoever can, let him improve this time. In 2009, the winner of the race was the leading guide of the Alpindustriya company, Sergey Fursov, his time was 4 hours 19 minutes... But these figures should not relax climbers who are going to the summit for the first time. For ordinary person It’s better not to rush and plan acclimatization and the ascent itself very seriously.

Dangers of Elbrus

Elbrus is one of the most visited mountains in the world and, alas, one of the deadliest. Not to say bloody, because the vast majority of those killed freeze to death. People die when caught in sudden bad weather or lost their way in the fog. They often fall into cracks, which are full of them away from the main routes.

Elbrus is cunning and does not tolerate being treated lightly.

You should always remember the sad statistics

From an interview with Boris Osmanovich Tilov, head of the rescue service of the Elbrus region, taken by Alexey Trubachev.

Alexey Trubachev. How many people, on average, die on Elbrus every year?

Boris Tilov. I can say that, on average, from 15 to 20 people die on Elbrus per year. This accounts for about 80% of the total statistics for the region. The reason, in my opinion, is that Elbrus, unlike difficult mountaineering routes, is visited by people who are disorganized, poorly equipped, and sometimes do not even bother to register and get advice from the rescue service. We can say that 95% of accidents occur with so-called “wild” tourists who do not have sufficient qualifications or itinerary documents. Even if such people are not here in the mountains for the first time, with their self-confidence they put themselves and those around them at great risk.

A.T. Boris Osmanovich, and yet, what in your opinion is the most common, main cause of accidents on Elbrus?

B.T. Firstly, the most important thing is the attitude of climbers towards Elbrus. In appearance, Elbrus is a very simple mountain. And many are mistaken in believing that this is so. They start the climb late, walk, losing their last strength, to the very top, and on the descent they find themselves either in bad weather or in darkness. The result is the same - they go astray and die in the cracks. Or they freeze. Another reason - abrupt change weather. Weather conditions on Elbrus can change in just half an hour. It is very difficult to navigate in the absence of visibility, and it is very easy to lose your way. The result is the same - cracks... Thousands of cracks more than a hundred meters deep... It is very easy to fall into them, and it is almost impossible to find the victim.

There was a case when climbers, descending to the south, went far to the north, towards Pyatigorsk. They were found 15 kilometers from Elbrus. At the same time, the group leader climbed Elbrus 40 times... This shows how difficult it is to navigate Elbrus in bad weather. Even an experienced guide can get lost, what can we say about people who encountered this mountain for the first time... Due to bad weather, Tenzing, the first climber of Everest, refused to climb Elbrus. This fact speaks for itself...

The next reason is insufficient acclimatization. Many people overestimate their strength and are in a hurry to ascend. And sometimes they even rise. But there is no strength left to descend, the weather is deteriorating and it is getting dark. The probability that a person will survive until the next morning if he has not reached the base is very small...

After the publication of this interview, in May 2006, a group of climbers consisting of 12 people attempted to climb Elbrus. As a result of bad weather and loss of visibility, the participants got lost and then froze while trying to camp for the night in the Saddle area. Of the entire group, only one person returned down.

Statistics of the 7 peaks (the highest peaks of the continents) and their absence

In total, the list of Aconcagua victims includes 126 people. On Everest - 211 dead. On Elbrus, official statistics absent, but there are clearly more of them than on Aconcagua and, perhaps, less than on Everest. There are no statistics on Kilimanjaro either; the numbers should be close to Aconcagua, if you don’t count (and no one does) the local porters working in terrible conditions. There have been fewer deaths on McKinley, with the 100th death recorded last year.

Weather conditions and the condition of the route are the two main problems that worry experienced Elbrus climbers. Climbing in bad weather or when poor prognosis It's better not to start. The main number of deaths on the slopes of the mountain are those who simply lost the right path in conditions of lack of visibility.

The presence or absence of areas of “bare” ice on the route determines its technical complexity. IN good conditions Sometimes you can even do without cats. But when a belt of “bottle” ice appears in winter, or more often in spring, even outstanding ice climbers get excited. Organizing insurance over a long section seems like too much time. Therefore, they walk very, very carefully, but without insurance. One wrong move and... Fly to the end of the slope. Fortunately, there is almost never ice in the summer.

If you are lucky in these two positions, then climbing Elbrus may not be difficult for you at all. But no matter how lucky you are, you will certainly encounter one problem. This is your body's reaction to changes. external conditions. To altitude, to solar radiation, to cold, to other unfavorable factors. For most climbers, this becomes a test of their altitude tolerance.

For a long time, scientists and climbers have encountered in the mountains the phenomenon of decreased performance of the body. Scientifically speaking, there is a sharp increase or rather a disorder of cardiovascular activity, respiratory, digestive and nervous systems, especially in the first days of being at altitude. In many cases, this led to the development of acute mountain sickness, when there was a direct threat to human life. Moreover, the higher the climbers climbed into the mountains, the more adverse symptoms appeared. At the same time, the local residents who accompanied the climbers reacted much more calmly to changes in climatic factors. On the one hand, this indicated the individual nature of the reaction to height. On the other hand, it led to conclusions about the possibility of adaptation to unfavorable factors.

Practice has led to conclusions about the need for preliminary acclimatization, carried out in a certain sequence. It usually involves a gradual climb and descent at night to lower altitudes.

At the same time, the results of acclimatization carried out year after year can be “remembered” by the body until a state called “permanent acclimatization” is reached, when experienced climbers do not feel the effect of altitude on their body, at least at the heights of Elbrus.

As usual, there is a theory and there is a practice of acclimatization. In theory, we recommend climbing Elbrus after at least 7-10 days of active walking at lower altitudes. But in practice, people often go climbing 4-5 days after arriving in the mountains. What to do, our behavior is determined social conditions. Constant lack of time is a cost modern image life.

Here's what science says about the adverse factors of high altitudes

1. Temperature. With increasing altitude, the average annual air temperature gradually decreases by 0.5 °C for every 100 m, and in different seasons of the year and in different geographical areas it decreases differently: in winter it is slower than in summer, amounting to 0.4 °C and 0, respectively. 6°C. In the Caucasus, the average decrease in temperature in summer is 6.3-6.8° per 1 vertical kilometer, but in practice it can be up to 10°C.

2. Air humidity. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. Since the pressure of saturated water vapor is determined only by air temperature, in mountainous areas where the temperature is low, the partial pressure of water vapor is also low. Already at an altitude of 2000 m, air humidity is half that at sea level, and at high mountain altitudes the air becomes almost “dry”. This circumstance increases the loss of fluid by the body not only through evaporation from the surface of the skin, but also through the lungs during hyperventilation. Hence the importance of ensuring adequate drinking regime in the mountains, because Dehydration of the body reduces performance.

3. Solar radiation. At mountain heights, the intensity of the radiant energy of the sun increases greatly due to the great dryness and transparency of the atmosphere and its lower density. When rising to an altitude of 3000 m, the total solar radiation increases on average by 10% for every 1000 m. The greatest changes are found in ultraviolet radiation: its intensity increases by an average of 3-4% for every 100 m of increase in altitude. The body is affected by both visible (light) and invisible (infrared and the most biologically active ultraviolet) sun rays. In moderate doses it can be beneficial to the body. However, excessive exposure sun rays can lead to burns, sunstroke, cardiovascular and nervous disorders, exacerbation of chronic inflammatory processes. As you gain altitude, the increased biological effectiveness of ultraviolet radiation can cause skin erythema and keratitis (inflammation of the cornea of ​​the eyes). Creams, masks, glasses are mandatory things for climbers on Elbrus. Although there are people who can easily do without it. Their skin is of a different type.

4. Atmospheric pressure. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure drops, while the concentration of oxygen, as well as the percentage of other gases within the atmosphere, remain constant. Compared to sea level, atmospheric pressure at an altitude of 3000 m is lower by 31% and at an altitude of 4000 m - by 39%, and at the same altitudes it increases from high to low latitudes and in the warm period it is usually higher than in the cold .

A drop in atmospheric pressure is closely related to the main cause of altitude sickness, lack of oxygen. In scientific language this is called a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen. The experimental results show that at an altitude of 3000 m the amount of O2 in the inhaled air decreases by one third and at an altitude of 4000 m by half. All this leads to undersaturation of hemoglobin with oxygen, an insufficient amount of it enters the tissues and a phenomenon called hypoxia develops. This is actually the body’s reaction to this phenomenon.

BREATHING ON ELBRUS

A prerequisite for normal breathing is a certain concentration of oxygen in the air. Its deficiency causes various disorders in the body.

At an altitude of 5500 m, i.e. almost at the height of Elbrus, the atmospheric pressure is half that on the surface of the earth, and is equal to 380 mmHg Art. The partial pressure of oxygen also decreases sharply. If at atmospheric pressure 760 mmHg Art. it is equal to 159 mm Hg. Art., then already at an altitude of 5500 m it drops to 80 mmHg Art. This causes insufficient oxygenation of the blood and, consequently, insufficient supply of it to the nervous tissue, muscles and other organs. So-called oxygen starvation occurs. This is especially noticeable when climbing mountain peaks or when flying in an airplane at high altitudes, if there are no special sealed cabins with a constant oxygen concentration that ensures normal human breathing. When there is not enough oxygen, the pulse and breathing become more frequent, fatigue, muscle weakness, cyanosis appear, hearing and visual acuity are lost, and in severe cases there may even be neuropsychiatric disorders. This condition is called altitude, or mountain sickness. Similar disturbances in the body occur at an altitude of 4000 m and more. Elbrus height 5633 m, and the oxygen concentration at its top is so low that a person cannot stay there without prior training.

At the dawn of aeronautics, three French aeronauts flew in a hot air balloon. They climbed to a height of 8000 m. Only one of the aeronauts remained alive, but he also sank to the ground in a very serious condition. The conditions for human existence at high altitudes were not yet known at that time, and the death of balloonists served as an impetus for the study of these issues. The outstanding Russian scientist I.M. Sechenov was the first to establish that the death of balloonists occurred because they lacked oxygen due to the rarefied air in the upper layers of the atmosphere.

With oxygen deficiency, breathing becomes more frequent and deepens. At the same time, more air passes through the lungs per minute and oxygen saturation of the blood increases, which causes the number of red blood cells in the blood to increase and the amount of hemoglobin to increase, and therefore the binding and transfer of oxygen increases. The heart also begins to pump more blood in 1 minute than under normal conditions, and, most importantly, tissue resistance to oxygen deficiency increases. This is how the body is able to compensate for the lack of oxygen.

To combat altitude sickness, training is of great importance. It adapts the body well to low oxygen concentrations.

After training, a person can be at an altitude of 5000 m and even rise to greater heights without experiencing unpleasant symptoms of altitude sickness. Thus, through training, climbers achieved that without oxygen devices in the Pamirs they climbed to 7495 m, and on Chomolungma - to 8400 m. The body has such great capabilities if it is trained correctly. Even subtle chemical processes occurring in cells can adapt to living conditions.

INHALE AND EXHALE

The lungs never expand or contract on their own; they passively follow the chest. The chest cavity expands due to the contraction of the respiratory muscles, which primarily include the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

When inhaling, the diaphragm lowers by 3-4 cm. Lowering it by 1 cm increases chest volume by 250-300 ml. Thus, only due to contraction of the diaphragm, the volume of the chest increases by 1000-1200 ml. When the intercostal muscles contract, they raise the ribs, which rotate somewhat around their axis, as a result of which the chest cavity also expands.

The lungs follow the expanding chest, stretch themselves, and the pressure in them drops. This creates a difference between atmospheric pressure and pressure in the lungs. As the pressure in the lungs drops below atmospheric pressure, air rushes into the lungs and fills them. Inhalation occurs. After inhalation comes exhalation. During normal exhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, the chest collapses and its volume decreases. At the same time, the lungs also collapse and the air is exhaled out. In a strong exhalation, the abdominal press is involved, which, tensing, presses on the intra-abdominal organs. They,

Below are lists of products that participants in trips to Elbrus and Kazbek from 2 to 5 stars should have. There are 3 lists - for 10, 11-12 and 13-14 days (select the one you need in the drop-down list), as well as their options with and without meat.

We use freeze-dried products that are light in weight, but as a result of cooking they turn into complete meals:

You can buy this package of products from us or assemble it and prepare it yourself. Although this is labor-intensive, it is not difficult and quite possible. However, it should be noted that the price of a package assembled yourself will be approximately the same as when purchasing a ready-made package from us.

High quality.

The list of products is compiled in such a way that food on a hike is sufficiently high in calories, with high content protein, varied and tasty. The latter is especially important, since in the mountains it is usually not important to eat due to lack of oxygen.

For vegetarians.

We respect and support those who do not eat meat on principle. Meat is not included in freeze-dried mixtures and is packaged separately. Thus, we have the opportunity to cook on the go for vegetarians too. If you do not eat meat, please notify us and we will prepare a vegetarian package for you. The meat in it will be replaced with nuts.

How to prepare such food?

Cooking with this bag is very easy. It is enough to boil water, add a certain number of portions of sublimate into it and cook for some time. This takes from 5 to 30 minutes depending on the altitude you are at (the higher, the longer).

Who cooks on a hike?

The food is prepared by those on duty from among the participants, as is customary in a normal mountain hike. They are on duty in pairs. During one trip, each participant usually has 1-2 shifts. If the guards on duty don’t understand something, the guides help them with this.

Product List

• Package with meat for 11-12 days, gram Package with meat for 10 days, gram Package without meat for 11-12 days, gram Package without meat for 10 days, gram Package with meat for 13-14 days, gram Package without meat for 13-14 days, gram

Oatmeal Hercules	100
Quinoa	100
	200
Melted butter	200
	280
Tomato cheese sauce (subl.)	50
Pasta (pasta)	70
Mushroom soup (subl.)	70
Buckwheat	400
Rassolnik (subl.)	140
Borscht (subl.)	210
	200
Indian curry (sub.)	210
Rosehip and hawthorn	400
Dried apricots	120
Dried pear	100
Kozinaki	220
	360
Raw smoked sausage	200
Parmesan cheese	200
Bread	200
Snickers bars	400
Bee pollen	50
Beef (sub.)	200
Sugar	670
Leaf tea	100
Cocoa Nesquik	50
	200
Package weight, g.	5700
Package price, rub.	11800

Oatmeal Hercules	100
Quinoa	50
Nut butter (from a mixture of different nuts)	150
Melted butter	140
Mashed potatoes with vegetables (subl.)	210
Tomato cheese sauce (subl.)	100
Pasta (pasta)	140
Mushroom soup (subl.)	140
Buckwheat	400
Rassolnik (subl.)	140
Borscht (subl.)	210
Thai Wok with mushrooms and vegetables (sub.)	100
Indian curry (sub.)	140
Rosehip and hawthorn	320
Dried apricots	100
Dried pear	80
Kozinaki	180
Power Pro Protein Bars	240
Raw smoked sausage	100
Parmesan cheese	100
Bread	100
Snickers bars	300
Bee pollen	40
Beef (sub.)	170
Sugar	535
Leaf tea	100
Cocoa Nesquik	40
Mix of dried vegetables, herbs and spices	200
Package weight, g.	4625
Package price, rub.	9400

Oatmeal Hercules	100
Quinoa	100
Nut butter (from a mixture of different nuts)	200
Melted butter	200
Mashed potatoes with vegetables (subl.)	280
Tomato cheese sauce (subl.)	50
Pasta (pasta)	70
Mushroom soup (subl.)	70
Buckwheat	400
Rassolnik (subl.)	140
Borscht (subl.)	210
Thai Wok with mushrooms and vegetables (sub.)	200
Indian curry (sub.)	210
Rosehip and hawthorn	400
Dried apricots	120
Dried pear	100
Kozinaki	220
Power Pro Protein Bars	360
Parmesan cheese	200
Bread	200
Snickers bars	400
Bee pollen	50
Mixed nuts	400
Sugar	670
Leaf tea	100
Cocoa Nesquik	50
Mix of dried vegetables, herbs and spices	200
Package weight, g.	5700
Package price, rub.	11800

Oatmeal Hercules	100
Quinoa	50
Nut butter (from a mixture of different nuts)	150
Melted butter	140
Mashed potatoes with vegetables (subl.)	210
Tomato cheese sauce (subl.)	100
Pasta (pasta)	140
Mushroom soup (subl.)	140
Buckwheat	400
Rassolnik (subl.)	140
Borscht (subl.)	210
Thai Wok with mushrooms and vegetables (sub.)	100
Indian curry (sub.)	140
Rosehip and hawthorn	320
Dried apricots	100
Dried pear	80
Kozinaki	180
Power Pro Protein Bars	240
Parmesan cheese	100
Bread	100
Snickers bars	300
Bee pollen	40
Mixed nuts	270
Sugar	535
Leaf tea	100
Cocoa Nesquik	50
Mix of dried vegetables, herbs and spices	200
Package weight, g.	4625
Package price, rub.	9400

Oatmeal Hercules	100
Quinoa	100
Nut butter (from a mixture of different nuts)	200
Melted butter	200
Mashed potatoes with vegetables (subl.)	210
Tomato cheese sauce (subl.)	150
Pasta (pasta)	210
Mushroom soup (subl.)	210
Buckwheat	400
Rassolnik (subl.)	140
Borscht (subl.)	210
Thai Wok with mushrooms and vegetables (sub.)	200
Indian curry (sub.)	210
Rosehip and hawthorn	400
Dried apricots	120
Dried pear	120
Kozinaki	240
Power Pro Protein Bars	360
Raw smoked sausage	200
Parmesan cheese	200
Bread	200
Snickers bars	400
Bee pollen	55
Beef (sub.)	200
Sugar	740
Leaf tea	100
Cocoa Nesquik	55
Mix of dried vegetables, herbs and spices	200
Package weight, g.	6130
Package price, rub.	12700

Oatmeal Hercules	100
Quinoa	100
Nut butter (from a mixture of different nuts)	200
Melted butter	200
Mashed potatoes with vegetables (subl.)	210
Tomato cheese sauce (subl.)	150
Pasta (pasta)	210
Mushroom soup (subl.)	210
Buckwheat	400
Rassolnik (subl.)	140
Borscht (subl.)	210
Thai Wok with mushrooms and vegetables (sub.)	200
Indian curry (sub.)	210
Rosehip and hawthorn	400
Dried apricots	120
Dried pear	120
Kozinaki	240
Power Pro Protein Bars	360
Parmesan cheese	200
Bread	200
Snickers bars	400
Bee pollen	55
Mixed nuts	430
Sugar	740
Leaf tea	100
Cocoa Nesquik	55
Mix of dried vegetables, herbs and spices	200
Package weight, g.	6130
Package price, rub.	12700

Change by day.

Below is the change by day. It is approximate and may be slightly changed, but basically this is the food that will be provided on the route. When compiling the change, we took into account the labor costs of the participants on certain days and correlated them with caloric intake. IN hard days calorie intake is higher than on days when physical activity less.

1 day. Small transition.	Dinner. Indian curry + 10 gr. meat + 40 gr. melted butter. Dried apricots or dried pear, kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calorie content: 781 kcal. Protein: 22 gr.
Day 2. Big transition.	Breakfast. Coffee with sugar. Oatmeal+ nut butter 50 gr. + melted butter 20 gr. Teaspoon bee pollen. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. Dinner. Snack without cooking. Dinner. Borscht + 10 gr. meat. Dried apricots or dried pear, kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calories: 2524 kcal. Protein:'98
Day 3. Big transition.	Breakfast. Coffee with sugar. Pasta with tomato cheese sauce + 10 gr. meat. A teaspoon of bee pollen. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. Individual snack during the transition. Snickers. 1 liter of tea + 50 gr. sugar in a thermos. Dinner. Snack without cooking. Protein bar. Cheese + sausage (or nuts) + rye bread. Cocoa with sugar. Dinner. Indian curry + meat 20 gr. + 40 gr. melted butter. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calories: 2715 kcal. Protein: 102 g.
Day 4 Big transition.	Breakfast. Coffee with sugar. Quinoa. A teaspoon of bee pollen. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. Individual snack during the transition. Snickers. 1 liter of tea + 50 gr. sugar in a thermos. Dinner. Snack without cooking. Protein bar. Cheese + sausage (or nuts) + rye bread. Cocoa with sugar. Dinner. Calories: 2487 kcal. Protein: 95.4 g.
Day 5 Small transition.	Breakfast. Coffee with sugar. Mashed potatoes with vegetables. A teaspoon of bee pollen. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. Individual snack during the transition. 1 liter of tea + 50 gr. sugar in a thermos. Dinner. Full cooking. Buckwheat with meat and vegetables. Cocoa with sugar. Dinner. Borscht + 20 gr. meat. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calories: 1888 kcal. Protein: 93.6 g.
Day 6 Acclimat - ation exit.	Breakfast. Oatmeal + nut butter 50 gr. + ghee 20 gr. A teaspoon of bee pollen. Cocoa with sugar. Dinner. Rassolnik + 20 gr. meat. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. Calories: 2436 kcal. Protein:'84
Day 7 Rest.	Breakfast. Dinner. Full cooking. Dinner. Indian curry + 10 gr. meat + 40 gr. melted butter. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calories: 2299 kcal. Protein: 90.9 g.
Day 8 Climbing to the top.	Breakfast. Quinoa + nut oil 50 gr. + ghee 20 gr. A teaspoon of bee pollen. Cocoa with sugar. Individual snacks during the transition. Snickers 2 pcs. Protein bar. Tea with sugar. 1 liter of tea + 50 gr. sugar in a thermos. Dinner. Borscht + 10 gr. meat. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. Calories: 2386 kcal. Protein:'84
Day 9 Descent.	Breakfast. Pasta with tomato cheese sauce + 10 gr. meat. A teaspoon of bee pollen. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. Individual snack during the transition. Snickers. 1 liter of tea + 50 gr. sugar in a thermos. Dinner. Protein bar. Cheese + sausage (or nuts) + rye bread. Cocoa with sugar. Dinner. Thai wok with mushrooms and vegetables + 10 gr. meat. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calories: 2242 kcal. Protein: 104 g.
Day 10 Reserve day.	Breakfast. Mushroom soup. A teaspoon of bee pollen. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. 1 liter of tea + 50 gr. sugar in a thermos. Dinner. Rassolnik + 10 gr. meat. Buckwheat with meat and vegetables. Cocoa with sugar. Dinner. Mashed potatoes with vegetables. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calories: 1916 kcal. Protein:'85
Day 11 Reserve day. Rest.	Breakfast. Mashed potatoes with vegetables. A teaspoon of bee pollen. A decoction of hawthorn and rosehip with sugar. 1 liter of tea + 50 gr. sugar in a thermos. Dinner. Mushroom soup. Buckwheat with meat and vegetables. Cocoa with sugar. Dinner. Rassolnik + 10 gr. meat. Dried apricots or dried pear + kozinaki. Tea with sugar. Calories: 1958 kcal. Protein:'75

Textbook for 7th grade

§ 21.4. How does atmospheric pressure depend on altitude? Theme development

As we rise, the atmospheric pressure decreases because the higher we are, the lower the height of the air column above us.

For low altitudes (tens and even hundreds of meters), the decrease in pressure with height can be approximately calculated by taking the air density p constant (at sea level - about 1.3 kg/m3). This means that when rising to a height h, the air pressure decreases by ρ air gh. It follows that when rising, for example, to a height of 10 m (a three-story building), the pressure decreases by approximately 130 Pa. This is slightly less than 1 mmHg. Art.

For high altitudes, for example in the mountains, it must be taken into account that as the altitude increases, the air density decreases. Therefore, as altitude increases, air pressure decreases more slowly than if the air density remained constant. In Fig. 21.7 shows the pressure values ​​​​at the top of Elbrus - the most high mountain in Europe (Russia) and on top of Chomolungma - the highest mountain in the world (China). We see that at an altitude of about 9 km, the air pressure is approximately 30% of normal atmospheric pressure.