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How many years did Confucius live? Terrible time of change

Confucius is much more than the name of one of China's most famous sages. The real name of the great scientist is Kun-fu-tzu, which translated means “teacher from the Kun family.”
The teachings of this legendary man, who was born in ancient times and lived in turbulent times for the state, forever permeated history and influenced the development of China, and also led to the birth of a powerful system of religious beliefs. His thoughts comprehensively embrace and reflect high spiritual and family values, deeply analyze the ethical aspects of life and direct a person to find happiness. Confucius developed an ideal system of principles that transform the state into a single whole with society.

The words of Confucius are still alive and relevant to modern man. But where did he come from, how was he able to conquer the hearts of the Chinese people, what did he teach and what did he preach?

The life path of the ancient philosopher - family origins

The date of birth of Confucius is considered to be 551 BC. e. He was born and lived in an impoverished aristocratic warrior family in the town of Qufu (today in Shandong province).

His father Shuliang He was married three times, because he really dreamed of a son, and only girls were born. The second wife gave him a long-awaited son, but he was crippled. Being no longer young, Shuliang He decided to try his luck again and got married for the third time.

Even the story of the birth of Confucius is shrouded in an aura of legend. Shuliang He's third wife had a vision that foreshadowed her becoming the mother of an unusual man, and soon she gave birth to a boy. The happiness of fatherhood did not last long, because the future philosopher was only three years old when his father died. Confucius's mother, after the loss of her husband, devoted herself entirely to her son and led a very moral image life, which influenced the formation of the thinker’s system of family values.

Confucius was raised playing games that imitated ancient Chinese traditions and developed the gift of divination from childhood. His thinking and preferences in spending his leisure time surprised those around him, because he was of little interest in ordinary fun, and he preferred to spend his time acquiring wisdom through communication with learned people.

At the age of 7, he began attending school and turned out to be a very talented student. His mind was focused in every possible way on mastering the truths; he read a lot. During his studies, Confucius skillfully mastered the traditional skills of that time: correctly participating in ritual ceremonies, perceiving music, writing and counting, shooting a bow and driving a chariot.

The period of the philosopher’s life coincided with the birth of Buddhism and the development of Taoism.

His educational success allowed him to take the place of an official at the age of 17 and manage the barns and barnyard of the kingdom of Lu. At the age of 25, Confucius was considered a respected man among the cultured community.

At the same time, the ruler gave him the honor of going on a visit to the capital of the state. During this period, Confucius deeply realized his desire to preserve the traditional heritage of the Chinese people. This conviction formed the basis of his philosophical school, which taught life according to the laws of nature, reminded people of the great Chinese traditions, and promoted self-knowledge and exploration of one’s capabilities. Confucius believed that the purpose of a person is to be useful to society and his state.

The scientist's wisdom captivated people who lived even in the most remote corners of the kingdom, and allowed them to reach the highest career level - the position of Minister of Justice. His powerful influence instilled fear in neighboring states and led to him being slandered in the eyes of the ruler. Taking this blow from life, Confucius went on a long journey, visiting all the neighboring kingdoms and proclaiming his philosophy to the ruling elite and ordinary residents. Any attempts to force him to remain as Confucius were rejected. He explained this by the need to convey his ideas to other people whom he respects as his family.

After 13 years of wandering, Confucius finally returned to his homeland and devoted himself to teaching. The number of his followers increased in 484 BC. numbered about three thousand people.

Confucius always lived in accordance with his teachings, fully and clearly embodying them by example.

From the point of view of Confucius, philosophy is not a set of principles divorced from life, but is entirely realized in human actions.

Your way great philosopher completed in 479 BC. e., being able to predict the date of his death. About the meaning of life in different age periods Confucius reasoned, saying that at the age of fifteen he was completely absorbed in the acquisition and accumulation of knowledge; at thirty, Confucius lived, basing his thoughts and deeds on acquired knowledge; at the age of forty he overcame his doubts and fears; at fifty he came to realize his place in life; at the age of sixty, Confucius was able to understand the striking difference between truth and lies; and at the age of seventy he fully mastered all the acquired knowledge and was able to act in such a way that things did not run counter to these important truths.

The true value of the philosopher’s teachings could only be appreciated after his death, and on the basis of his doctrine, the famous book “Lun Yu” was compiled, which included his quotes and philosophical conversations.

The popularity of the teachings led to the formation of Confucianism, which in 136 BC. became the official form of religion in China, and the figure of the philosopher became a cult figure. Confucius transformed from a wandering scholar into a deity in whose honor temples were built. Confucius remained a religious stronghold of the people until 1911, when the Xinhai Revolution broke out and the republic was proclaimed.

Orientalist, specialist in the field of cultural traditions of China, doctor historical sciences, Professor Alexey Maslov, see in the video below what he says about Confucius.

Philosophy of life and the book “Lun Yu”

It is impossible to judge how well the original “Lun Yu” has been preserved, since during the reign of the Qin dynasty the works of Confucius were destroyed. Later the book was restored, but in our time there are several different editions of the works of the great philosopher known. The modern text of the book is based on texts from the Middle Ages, which is a historical moment for strengthening the religious foundations of Confucianism. The approximate date of birth of this form of religion is considered to be 722-481 BC.

They have taken a strong place in the traditions of the Chinese people. Any relationship between people should be based on mutual respect, the ability to trust, obligatory loyalty and responsible attitude towards each other. Confucius represents the state in his philosophy as one big and friendly family. Society must be governed through rules and principles that are developed jointly by the people and the board.

He believed that the state and relations between managers and governed must necessarily be regulated by humanity and mutual trust. He was categorically against the forcible imposition of laws and rules, since he believed that if he did not find a response in a person’s heart, he would not help in the successful management and prosperity of the country.

The cardinal difference between the teachings of Confucius is that he did not introduce a new philosophy into life, but revived already existing principles and ideas. The philosopher Confucius emphasizes that a person is able to gain new knowledge only on the basis of learned old rules and traditions. Constant Striving to learn and implement the rituals of wise ancestors in life can teach a person to understand the world around him and think.

Unlike Taoism, which requires great self-sacrifice and an ascetic lifestyle from a person, Confucius proposed his own non-supernatural and natural path - turning to cultural origins and values. Ritual in the teachings of Confucius represents the basis of daily existence. This concept does not mean something complex or incomprehensible, but nature itself, clearly illustrating for the human eye the change of seasons and demonstrating various phenomena, conducts the ceremony.

Confucius said that the laws of nature are stable and constant, all changes are carried out according to the same ancient rules, therefore a person must organize his life according to the wisdom of the ancients.

Etiquette occupies a huge place in the philosophy of Confucius - the ability to behave correctly, build relationships with people who occupy different positions in life (family, friends, servants), express respect to people according to age gradation and in accordance with their position in society and rank. Etiquette for Confucius is also an opportunity to show one’s individuality and protect one’s interests, regulated by verbal and non-verbal signals. People who follow the rules of etiquette are humane members of society (the concept of “ren”) who are able to show virtue and justice towards another person (the concept of “li”).

The place occupied by Confucius and his teachings in China today

After the establishment of communist rule in China, the government made great efforts to eradicate Confucianism. But the latest sentiments in the country indicate a course towards the restoration of traditional forms of beliefs and values. Today China actively uses in its political model and ideology the principles that originated when Confucius lived. Mostly ideas related to strengthening the national spirit are being disseminated. Experts believe that China owes much of its economic success to its ancient ideology, which was once laid down by Confucius, making the state an ideally structured mechanism.

Although Confucianism was born as a form of faith in its time, today its founding principles are revered by millions of people around the world for their practicality and universality. The modern form of religion has developed into Neo-Confucianism, which incorporates the principles of the life of Confucius and elements of Taoism and Legalism.

The places where Confucius lived are shown in the video.

The famous thinker of the Zhou dynasty, Kunzi (which means “teacher Kun”) is known in Europe under the name Confucius.

Confucius was born into a noble but impoverished family in 551 BC. e., when the state was already shaken by unrest and internal strife. He for a long time served as a minor official for the rulers of various principalities, traveling throughout the country. Confucius never achieved significant ranks, but he learned a lot about the life of his people and formed his own idea of the principles of justice in the state. He considered the first years of the Zhou dynasty to be the golden age of social order and harmony, and considered the time in which Confucius himself lived to be a reign of growing chaos. In his opinion, all the troubles occurred due to the fact that the princes forgot all the great principles that guided the previous rulers. Therefore, he developed a special system of moral and ethical dogmas and norms of human behavior, based on the veneration of ancestors, obedience to parents, respect for elders, and philanthropy.

Confucius taught that a wise ruler must set an example of fair treatment of his subjects, and they, in turn, are obliged to honor and obey the ruler. In his opinion, relationships should be the same in every family. Confucius believed that the fate of every person is determined by heaven, and therefore he should occupy his proper position in society: a ruler should be a ruler, an official should be an official, and a commoner should be a commoner, a father should be a father, a son should be a son. In his opinion, if order is disturbed, then society loses its harmony. To preserve it, the ruler must govern skillfully with the help of officials and laws. The destiny of the “insignificant man” is to obey, and the destiny of the “noble man” is to command.

Confucius's sermons were very popular among aristocrats, and especially among officials. At the border of old and new era Confucius himself was deified, and his teaching remained official in China until the fall of the monarchy in 1911.

In many cities of China, temples were erected in honor of Confucius, where applicants for academic degrees and official positions performed obligatory worship and sacrifices. At the end of the 19th century, there were 1,560 such temples in the country, where animals and silk for sacrifices were delivered (about 62,600 pigs, rabbits, sheep, deer and 27 thousand pieces of silk per year) and then distributed to the worshipers.

This is how a religious movement arose - Confucianism, the essence of which is the veneration of ancestors. In their family ancestral temple, the Chinese place tablets - zhu - in front of which they perform rituals and make sacrifices.

Confucius was educated, but at the same time an ordinary person. The desire of people to worship something or someone led to the emergence of a new religion, which still has a significant influence on millions of people.

Celestial Empire.

Biography

Confucius was the son of a 63-year-old military man, Shuliang He (叔梁纥, Shūliáng Hé) and a seventeen-year-old concubine named Yan Zhengzai (颜征在 Yán Zhēngzài). The father of the future philosopher died when his son was only one and a half years old. The relationship between Confucius's mother Yan Zhengzai and the two eldest wives was tense, due to the anger of the eldest wife who was never able to give birth to a son, which is very important for the Chinese of that period. The second wife, who gave birth to Shuliang He a weak, sickly boy (who was named Bo Ni), also did not like the young concubine. Therefore, Confucius’s mother and her son left the house in which he was born and returned to their homeland, in the city of Qufu, but did not return to their parents and began to live independently.

From early childhood, Confucius worked hard because the small family lived in poverty. However, his mother, Yan Zhengzai, while offering prayers to the ancestors (this was a necessary part of the ancestor cult ubiquitous in China), told her son about the great deeds of his father and his ancestors. Thus, Confucius became more aware that he needed to take a place worthy of his family, so he began to educate himself, first of all, to study the arts necessary for every aristocrat in China at that time. Diligent training bore fruit and Confucius was appointed first as a barn manager (an official responsible for receiving and issuing grain) in the Ji clan of the kingdom of Lu (Eastern China, modern Shandong province), and then as an official in charge of livestock. The future philosopher was then - according to various researchers - from 20 to 25 years old, he was already married (from the age of 19) and had a son (named Li, also known by the nickname Bo Yu).

This was the time of decline of the Zhou Empire, when the power of the emperor became nominal, the patriarchal society was destroyed and the rulers of individual kingdoms, surrounded by lowly officials, took the place of the clan nobility. The collapse of the ancient foundations of family and clan life, internecine strife, corruption and greed of officials, disasters and suffering of the common people - all this provoked sharp criticism from the zealots of antiquity.

Realizing the impossibility of influencing state policy, Confucius resigned and, accompanied by his students, went on a trip to China, during which he tried to convey his ideas to the rulers various areas. At the age of about 60, Confucius returned home and spent the last years of his life teaching new students, as well as systematizing the literary heritage of the past. Shi Ching(Book of Songs), I Ching(Book of Changes), etc.

Confucius’s students, based on the teacher’s statements and conversations, compiled the book “Lun Yu” (“Conversations and Judgments”), which became a particularly revered book of Confucianism (among the many details from the life of Confucius, Bo Yu 伯魚, his son - also called Li 鯉); the remaining details of the biography are concentrated mostly in the “Historical Notes” of Sima Qian).

Of the classical books, only Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn,” a chronicle of the inheritance of Lu from 722 to 481 BC) can undoubtedly be considered the work of Confucius; then it is very likely that he edited the Shi-ching ("Book of Poems"). Although the number of students of Confucius is determined by Chinese scholars to be up to 3000, including about 70 closest ones, in reality we can count only 26 of his undoubted students known by name; the favorite of them was Yan-yuan. His other close students were Tsengzi and Yu Ruo (see en: Disciples of Confucius).

Teaching

Although Confucianism is often called a religion, it does not have the institution of a church, and questions of theology are not important to it. Confucian ethics is not religious. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every individual has his own function. A harmonious society is built on the idea of devotion ( zhong, 忠) - loyalty in the relationship between a boss and a subordinate, aimed at preserving the harmony of this society itself. Confucius formulated golden rule ethics: “Do not do to a person what you do not wish for yourself.”

Five Consistencies of a Righteous Man

Moral duties, since they are materialized in ritual, become a matter of upbringing, education, and culture. These concepts were not separated by Confucius. All of them are included in the category content "wen"(originally this word meant a person with a painted torso or tattoo). "Wen" can be interpreted as the cultural meaning of human existence, as education. This is not a secondary artificial formation in man and not his primary natural layer, not bookishness and not naturalness, but their organic alloy.

Spread of Confucianism in Western Europe

In the middle of the 17th century, a fashion arose in Western Europe for everything Chinese, and generally for eastern exoticism. This fashion was also accompanied by attempts to master Chinese philosophy, which they often began to talk about, sometimes in sublime and admiring tones. For example, the Englishman Robert Boyle compared the Chinese and Indians with the Greeks and Romans.

In 1687, the Latin translation of Confucius's Lun Yu was published. The translation was prepared by a group of Jesuit scholars. At this time the Jesuits had numerous missions in China. One of the publishers, Philippe Couplet, returned to Europe accompanied by a young Chinese man baptized under the name Michel. The visit of this Chinese visitor to Versailles in 1684 further created interest in Chinese culture in Europe.

One of the most famous Jesuit explorers of China, Matteo Ricci, tried to find a conceptual connection between Chinese spiritual teachings and Christianity. Perhaps his research program suffered from Eurocentrism, but the researcher was not ready to give up the idea that China could develop successfully without joining Christian values. At the same time, Ricci said that “Confucius is the key to the Chinese-Christian synthesis.” Moreover, he believed that every religion must have its founder, who received the first revelation or who came, so he called Confucius the founder of the “Confucian religion.”

The popularity of Confucius is confirmed in Ding. Han: in the literature of this era, he is no longer only a teacher and politician, but also a legislator, a prophet and a demigod. Interpreters of the commentaries on “Chunqiu” come to the conclusion that Confucius was honored to receive a “heavenly mandate”, and therefore call him the “uncrowned king”. In 1 AD e. he becomes an object of state veneration (title 褒成宣尼公); from 59 n. e. regular offerings are approved at the local level; in 241 (Three Kingdoms) he was consolidated in the aristocratic pantheon, and in 739 (Din. Tang) the title of Wang was consolidated. In 1530 (Ding Ming), Confucius received the title 至聖先師, “the supreme sage [among] the teachers of the past.”

This growing popularity should be compared with the historical processes that took place around the texts from which information about Confucius and attitudes towards him is drawn. Thus, the “uncrowned king” could serve to legitimize the restored Han dynasty after the crisis associated with the usurpation of the throne by Wang Mang (at the same time the first Buddhist temple was founded in the new capital).

The variety of historical guises in which the image of Confucius has been clothed throughout Chinese history prompted Gu Jiegang's ironic commentary to "take one Confucius at a time."

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Notes

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(Confucius Publishing Co.Ltd.)

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Excerpt characterizing Confucius

The road along which they walked was littered with dead horses on both sides; ragged people lagging behind different teams, constantly changing, then joined, then again lagged behind the marching column.
Several times during the campaign there were false alarms, and the soldiers of the convoy raised their guns, shot and ran headlong, crushing each other, but then they gathered again and scolded each other for their vain fear.
These three gatherings, marching together - the cavalry depot, the prisoner depot and Junot's train - still formed something separate and integral, although both of them, and the third, were quickly melting away.
The depot, which had initially contained one hundred and twenty carts, now had no more than sixty left; the rest were repulsed or abandoned. Several carts from Junot's convoy were also abandoned and recaptured. Three carts were plundered by the backward soldiers from Davout's corps who came running. From conversations of the Germans, Pierre heard that this convoy was put on guard more than the prisoners, and that one of their comrades, a German soldier, was shot on the orders of the marshal himself because a silver spoon that belonged to the marshal was found on the soldier.
Of these three gatherings, the prisoner depot melted the most. Of the three hundred and thirty people who left Moscow, there were now less than a hundred left. The prisoners were even more of a burden to the escorting soldiers than the saddles of the cavalry depot and Junot's baggage train. Junot’s saddles and spoons, they understood that they could be useful for something, but why did the hungry and cold soldiers of the convoy stand guard and guard the same cold and hungry Russians who were dying and lagged behind on the road, whom they were ordered to shoot? not only incomprehensible, but also disgusting. And the guards, as if afraid in the sad situation in which they themselves were, not to give in to their feeling of pity for the prisoners and thereby worsen their situation, treated them especially gloomily and strictly.
In Dorogobuzh, while the convoy soldiers, having locked the prisoners in a stable, went off to rob their own stores, several captured soldiers dug under the wall and ran away, but were captured by the French and shot.
The previous order, introduced upon leaving Moscow, for captured officers to march separately from the soldiers, had long been destroyed; all those who could walk walked together, and Pierre, from the third transition, had already united again with Karataev and the lilac bow-legged dog, which had chosen Karataev as its owner.
Karataev, on the third day of leaving Moscow, developed the same fever from which he was lying in the Moscow hospital, and as Karataev weakened, Pierre moved away from him. Pierre didn’t know why, but since Karataev began to weaken, Pierre had to make an effort on himself to approach him. And approaching him and listening to those quiet moans with which Karataev usually lay down at rest, and feeling the now intensified smell that Karataev emitted from himself, Pierre moved away from him and did not think about him.
In captivity, in a booth, Pierre learned not with his mind, but with his whole being, with his life, that man was created for happiness, that happiness is in himself, in the satisfaction of natural human needs, and that all unhappiness comes not from lack, but from excess; but now, in these last three weeks of the campaign, he learned another new, comforting truth - he learned that there is nothing terrible in the world. He learned that just as there is no situation in which a person would be happy and completely free, there is also no situation in which he would be unhappy and not free. He learned that there is a limit to suffering and a limit to freedom, and that this limit is very close; that the man who suffered because one leaf was wrapped in his pink bed suffered in the same way as he suffered now, falling asleep on the bare, damp earth, cooling one side and warming the other; that when he used to put on his narrow ballroom shoes, he suffered just as much as now, when he walked completely barefoot (his shoes had long since become disheveled), with feet covered with sores. He learned that when, as it seemed to him, he had married his wife of his own free will, he was no more free than now, when he was locked in the stable at night. Of all the things that he later called suffering, but which he hardly felt then, the main thing was his bare, worn, scabby feet. (Horse meat was tasty and nutritious, the saltpeter bouquet of gunpowder, used instead of salt, was even pleasant, there was not much cold, and during the day it was always hot while walking, and at night there were fires; the lice that ate the body warmed pleasantly.) One thing was hard. at first it’s the legs.
On the second day of the march, after examining his sores by the fire, Pierre thought it impossible to step on them; but when everyone got up, he walked with a limp, and then, when he warmed up, he walked without pain, although in the evening it was even worse to look at his legs. But he did not look at them and thought about something else.
Now only Pierre understood the full power of human vitality and the saving power of moving attention invested in a person, similar to that saving valve in steam engines that releases excess steam as soon as its density exceeds a known norm.
He did not see or hear how the backward prisoners were shot, although more than a hundred of them had already died in this way. He did not think about Karataev, who was weakening every day and, obviously, was soon to suffer the same fate. Pierre thought even less about himself. The more difficult his situation became, the more terrible the future was, the more, regardless of the situation in which he was, joyful and calming thoughts, memories and ideas came to him.

On the 22nd, at noon, Pierre was walking uphill along a dirty, slippery road, looking at his feet and at the unevenness of the path. From time to time he glanced at the familiar crowd surrounding him, and again at his feet. Both were equally his own and familiar to him. The lilac, bow-legged Gray ran merrily along the side of the road, occasionally, as proof of his agility and contentment, tucking his hind paw and jumping on three and then again on all four, rushing and barking at the crows that were sitting on the carrion. Gray was more fun and smoother than in Moscow. On all sides lay the meat of various animals - from human to horse, in varying degrees of decomposition; and the wolves were kept away by the walking people, so Gray could eat as much as he wanted.
It had been raining since the morning, and it seemed that it would pass and clear the sky, but after a short stop the rain began to fall even more heavily. The rain-saturated road no longer absorbed water, and streams flowed along the ruts.
Pierre walked, looking around, counting steps in threes, and counting on his fingers. Turning to the rain, he internally said: come on, come on, give it more, give it more.
It seemed to him that he was not thinking about anything; but far and deep somewhere his soul thought something important and comforting. This was something of a subtle spiritual extract from his conversation with Karataev yesterday.
Yesterday, at a night halt, chilled by the extinguished fire, Pierre stood up and moved to the nearest, better-burning fire. By the fire, to which he approached, Plato was sitting, covering his head with an overcoat like a chasuble, and telling the soldiers in his argumentative, pleasant, but weak, painful voice a story familiar to Pierre. It was already past midnight. This was the time at which Karataev usually recovered from a feverish attack and was especially animated. Approaching the fire and hearing Plato’s weak, painful voice and seeing his pitiful face brightly illuminated by the fire, something unpleasantly pricked Pierre’s heart. He was frightened by his pity for this man and wanted to leave, but there was no other fire, and Pierre, trying not to look at Plato, sat down near the fire.
- How's your health? – he asked.
- How's your health? “God will not allow you to die about your illness,” said Karataev and immediately returned to the story he had begun.
“...And so, my brother,” Plato continued with a smile on his thin, pale face and with a special, joyful sparkle in his eyes, “here, my brother...”
Pierre knew this story for a long time, Karataev told this story to him alone six times, and always with a special, joyful feeling. But no matter how well Pierre knew this story, he now listened to it as if it were something new, and that quiet delight that Karataev apparently felt while telling it was also communicated to Pierre. This story was about an old merchant who lived well and fearing God with his family and who one day went with a friend, a rich merchant, to Makar.
Stopping at an inn, both merchants fell asleep, and the next day the merchant's comrade was found stabbed to death and robbed. A bloody knife was found under the old merchant's pillow. The merchant was tried, punished with a whip and, having pulled out his nostrils - as follows in order, said Karataev - he was sent to hard labor.
“And so, my brother” (Pierre caught Karataev’s story at this point), this case has been going on for ten years or more. An old man lives in hard labor. As follows, he submits and does no harm. He only asks God for death. - Fine. And if they get together at night, the convicts are just like you and me, and the old man is with them. And the conversation turned to who is suffering for what, and why is God to blame. They began to say, that one lost a soul, that one lost two, that one set it on fire, that one ran away, no way. They began to ask the old man: why are you suffering, grandpa? I, my dear brothers, he says, suffer for my own and for people’s sins. But I didn’t destroy any souls, I didn’t take anyone else’s property, other than giving away to the poor brethren. I, my dear brothers, am a merchant; and had great wealth. So and so, he says. And he told them how the whole thing happened, in order. “I don’t worry about myself,” he says. It means God found me. One thing, he says, I feel sorry for my old woman and children. And so the old man began to cry. If that same person happened to be in their company, it means that he killed the merchant. Where did grandpa say he was? When, in what month? I asked everything. His heart ached. Approaches the old man in this manner - a clap on the feet. For me, he says, old man, you are disappearing. The truth is true; innocently in vain, he says, guys, this man is suffering. “I did the same thing,” he says, “and put a knife under your sleepy head.” Forgive me, he says, grandfather, for Christ’s sake.
Karataev fell silent, smiling joyfully, looking at the fire, and straightened the logs.
- The old man says: God will forgive you, but we are all sinners to God, I suffer for my sins. He himself began to cry bitter tears. “What do you think, falcon,” Karataev said, beaming brighter and brighter with an enthusiastic smile, as if what he now had to tell contained the main charm and the whole meaning of the story, “what do you think, falcon, this killer, the one in charge, has appeared . I, he says, ruined six souls (I was a big villain), but most of all I feel sorry for this old man. Let him not cry at me. Showed up: they wrote it off, sent the paper as it should. The place is far away, until the trial and the case, until all the papers have been written off as they should, according to the authorities, that is. It reached the king. So far, the royal decree has come: to release the merchant, give him awards, as much as they were awarded. The paper arrived and they began to look for the old man. Where did such an old man suffer innocently in vain? The paper came from the king. They started looking. – Lower jaw Karataeva trembled. - And God already forgave him - he died. So, falcon,” Karataev finished and looked ahead for a long time, silently smiling.
Not this story itself, but its mysterious meaning, that enthusiastic joy that shone in Karataev’s face at this story, the mysterious meaning of this joy, it was now vaguely and joyfully filling Pierre’s soul.

– A vos places! [Get to your places!] - a voice suddenly shouted.
There was a joyful confusion and expectation of something happy and solemn between the prisoners and the guards. The shouts of the command were heard from all sides, and on the left side, trotting around the prisoners, cavalrymen appeared, well dressed, on good horses. On all faces there was an expression of tension, which people experience when they are close to higher authorities. The prisoners huddled together and were pushed off the road; The guards lined up.
– L"Empereur! L"Empereur! Le marechal! Le duc! [Emperor! Emperor! Marshal! Duke!] - and the well-fed guards had just passed when a carriage thundered in a train, on gray horses. Pierre caught a glimpse of the calm, handsome, thick and white face of a man in a three-cornered hat. It was one of the marshals. The marshal's gaze turned to the large, conspicuous figure of Pierre, and in the expression with which this marshal frowned and turned his face away, Pierre seemed to have compassion and a desire to hide it.
The general who ran the depot, with a red, frightened face, driving his thin horse, galloped after the carriage. Several officers came together and the soldiers surrounded them. Everyone had tense, excited faces.
– Qu"est ce qu"il a dit? Qu"est ce qu"il a dit?.. [What did he say? What? What?..] - Pierre heard.
During the marshal's passage, the prisoners huddled together, and Pierre saw Karataev, whom he had not seen that morning. Karataev was sitting in his overcoat, leaning against a birch tree. In his face, in addition to yesterday’s expression of joyful emotion when he told the story of the merchant’s innocent suffering, there was also an expression of quiet solemnity.
Karataev looked at Pierre with his kind, round eyes, now stained with tears, and, apparently, called him to him, wanted to say something. But Pierre was too afraid for himself. He acted as if he had not seen his gaze and hurriedly walked away.
When the prisoners set off again, Pierre looked back. Karataev was sitting on the edge of the road, near a birch tree; and two Frenchmen were saying something above him. Pierre didn't look back anymore. He walked, limping, up the mountain.
Behind, from the place where Karataev was sitting, a shot was heard. Pierre clearly heard this shot, but at the same moment he heard it, Pierre remembered that he had not yet finished the calculation he had begun before the marshal passed about how many crossings remained to Smolensk. And he began to count. Two French soldiers, one of whom was holding a removed, smoking gun in his hand, ran past Pierre. They were both pale, and in the expression of their faces - one of them looked timidly at Pierre - there was something similar to what he had seen in young soldier for execution. Pierre looked at the soldier and remembered how this soldier of the third day burned his shirt while drying it on a fire and how they laughed at him.
The dog howled from behind, from the place where Karataev was sitting. “What a fool, what is she howling about?” - thought Pierre.
The comrade soldiers walking next to Pierre did not look back, just like him, at the place from which a shot was heard and then the howl of a dog; but a stern expression lay on all faces.

The depot, the prisoners, and the marshal's convoy stopped in the village of Shamsheva. Everything huddled around the fires. Pierre went to the fire, ate the roasted horse meat, lay down with his back to the fire and immediately fell asleep. He slept again the same sleep that he slept in Mozhaisk after Borodin.
Again the events of reality were combined with dreams, and again someone, whether he himself or someone else, told him thoughts, and even the same thoughts that were spoken to him in Mozhaisk.
“Life is everything. Life is God. Everything moves and moves, and this movement is God. And as long as there is life, there is the pleasure of self-consciousness of the deity. Love life, love God. It is most difficult and most blissful to love this life in one’s suffering, in the innocence of suffering.”
“Karataev” - Pierre remembered.
And suddenly Pierre introduced himself to a living, long-forgotten, gentle old teacher who taught Pierre geography in Switzerland. “Wait,” said the old man. And he showed Pierre the globe. This globe was a living, oscillating ball that had no dimensions. The entire surface of the ball consisted of drops tightly compressed together. And these drops all moved, moved and then merged from several into one, then from one they were divided into many. Each drop sought to spread out, to capture the greatest possible space, but others, striving for the same thing, compressed it, sometimes destroyed it, sometimes merged with it.
“This is life,” said the old teacher.
“How simple and clear this is,” thought Pierre. “How could I not know this before?”
- There is God in the middle, and every drop strives to expand so that largest sizes reflect it. And it grows, merges, and shrinks, and is destroyed on the surface, goes into the depths and floats up again. Here he is, Karataev, overflowing and disappearing. “Vous avez compris, mon enfant, [You understand.],” said the teacher.
“Vous avez compris, sacre nom, [You understand, damn you.],” a voice shouted, and Pierre woke up.
He rose and sat down. A Frenchman, who had just pushed aside a Russian soldier, sat squatting by the fire, frying meat put on a ramrod. Veiny, rolled-up, hairy, red hands with short fingers deftly turned the ramrod. A brown gloomy face with frowning eyebrows was clearly visible in the light of the coals.
“Ca lui est bien egal,” he grumbled, quickly turning to the soldier standing behind him. -...brigand. Va! [He doesn't care... a robber, really!]
And the soldier, twirling the ramrod, looked gloomily at Pierre. Pierre turned away, peering into the shadows. One Russian soldier, a prisoner, the one who had been pushed away by the Frenchman, sat by the fire and ruffled something with his hand. Looking closer, Pierre recognized a purple dog, which, wagging its tail, was sitting next to the soldier.
- Oh, did you come? - said Pierre. “Ah, Pla...” he began and didn’t finish. In his imagination, suddenly, at the same time, connecting with each other, a memory arose of the look with which Plato looked at him, sitting under a tree, of the shot heard in that place, of the howl of a dog, of the criminal faces of two Frenchmen who ran past him, of the filmed a smoking gun, about the absence of Karataev at this halt, and he was ready to understand that Karataev was killed, but at the same moment in his soul, coming from God knows where, a memory arose of the evening he spent with the beautiful Polish woman, in the summer, on the balcony of his Kyiv house. And yet, without connecting the memories of this day and without drawing a conclusion about them, Pierre closed his eyes, and the picture of summer nature mixed with the memory of swimming, of a liquid oscillating ball, and he sank somewhere into the water, so that the water converged above his head.
Before sunrise, he was awakened by loud, frequent shots and screams. The French ran past Pierre.
- Les cosaques! [Cossacks!] - one of them shouted, and a minute later a crowd of Russian faces surrounded Pierre.
For a long time Pierre could not understand what was happening to him. From all sides he heard the cries of joy of his comrades.
- Brothers! My dears, my dears! - the old soldiers cried, crying, hugging the Cossacks and hussars. Hussars and Cossacks surrounded the prisoners and hurriedly offered them dresses, boots, and bread. Pierre sobbed, sitting among them, and could not utter a word; he hugged the first soldier who approached him and, crying, kissed him.
Dolokhov stood at the gate of a ruined house, letting a crowd of disarmed French pass by. The French, excited by everything that had happened, spoke loudly among themselves; but when they passed by Dolokhov, who was lightly whipping his boots with his whip and looking at them with his cold, glassy gaze, promising nothing good, their conversation fell silent. On the other side stood the Cossack Dolokhov and counted the prisoners, marking hundreds with a chalk line on the gate.
- How many? – Dolokhov asked the Cossack who was counting the prisoners.
“For the second hundred,” answered the Cossack.
“Filez, filez, [Come in, come in.],” Dolokhov said, having learned this expression from the French, and, meeting the eyes of passing prisoners, his gaze flashed with a cruel brilliance.
Denisov, with a gloomy face, having taken off his hat, walked behind the Cossacks, who were carrying the body of Petya Rostov to a hole dug in the garden.

From October 28, when frosts began, the flight of the French only took on a more tragic character: people freezing and roasting to death at the fires and continuing to ride in fur coats and carriages with the looted goods of the emperor, kings and dukes; but in essence, the process of flight and disintegration of the French army has not changed at all since the speech from Moscow.
From Moscow to Vyazma, out of the seventy-three thousand strong French army, not counting the guards (which throughout the war did nothing but plunder), out of seventy-three thousand, thirty-six thousand remained (of this number, no more than five thousand died in battles). Here is the first term of the progression, which mathematically correctly determines the subsequent ones.
The French army in the same proportion melted and was destroyed from Moscow to Vyazma, from Vyazma to Smolensk, from Smolensk to Berezina, from Berezina to Vilna, regardless of the greater or lesser degree of cold, persecution, blocking the path and all other conditions taken separately. After Vyazma, the French troops, instead of three columns, huddled together in one heap and continued like this until the end. Berthier wrote to his sovereign (it is known how far from the truth commanders allow themselves to describe the situation of the army). He wrote:
“Je crois devoir faire connaitre a Votre Majeste l"etat de ses troupes dans les differents corps d"annee que j"ai ete a meme d"observer depuis deux ou trois jours dans differents passages. Elles sont presque debandees. Le nombre des soldats qui suivent les drapeaux est en proportion du quart au plus dans presque tous les regiments, les autres marchent isolement dans differentes directions et pour leur compte, dans l "esperance de trouver des subsistances et pour se debarrasser de la discipline. En general ils regardent Smolensk comme le point ou ils doivent se refaire. Ces derniers jours on a remarque que beaucoup de soldats jettent leurs cartouches et leurs armes. vues ulterieures qu"on rallie l"armee a Smolensk en commencant a la debarrasser des non combattans, tels que hommes demontes et des bagages inutiles et du materiel de l"artillerie qui n"est plus en proportion avec les forces actuelles. En outre les jours de repos, des subsistances sont necessaires aux soldats qui sont extenues par la faim et la fatigue; beaucoup sont morts ces derniers jours sur la route et dans les bivacs. Cet etat de choses va toujours en augmentant et donne lieu de craindre que si l"on n"y prete un prompt remede, on ne soit plus maitre des troupes dans un combat. Le 9 November, a 30 verstes de Smolensk.”
[It is my duty to inform Your Majesty about the condition of the corps that I examined on the march in the last three days. They are almost in complete disarray. Only a quarter of the soldiers remain with the banners; the rest go on their own in different directions, trying to find food and get rid of service. Everyone thinks only about Smolensk, where they hope to relax. In recent days, many soldiers have thrown away their cartridges and guns. Whatever your further intentions, the benefit of Your Majesty’s service requires gathering corps in Smolensk and separating from them dismounted cavalrymen, unarmed ones, excess convoys and part of the artillery, since it is now not in proportion to the number of troops. Food and a few days of rest are needed; the soldiers are exhausted by hunger and fatigue; In recent days, many have died on the road and in bivouacs. This distress is constantly increasing, and makes us fear that, unless prompt measures are taken to prevent the evil, we will soon have no troops at our command in the event of a battle. November 9, 30 versts from Smolenko.]
Having burst into Smolensk, which seemed to them the promised land, the French killed each other for provisions, robbed their own stores and, when everything was looted, ran on.
Everyone walked, not knowing where or why they were going. Napoleon's genius knew this even less than others, since no one ordered him. But still, he and those around him followed their long-standing habits: they wrote orders, letters, reports, ordre du jour [daily routine]; called each other:
“Sire, Mon Cousin, Prince d" Ekmuhl, roi de Naples" [Your Majesty, my brother, Prince of Ekmuhl, King of Naples.] etc. But the orders and reports were only on paper, nothing was carried out on them, because which could not be fulfilled, and, despite calling each other majesties, highnesses and cousins, they all felt that they were pathetic and disgusting people who had done a lot of evil, for which they now had to pay. And, despite the fact that they pretended to care about the army, they each thought only about themselves and how to quickly leave and save themselves.

The actions of the Russian and French troops during the return campaign from Moscow to the Neman, it is similar to a game of blind man's buff, when two players are blindfolded and one occasionally rings a bell to notify the catcher. At first, the one who is caught calls without fear of the enemy, but when he gets into trouble, he, trying to walk silently, runs away from his enemy and often, thinking of running away, goes straight into his arms.
At first, Napoleonic troops still made themselves felt - this was during the first period of movement along the Kaluga road, but then, having got out onto the Smolensk road, they ran, pressing the bell with their hand, and often, thinking that they were leaving, ran straight into the Russians.
Given the speed of the French and the Russians behind them, and as a result of the exhaustion of the horses, the main means of approximate recognition of the position in which the enemy was located - cavalry patrols - did not exist. In addition, due to the frequent and rapid changes in the positions of both armies, the information that was available could not keep up in time. If the news came on the second day that the enemy army was there either on the first day or on the third, when something could have been done, this army had already made two marches and was in a completely different position.
One army fled, the other caught up. From Smolensk the French had many different roads ahead of them; and, it would seem, here, after standing for four days, the French could find out where the enemy is, figure out something advantageous and do something new. But after a four-day stop, the crowds again ran, not to the right, not to the left, but, without any maneuvers or considerations, along the old, worse road, to Krasnoe and Orsha - along the broken trail.
Expecting the enemy from behind rather than in front, the French fled, spread out and separated from each other by a distance of twenty-four hours. The emperor ran ahead of everyone, then the kings, then the dukes. The Russian army, thinking that Napoleon would take the right beyond the Dnieper, which was the only reasonable thing, also moved to the right and reached the high road to Krasnoe. And then, as if in a game of blind man's buff, the French stumbled upon our vanguard. Suddenly seeing the enemy, the French became confused, paused from the surprise of fear, but then ran again, leaving their comrades behind. Here, as if through a formation of Russian troops, three days passed, one after another, separate parts of the French, first the viceroy, then Davout, then Ney. They all abandoned each other, abandoned all their burdens, artillery, half the people and ran away, only at night going around the Russians in semicircles on the right.

Countries and peoples. Questions and answers Kukanova Yu. V.

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Confucius is the most famous sage and thinker in Chinese history. His teaching had a huge impact on the life of China and East Asia, becoming the basis philosophical system called Confucianism. He was born in Lu (now Shandong Province) in 551 BC.

Confucius was the first in China to advocate that people should be educated to make the world a better place, and considered learning a way of life. He excelled in six Chinese arts: ritual, music, archery, chariot riding, calligraphy (writing) and arithmetic. In addition, Confucius was a brilliant teacher.

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One of these “giants of thought” is considered to be Confucius, who even created a separate movement in philosophy called after him. He lived quite a long time ago, approximately in the fifth century BC, therefore information about him is scanty and sparse. However, few people really know what kind of person he was and what his fate was. It makes sense to figure it out based solely on objective facts that have survived to this day.

Eastern sage Confucius: biography of a calm man

The most famous fact about this man is that it was he who founded an entire school of philosophy, which was called Confucianism. His teachings were based on moral and ethical standards of behavior that have not lost their relevance and relevance even today. It was they who became the guide for relations between different layers of society, as well as between the state and the individual.

When understanding who Confucius is, one should understand that his teaching cannot be perceived as a religion in its pure form. Despite the fact that even during the life of the sage, the state accepted his philosophy as official, it should be considered solely as an incentive and guide to action, as an everyday “guide” for a highly moral person who is responsible to himself and others. Religious cultism and ritualism, as we know it, are completely absent from this teaching.

Briefly about the sage of China

For many years in a row, Confucius can be safely called a symbol of the Celestial Empire, its ancient, deep culture and original philosophical thought. He is also called the first teacher of all Chinese, because for many centuries, not only the inhabitants of this one country, but also numerous neighbors lived according to the rules and norms drawn up by this man: Koreans, Japanese and others eastern peoples. He can be placed on a par with the Prophet Muhammad for the Muslim community or Jesus Christ for the entire Christian world.

In his teachings, Confucius never said that he invented something himself, but he repeated many times that he relied on ancient wisdom, which for centuries shaped the postulates of the worldview, which he put into words and drew on paper. He considered a person not a separate unit, but a part of something whole, for example, society. Any particle of the universe, including an individual, necessarily interacts with the surrounding universe. If you do not achieve harmony in this, then dissonance will upset the precarious balance. At the same time, the sage himself recognized the power of the ruler as absolutely sacred, his decisions as unshakable, and the division of people into “noble men” and “petty little people” was completely fair.

Like Socrates, Aristotle or Pythagoras, Confucius did not leave a written statement of his philosophy. Like the ancient sages, he acquired disciples who wrote down his words and preserved his words for posterity, compiling a book called “Lun Yu”. Loosely translated, it sounds like “Conversations and Judgments.” Basically, it is a long list of various aphorisms and wise sayings for every day for any occasion.

The early years of the future Teacher

It is well known that the sage descended from the ancient aristocratic Kun family. His ancient ancestor was a certain Wei Tzu, who faithfully served the emperor of the Zhou dynasty, who reigned back in the eleventh or tenth century BC. Emperor Chen-wan, seeing the valor and loyalty of his beloved warrior, decided to “reward” him with the inheritance (princedom) of Song, thereby making him zhu hou (prince).

Time passed, generations passed, the merits of the great warriors were forgotten, and the family itself gradually lost influence, until Mu Jingfu (one of the ancestors) had to flee from his native land in order to save his life. He decided to stop in the province of Lu.

The father of the future philosopher, Shuliang He, was a professional military man, and by the time his son appeared, he was already in his seventies. He took a young seventeen-year-old concubine from the city of Qufu named Yan Zhengzai, who immediately became pregnant. Around the year 551, she gave birth to a baby, who at birth received the name Kun Qiu. When the boy was only one and a half years old, his elderly father died. He had to reach all worldly wisdom on his own, under the guidance of a gentle and loving mother.

Shuliang He's elder wives openly disliked the young girl. Even during her husband’s life, they plotted against her. When he died, fearing for the life of her baby, she decided to go home. Return to parents' house It was considered a shame, so the young widow settled separately and began to raise her son. From early childhood, the boy was taught to help his mother, since they did not have a penny to their name, and also to worship their ancestors, as was customary in China at that time. His mother always told him about what a great, fearless warrior and fair ruler his father was, so the tomboy decided to take his rightful place in this world.

Six Arts

To achieve anything, a good education was required, but there was no money for teachers. Therefore, the boy decided to study on his own. As was customary, he began to study the six arts.

Performing rituals.
Understanding and reproduction (performance) of musical works.
Archery.
Reading and writing.
Driving a chariot with one, two or three horses.
Proficiency in counting skills (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division).

Only by perfectly mastering all these wisdoms could a young man receive the status of an aristocrat, a true “noble man.”

Administrative career of Confucius

Perseverance, diligence and even some “workaholism” led to the young man being noticed. At first he was assigned to the position of barn manager. He was in charge of the acceptance, issuance, and accounting of grain from the Ji clan from the kingdom of Lu (now Shandong province). After some time, seeing the zeal and dedication young man, and according to evidence, by that time he had turned nineteen, the ruler decided to promote him. Then he was appointed as an official who was responsible for keeping records of livestock.

By then ruling dynasty Zhou was in its final years, and the emperor's power had become more nominal than real. Devastation reigned in the country, the poor became even poorer, and instead of true noble men, the ruler was surrounded by “pseudo-aristocrats” who thirsted only for money and unlimited power. At the age of twenty-seven, the philosopher Confucius, who had already become famous throughout the province for his wisdom and prudence, was taken to serve in the main shrine (prayer house with idols) of the kingdom of Lu. Students who wanted to hear wisdom from the lips of Confucius followed him in crowds for a long time and slept outside the gates of his house.

The teacher never paid attention to the pedigree (origin) of the young men who came to him. He believed that the son of a commoner was quite capable of becoming a noble husband. Around the year 500, he accepted the post of head of the entire judicial department, but envious people staged a provocation at one of the services. This forced the gray-haired husband to pack his things and go home for fourteen long years.

From management to teaching

Seeing all the imperfections of the world, having gathered his students, Confucius set off on a journey. The man was literally thrown off balance by the inability of some rulers to find a common language with the people and maintain their trust. He decided to find a king who would listen to his words, heed his pleas and restore the country to what it was in its best years - a period of prosperity. He needed an emperor for whom the thirst for power, money-grubbing, intrigue and betrayal would be completely unacceptable.

He even managed to impress the governor of the Qi province, but the dignitaries, frightened, ridiculed the sage. Then the prince asked him to leave, considering himself too old to endure the mockery of himself. Only in 497 did Confucius return to his native land, where he was surprised to find that he was received with honor.

The king turned out to be merciful: he appointed the famous sage as governor of Zhong-du, where he was already officially able to open a school. The previously gained experience became his best help; he immediately put judicial and agricultural affairs in order, confiscated lands from bribe-takers, which led to the emergence of dissatisfied people and even enemies.

It was very difficult for him in this position, as sometimes he had to step over himself. He even executed one of the officials, contrary to his firm convictions. His disciples were amazed. The sage answered them that the criminal deceived people, and persisted in his lies, for which he paid.

How to properly govern a country according to Confucius

At the dawn of any civilization, the various emerging religious movements were very closely intertwined with mythology, in an attempt to explain the emergence of man. Therefore, in the teachings of Confucius, legist (school of legalists) ideas of the wisdom of ancestors predominate. This means that everything must be based on the teachings drawn from their lives, actions and laws established by them. The souls of ancestors were considered best friends and reliable advisers.

A special role in Confucianism is given to the rules that the ruler must observe. First of all, the king must behave like a loving father who does not wish harm to his children - the people. Respect and leniency were the main tenets of the teaching. In the search for perfection, each person follows his own path, which forms the concept of Tao (road, direction), which has neither end nor beginning, it is eternal and indestructible. Moreover, he leads everyone where they are supposed to go, regardless of personal activity or desire.

An important point in thinking about human nature was the original doctrine of the correction of names - one of the main concepts of the entire teaching. The philosopher Confucius managed to combine science with true values, and came up with several basic concepts that were not suitable for “naming” people, especially rulers. In his opinion, inappropriate or “wrong” names should have been corrected. It is believed that it was from this doctrine that the prejudices associated with the magical manipulation of names in the future by mystics and “sorcerers” grew.

Sociological reflections on human nature

The six canons of Confucianism deduced by the scholar should be explained. They are identical to the arts that we have already discussed. But there is also the “Pentateuch” (not to be confused with the Book of the Covenant of Moses) – “Wu-Ching”.

"I Ching" or "Book of Changes".
"Chun-qiu" or "Spring and Autumn: Chronicle".
"Shi Ching" or "Book of Songs".
"Li Chi" or "Book of Ceremonies".
"Shu-ching" or "Book of Legends".

This is one of the most ancient monuments of the chronicle heritage of the Celestial Empire. In all these works there is a lot of completely historical information about those times. There you can find the virtues that are necessary for harmonious life and development of the individual.

Philanthropy (the principle of “love your neighbor” among Christians).
Justice (equal rights before the court for everyone).
Ritual (observance of ritual).
Prudence (judgment in objective reality).
Sincerity (conscientiousness in carrying out any task).

Personal life of a philosopher: the years of Confucius’s life and his death

Contrary to misconceptions, this great Chinese scientist “noble man” was not alone. He never claimed the monastic title, although he was not interested in getting rich either. He wanted to live in harmony with the world around him and teach everyone else to do the same.

Wife and son

Legends tell about the marriage of Confucius, the most likely is the following. At nineteen years old the young man met beautiful girl named Kikoan Shi from the noble family of Qi from Song Province. A year later they already had a little son. In honor of such a solemn event, Ruler Zhang Kung sent the family a gift of live carp from the royal ponds. Therefore, it was decided to name the baby Li, which means carp. The boy also had the nickname Bo Yu (fish, eldest of the brothers).

Confucius hoped that he would have more sons, but it did not work out. A year later, his wife gave birth to a daughter, whose name and fate are unknown. There are hints in some texts that the sage divorced his wife when he left his job and began working on his school, but this is also unreliable.

Death of an Ancient Thinker

According to the notes of Tzu Kung's disciple, the sage felt in advance that death would soon await him. He began to have visions and prophetic dreams, which seemed to foreshadow his imminent decline. He gathered his disciples and went with them on a trip to China, but none of the rulers wanted to listen to the elder. The years of Confucius's life were inevitably coming to an end.

Returning home, he told his followers that it was his turn and went to bed. The philosopher died in the year 479, having reached his eighties. He was buried in a high mound, around which the village of Kung-li was soon formed, where his grandson Tsi-kung lived. It is said that the dried wood from this mound is still kept as a shrine.

The further fate of Confucian teachings: the memory of the greatest Chinese sage of the past

Immediately after the death of the sage, his teaching did not become popular. His image is introduced into classical Chinese philosophy gradually. Only during the reign of the Han dynasty, which lived in the Middle Kingdom around the dawn of our era, did he begin to be considered not only a teacher or politician, but also a demigod, legislator and “father of the people.”

During the Three Kingdoms period (240s AD), Confucius finally acquired the aristocratic title of wang, and at the beginning of the sixteenth century he began to be called “the greatest sage of the sages of the past.”

In the 17th century, a fashion for everything Chinese suddenly arose in Europe, and then Confucianism penetrated into this part of the world. Such great minds as Gottfried Leibniz, Matteo Ricci, Nicolas Malebranche and Johann Gottfried Herder were interested in him. Hegel, in his lectures, notes that the teachings of Confucius are a collection of platitudes that are known to everyone.

The sage is credited with the authorship of many books, but scientists believe that he himself definitely wrote one - “Conversations and Judgments” (“Lun Yu”). After the examination system was introduced in the Celestial Empire, many monuments and temples were built to the great taxonomist and scientist in the cities of Taichung, Qufu, as well as in Shanghai and Beijing. The story of his life is reflected in feature and documentary films. Many writers also turned their attention to his person. For example, diplomat and writer Pavel Stepanovich Popov collected his wise speeches into a single book, which was published in Russian.