Lessons 44-46. Contents and forms of spiritual activity

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Creative activity

Creative activity

What is “creative activity”? How is it different from other activities?

What associations do you have when you hear the word “creativity”? (After the children’s answers, as the teacher explains, a diagram is built.)

What is the social essence of activity?

What is the structure of the activity?

How are the goals, means and results of activities related to each other?

What are the motives for the activity?

How are needs and interests related?

What are the features of creative activity?

Complete the tasks for the paragraph.

Homework Learn § 17, complete the tasks.

The main character of J. Salinger's story "The Catcher in the Rye" is a teenager who lives with one aspiration, one dream: to prevent the kids, carefree frolicking in the field, from falling into the abyss that is right there, nearby. One teacher used the image of this book when thinking about the role of culture, the role of spiritual activity in the formation of personality. He called the culture "catcher in the rye." It is no secret that today's world has significantly raised and strengthened material incentives. But once upon a time in ancient times it was said: “Not by bread alone...”

The “School Philosophical Dictionary” gives the following interpretation of these categories:

Spirit- the ideal world, the stage of its involvement in consciousness, most fully embodied in man.

Spiritual - a special sphere of activity, which is characterized by specific manifestations of the spirit - language, morality, ideology, politics, religion, art, philosophy. The spiritual also includes the highest values ​​of human existence - freedom, love, creativity, faith.

We will explore complex but very interesting questions in today's lesson.

So, how does the process of creating and mastering spiritual values ​​occur? What features does this process have? As my story progresses, you should write down the answers to these questions in the form of abstracts in your notebooks.

In the last lesson we found out the structure of any activity. Spiritual activity is no exception. It follows the same pattern:

Goal -> means -> result

The result is the formation of spiritual values. - What are spiritual values ​​and how do they differ from all others?

Researchers mean by value something without which a person cannot imagine a full life, something that is sacred for a particular person, for a group of people or for all of humanity. Values ​​organize reality, introduce evaluative moments into its understanding, and give meaning to human life. Nowadays, even a special science has appeared axiology- a science that studies values.

Philosophers pay attention to the following distinctive features of spiritual phenomena:

Ideality. By creating works of art and culture, people objectify they contain their own knowledge, emotions, life experiences, their ideals, aspirations and hopes. Assimilating culture in the process of learning and self-education, people, on the contrary, deobjectify spiritual values ​​contained in it, expanding and developing individual creative abilities.

The social nature of spiritual values. Spiritual values ​​are created in the process of communication, spread through communication and serve to enhance social interactions. During the consumption of spiritual values, their total fund does not decrease, but increases. For example: “If I have an apple and I give it to you, then I will no longer have an apple. If I have an idea and I share it with you, then we both have a common idea.”

In the process of value creation, a specific role is played by signs and symbols. Signs and symbols surround us everywhere, and the overall level of a person’s cultural competence depends on how quickly and accurately we decipher their secret language.

Thus, the mechanism of a mental process relates to the organs in which it occurs and its result to the external world. Subjectivity the final result of the mental process cannot be formulated in the physiological language of internal phenomena in the organ carrier, that is, from physiological changes it is impossible to understand what the body reacts to. SIGNS OF MENTAL Subjectivity.

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1. Distinctive features of mental processes

Mental processes are distinguished from the totality of all physical phenomena by a number of signs

1. Objectivity (the phenomenon of mental projection) - the mechanism of any mental process is described in physiological terms, but the result of the mental process can only be described in words that denote signs of the external world. For example, a sensation can only be described through the attributes of the object that causes it: shape, color, size, smell, taste. Thus, the mechanism of a mental process refers to the organs in which it occurs, and its result refers to the external world. That is, in the psyche, spatially... the place where the mental image is formed, and the place where it is projected. Correct localization is the result of the work of paired analyzers.
2. Subjectivity the final result of the mental process cannot be formulated in the physiological language of internal phenomena in the host organ, that is, it is impossible to understand from physiological changes what the body is reacting to. In fact, subjectivity is the flip side of objectivity.
3. Sensory inaccessibility mental processes are inaccessible to direct sensory observation. Only physiological processes taking place in the organ are accessible to external observation. Only the results of physiological processes are open to the subject himself.
4. Spontaneous activity behavior cannot be directly deduced from physiological changes within the body or from physical properties or stimuli affecting it, that is, mental activity gives the impression of being free, independent of external and internal factors. The simpler the psyche, the less the degree of freedom, and the more complex the psyche, the freer the individual is in his actions.

SIGNS OF MENTAL

1. Objectivity.

The initial feature of any act as a mental one is empirically expressed primarily in the existence of two series of facts that express in completely different ways the relationship of this act to the internal dynamics of the processes occurring in its organ.

1. the mechanism of any mental process is, in principle, described in the same system of physiological concepts and in the same general physiological language as the mechanism of any physical act of life.
2. the final, final characteristics of any mental process in the general case can be described only in terms of the properties and relationships of external objects, the physical existence of which is completely unrelated to the organ of this mental process and which constitute its content.

Thus, perception or idea, which is a function of the sense organ, cannot be described except in terms of shape, size, hardness, etc. perceived or imagined object. A thought can be described only in terms of the characteristics of those objects, the relationships between which it reveals, emotion in terms of relationships to those events, objects or persons that cause it, and an arbitrary decision or act of will cannot be expressed otherwise than in terms of those events in relation to which corresponding actions or actions are performed. Thus, the procedural dynamics of the mechanism and the integral characteristic of the result in a mental act are related to different objects: the first to the organ, the second to the object.

1. Subjectivity.
2. in the picture of the mental process, which reveals to the bearer of the psyche the properties of its objects, the entire internal dynamics of those shifts in the states of the carrier organ that realize this process remains completely hidden and not represented.

The final, final parameters of the mental process cannot be formulated in the strictly physiological language of those phenomena and quantities that are revealed to observation in the carrier organ. This inability to formulate the characteristics of mental processes in the physiological language of internal changes in their substrate is the flip side of their formulation only in the language of the properties and relationships of their object.

1. Sensual inaccessibility.
2. mental processes are inaccessible to direct sensory observation.

A mental process (perception or thought) reveals to its carrier-subject the properties of an object, leaving completely hidden the changes in the substrate that make up the mechanism of this process. But, on the other hand, changes in the substrate, open to varying degrees of completeness for an outside observer, do not reveal to him the characteristics of the mental process of another person.

A person does not perceive his perceptions, but the objective picture of their objects is directly revealed to him.

To external observation, neither the objective picture of another person’s perceptions and thoughts, nor their actual mental “fabric” or “material” is revealed. It is and only the processes in the organ that constitute the mechanism of a mental act that are accessible to direct observation from the outside.

1. Spontaneous activity.

The next specific characteristic of the mental process, unlike the previous ones, determines not a direct relationship to an object or its immediate substrate, but expression in a behavioral act, in an external action, an impulse directed through the mental process. This feature, the origins of which are deeply hidden under the phenomenological surface and are associated with distant mediations in time and space, contains a completely special originality of the activity of the mental process.

It is a form of activity that not only “animates” but also “animates” the physical flesh of the organism. Nothing other than the special nature of activity underlies the primary empirical identification of “animate” beings (animals) as a particular form of living organisms.

Feature: at all levels of behavior from the simplest locomotor act to the highest manifestations of rationality and morality in a voluntary human act specific parameters of the structure and dynamics of this act cannot be directly derived either from physiological changes within the body or from the physical properties of the stimuli acting on it. This is what makes such activity mental precisely because it does not directly follow either from the physiology of the internal processes of the body, or from the physics, biology and sociology of its immediate external environment. But at the same time, since this activity is not an unambiguous resultant of physiological and physical forces, it does not have a program that is strictly predetermined and fixed in all its specific implementations and details, and the subject can act “in many ways”; mental activity manifests itself and is empirically distinguished asactivity is free.

1. Psychophysical and psychophysiological problem. Weber-Fechner law.

Psychophysical problem the question of the relationship between the mental and the physical.

Psychophysiological problem the problem of connecting mental phenomena with physiological processes occurring in the body. In other words, why do we see the world as we do, and not as a combination of electromagnetic fields, which is the study of physics, and not as a series of electrical impulses in neural circuits or the distribution of electrical potentials in different parts of the cortex, the subject of physiology. That is, the psychophysical and psychophysiological problems lie in the study of the phenomenon of projectivity and subjectivity.

When resolving a psychophysical problem, on the one hand, it is necessary to reveal the dependence of the psyche on the brain, on the nervous system, on the organic “substrate”; on the other hand, it is necessary to take into account its dependence on the object that it reflects. Materialism tries to reduce the solution to a psychophysical problem to the first dependence alone and considers the psyche as something derivative; idealism, on the contrary, asserts the primacy and independence of the psyche. Traditional psychology was dominated by dualistic theories that separated and contrasted the psyche and the body. Modern psychology proceeds from the principle of psychophysiological unity, within which both the mental and the physical retain their specific properties.

One of the open patterns between the mental and physical is the Weber-Fechner law.

In a series of experiments beginning in 1834, Weber established that a certain ratio between the intensities of two stimuli is required for them to be perceived as different. This relationship is expressed in the law: the ratio of the additional stimulus to the main one must be a constant value (Δу/Δу=к ). Based on Weber's law, Fechner made the assumption that barely noticeable differences between sensations can be considered as equal, and taken as a unit of measure, with the help of which the intensity of sensations can be numerically expressed as the sum (integral) of barely noticeable increases, counting from the threshold of absolute sensitivity. He expressed the relationship between the magnitude of the stimulus and the magnitude of the sensation in a logarithmic formula: E = k, where k and C some constants. This is the Weber-Fechner psychophysical law. However, a number of discovered phenomena do not fit into Weber's law and Fechner's law. In particular, this applies to protopathic sensitivity, when touch either does not cause sensation at all or causes pain.

In the 20th century, Stevens refined the Weber-Fechner law by replacing the logarithmic function with a power function: S = k

Yu. M. Zabrodin proposed his explanation of the psychophysical relationship, formulating a generalized version of the basic psychophysical law, which combines Fechner’s logarithmic law and Stevens’ power law.

It is very complex, and there is still no final and generally accepted solution. Formally, it can be expressed by a question: How do physiological and mental processes relate? In a broad sense, this is a question about the place of the psyche in nature; in a narrow way - the problem of the relationship between mental and physiological (nervous) processes. In the second case, it is more correct to call it psychophysiological.

Two main solutions were proposed, calledprinciple of interaction between psychophysical And principle of parallelism psychophysicalth. However, both of them face significant difficulties.

It is possible to propose another solution to the psychophysical problem. It is similar to the monistic version of the parallel solution:there is a single material process, and the physiological and psychological are simply two different sides of it.But it is necessary to understand more deeply and clearly what this unified process is and what its various aspects are. From an epistemological point of view, in any science a certain system of ideas about the laws of the world is developed, but then the ontologization of these ideas occurs: the object is declared to be what is currently thought about it. We can talk about the real world and the world of our ideas and theories about it - the model world. Then the processontologization is described as the transformation of the model world into the real world;The error one falls into is called Pygmalion syndrome. Ontology itself is a natural and necessary process in science. But during critical periods of its development - during periods of change of theories - the distinction between the real and model worlds is useful and even necessary. The psychophysical problem is one of these critical problems. What is this single process, the sides of which are physiological and mental processes? And in what sense should they be understood as sides of a single process? Strictly speaking, it is impossible to answer this question, because to describe a certain process it is necessary to choose a consistent system of concepts - to highlight some aspect, some side of the process. To partially overcome this difficulty, you can look at things from the most general and unusual position possible - from the position of a “Martian”, looking from the outside and also possessing extraordinary capabilities. Observing the same process - the life activity of people - through different “filters”, he could see either emotional states, then flows and accumulations of information, then biochemical processes, then mathematical formulas of the model world... So, brain and mental “processes” (not having independent existence) turn out to be only two sides out of many sides isolated from the process of life. The “filters” that highlight these aspects are, first of all, methods of cognition. One should only be wary of the ontologization of these parties.

WEBER-FECHNER LAW

- the basic psychophysical law determines the relationship between the intensity of sensation and the strength of stimulation acting on any sensory organ. Based on the observation of the German physiologist E. Weber, who established (183034) that not an absolute, but a relative increase in the strength of a stimulus (light, sound, weight pressing on the skin, etc.) is perceived.

Z : logarithmic dependence of the strength of sensation (E) on the physical intensity of the stimulus (P): E = klogP + c, where k and c are some constants determined by a given sensory system.

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What is a "psychic phenomenon"?

Mental phenomena are usually understood as facts of internal, subjective experience. The fundamental property of mental phenomena is their direct presentation to the subject. We not only see, feel, think, but also we know what we see, feel, think. Psychic phenomena not only occur in us, but are also revealed directly to us; we simultaneously carry out our mental activity and are aware of it. This unique feature of mental phenomena predetermined the feature of the science that studies them. In psychology, the object and subject of cognition merge.

Signs of mental phenomena:

Objectivity. The content of a mental phenomenon and the mechanism of its occurrence are related to different objects: an object or an organ. Any external characteristics of an object are perceived as characteristics of the object, and not as properties of the supporting physiological system.

Independence of existence. Any mental state is associated with a change in the state of the body. But this connection is not unambiguous, not universal.

Ideality. Mental processes are not reducible to the physiological form of their occurrence. Ideal images of real objects and phenomena do not coincide with the material form of their embodiment.

Subjectivity. The content and form of existence of a mental phenomenon are individual, associated with personal experience and the psychophysiological state of the subject.

5. Inaccessibility to direct sensory observation. Any psychological process can be described in the system of concepts of the relationship of the individual with the outside world and in the system of concepts describing physiological processes, but all the resulting characteristics of mental phenomena relate to external objects, and not to supporting systems. In all cases of mental processes, the content, structure, and dynamics of changes are not clearly deduced either from the influence of the external environment or from the physiological characteristics of the organism.

It should be noted that the question of the subject of psychology today is not clearly resolved; on the contrary, it remains largely debatable. Representatives of various directions and schools of modern psychological science (behaviorism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, genetic psychology, associative psychology, cognitive psychology, humanistic psychology, etc.) interpret it depending on the goals and objectives that seem most important within the framework of this particular approach, which does not, of course, exclude attempts to combine different approaches. Therefore, it is logical to consider the main directions of modern psychology in order to understand their general orientation and the difference in approaches to the subject of science and research methods.

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. There are usually three large groups mental phenomena:

1) mental processes;

2) mental states;

3) mental properties.

Mental processes – dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. A mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end. It must be borne in mind that the end of one mental process is closely connected with the beginning of another. Hence the continuity of mental activity in a person’s waking state. Mental processes are caused both by external influences on the nervous system and by irritations emanating from the internal environment of the body. All mental processes are divided into cognitive, emotional And strong-willed(Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Classification of mental processes

Cognitive mental processes play a large role in human life and activity. Thanks to them, a person reflects the objective world around him, cognizes it and, on the basis of this, navigates the environment and acts consciously.

In complex mental activity, various processes are connected and form a single whole, ensuring an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation of various types of activity.

Mental conditions - this is a relatively stable level of mental activity determined at a given time, which is manifested by increased or decreased activity of the individual. Every person experiences different mental states every day (Fig. 6). In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and ineffective. Mental states are of a reflex nature and arise under the influence of a certain environment, physiological factors, time, etc.

Rice. 6. Classification of mental states

Mental properties of a person are stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior typical for a given person. Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is consolidated by practice. It is therefore the result of reflective and practical activity. The mental properties of a person are diverse (Fig. 7), and they need to be classified in accordance with the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed.

Rice. 7. Classification of mental properties

1. Cognitive mental processes

Cognitive mental processes are channels of our communication with the world. Incoming information about specific phenomena and objects undergoes changes and turns into an image. All human knowledge about the world around us is the result of the integration of individual knowledge obtained through cognitive mental processes. Each of these processes has its own characteristics and its own organization. But at the same time, proceeding simultaneously and harmoniously, these processes interact with each other imperceptibly for a person and, as a result, create for him a single, holistic, continuous picture of the objective world.

1. Feeling - the simplest cognitive mental process, during which there is a reflection of individual properties, qualities, aspects of reality, its objects and phenomena, connections between them, as well as internal states of the body that directly affect the human senses. Sensation is the source of our knowledge about the world and ourselves. All living organisms with a nervous system have the ability to sense sensations. Conscious sensations are characteristic only of living beings with a brain. The main role of sensations is to quickly convey to the central nervous system information about the state of both the external and internal environment of the body. All sensations arise as a result of the influence of irritating stimuli on the corresponding sensory organs. In order for a sensation to arise, it is necessary that the stimulus causing it reaches a certain value, called absolute lower threshold of sensation. Each type of sensation has its own thresholds.

But the sense organs have the ability to adapt to changing conditions, so the thresholds of sensations are not constant and can change when moving from one environmental condition to another. This ability is called adaptation of sensations. For example, when moving from light to dark, the sensitivity of the eye to various stimuli changes tens of times. The speed and completeness of adaptation of various sensory systems is not the same: in tactile sensations, with smell, a high degree of adaptation is noted, and the lowest degree is with pain, since pain is a signal of a dangerous disruption in the functioning of the body, and rapid adaptation of pain sensations can threaten its death.

The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a classification of sensations, presented in Fig. 8.

Exteroceptive sensations- these are sensations that arise when external stimuli influence human analyzers located on the surface of the body.

Proprioceptive sensations– these are sensations that reflect the movement and position of parts of the human body.

Interoceptive sensations– these are sensations that reflect the state of the internal environment of the human body.

According to the time of occurrence of sensations there are relevant And irrelevant.

For example, a sour taste in the mouth from lemon, a feeling of so-called “factual” pain in the amputated limb.

Rice. 8. Classification of sensations (according to Ch. Sherrington)

All sensations have the following characteristics:

¦ quality– an essential feature of sensations that allows one to distinguish one type from another (for example, auditory from visual);

¦ intensity– a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the current stimulus;

¦ duration– a temporary characteristic of sensations, determined by the time of exposure to the stimulus.

2. Perception - this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. Only humans and some higher representatives of the animal world have the ability to perceive the world in the form of images. Together with the processes of sensation, perception provides direct orientation in the surrounding world. It involves identifying the main and most significant features from the complex of recorded features, while simultaneously abstracting from the unimportant ones (Fig. 9). Unlike sensations, which reflect individual qualities of reality, with the help of perception an integral picture of reality is created. Perception is always subjective, since people perceive the same information differently depending on abilities, interests, life experience, etc.

Rice. 9. Classification of types of perception

Let us consider perception as an intellectual process of successive, interconnected acts of searching for signs necessary and sufficient for the formation of an image:

Primary selection of a number of features from the entire flow of information and making a decision that they relate to one specific object;

Searching in memory for a complex of signs similar in sensations;

Assigning a perceived object to a specific category;

Search for additional signs that confirm or refute the correctness of the decision;

The final conclusion about what object is perceived.

To the main properties of perception relate: integrity– internal organic relationship between parts and the whole in the image;

objectivity– the object is perceived by a person as a separate physical body isolated in space and time;

generality– assignment of each image to a certain class of objects;

constancy– the relative constancy of the perception of the image, the preservation of its parameters by the object regardless of the conditions of its perception (distance, lighting, etc.);

meaningfulness– understanding the essence of the perceived object in the process of perception;

selectivity– preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception.

Perception happens externally directed(perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed(perception of one’s own states, thoughts, feelings, etc.).

According to the time of occurrence, perception occurs relevant And irrelevant.

Perception may be wrong(or illusory), such as visual or auditory illusions.

The development of perception is very important for educational activities. Developed perception helps to quickly assimilate a larger amount of information with less energy expenditure.

3. Presentation - this is the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of previous experience. Ideas do not arise on their own, but as a result of practical activity.

Since ideas are based on past perceptual experience, the main classification of ideas is built on the basis of classifications of types of sensations and perceptions (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Classification of types of representations

Basic properties of views:

fragmentation– the presented image often lacks any of its features, sides, or parts;

instability(or impermanence)– the representation of any image sooner or later disappears from the field of human consciousness;

variability– when a person enriches himself with new experience and knowledge, a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world occurs.

4. Imagination - This is a cognitive mental process that consists in the creation of new images by a person based on his existing ideas. Imagination is closely related to human emotional experiences. Imagination differs from perception in that its images do not always correspond to reality; they may contain, to a greater or lesser extent, elements of fantasy and fiction. Imagination is the basis of visual-figurative thinking, which allows a person to navigate a situation and solve problems without direct practical intervention. It especially helps in cases where practical actions are either impossible, or difficult, or impractical.

Rice. eleven. Classification of types of imagination

When classifying types of imagination, they proceed from the main characteristics - degree of volitional effort And degree of activity(Fig. 11).

Recreating Imagination manifests itself when a person needs to recreate the idea of ​​an object based on its description (for example, when reading descriptions of geographical places or historical events, as well as when meeting literary characters).

Dream is an imagination aimed at a desired future. In a dream, a person always creates an image of what he wants, while in creative images the desire of their creator is not always embodied. A dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, that is, it does not lead to the immediate and direct receipt of an objective product in the form of a work of art, invention, product, etc.

Imagination is closely related to creativity. Creative imagination characterized by the fact that a person transforms his existing ideas and creates a new image on his own - not according to a familiar image, but completely different from it. In practical activity, the phenomenon of imagination is primarily associated with the process of artistic creativity in cases where the author is no longer satisfied with recreating reality using realistic methods. Turning to unusual, bizarre, unrealistic images makes it possible to enhance the intellectual, emotional and moral impact of art on a person.

Creation is an activity that generates new material and spiritual values. Creativity reveals the individual’s need for self-expression, self-actualization and the realization of one’s creative potential. In psychology, the following are distinguished: criteria for creative activity:

¦ creative activity is an activity that leads to obtaining a new result, a new product;

¦ since a new product (result) can be obtained by chance, the process of obtaining the product itself must be new (new method, technique, method, etc.);

¦ the result of creative activity cannot be obtained using a simple logical conclusion or action according to a known algorithm;

¦ creative activity, as a rule, is aimed not so much at solving a problem already set by someone, but at independently seeing the problem and identifying new, original solutions;

¦ creative activity is usually characterized by the presence of emotional experiences preceding the moment of finding a solution;

¦ creative activity requires special motivation.

Analyzing the nature of creativity, G. Lindsay, K. Hull and R. Thompson tried to find out what interferes with the manifestation of creative abilities in humans. They discovered that interferes with creativity not only the insufficient development of certain abilities, but also the presence of certain personality traits, for example:

– a tendency to conformism, i.e. the desire to be like others, not to differ from the majority of people around them;

– fear of seeming stupid or funny;

– fear or reluctance to criticize others due to the idea of ​​criticism formed since childhood as something negative and offensive;

– excessive conceit, i.e. complete satisfaction with one’s personality;

– predominant critical thinking, i.e., aimed only at identifying shortcomings, and not at finding ways to eradicate them.

5. Thinking - this is a higher cognitive process, the generation of new knowledge, a generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relationships. The essence of this cognitive mental process is the generation of new knowledge based on man’s transformation of reality. This is the most complex cognitive process, the highest form of reflection of reality (Fig. 12).

Rice. 12. Classification of types of thinking

Subject-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality.

Visual-figurative thinking occurs when imagining object images.

Abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts. Thinking wears motivated And purposeful nature, all operations of the thought process are caused by the needs, motives, interests of the individual, his goals and objectives.

¦ Thinking is always individually. It makes it possible to understand the patterns of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and social life.

¦ The source of mental activity is practice.

¦ The physiological basis of thinking is reflex activity of the brain.

¦ An extremely important feature of thinking is the inextricable connection with speech. We always think in words, even if we don't say them out loud.

Active research into thinking has been conducted since the 17th century. Initially, thinking was actually identified with logic. All theories of thinking can be divided into two groups: the first are based on the hypothesis that a person has innate intellectual abilities that do not change over the course of life, the second - on the idea that mental abilities are formed and developed under the influence of life experience.

To the main mental operations relate:

analysis– mental division of the integral structure of the reflected object into its constituent elements;

synthesis– reunification of individual elements into an integral structure;

comparison– establishing relationships of similarity and difference;

generalization– identification of common features based on the combination of essential properties or similarities;

abstraction– highlighting any aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as an independent one;

specification– abstraction from general features and highlighting, emphasizing the particular, individual;

systematization(or classification)– mental distribution of objects or phenomena into certain groups, subgroups.

In addition to the types and operations listed above, there are thinking processes:

judgment– a statement containing a specific thought;

inference– a series of logically related statements leading to new knowledge;

definition of concepts– a system of judgments about a certain class of objects or phenomena, highlighting their most general characteristics;

induction– derivation of a particular judgment from a general one;

deduction– derivation of a general judgment from particular ones.

Basic quality characteristics of thinking are: independence, initiative, depth, breadth, speed, originality, criticality, etc.

The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with thinking.

Intelligence - this is the totality of all mental abilities that provide a person with the ability to solve various problems. In 1937, D. Wexler (USA) developed tests to measure intelligence. According to Wexler, intelligence is the global ability to act intelligently, think rationally, and cope well with life's circumstances.

L. Thurstone in 1938, exploring intelligence, identified its primary components:

counting ability– ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic operations;

verbal(verbal) flexibility– the ability to find the right words to explain something;

verbal perception– ability to understand oral and written language;

spatial orientation– the ability to imagine various objects in space;

memory;

reasoning ability;

quick perception of similarities and differences between objects.

What determines development of intelligence? Intelligence is influenced by both hereditary factors and environmental conditions. The development of intelligence is influenced by:

Genetic conditioning is the influence of hereditary information received from parents;

Physical and mental state of the mother during pregnancy;

Chromosomal abnormalities;

Environmental living conditions;

Features of the child's nutrition;

Social status of the family, etc.

Attempts to create a unified system for “measuring” human intelligence encounter many obstacles, since intelligence includes the ability to perform completely different-quality mental operations. The most popular is the so-called intelligence quotient(abbreviated as IQ), which allows one to correlate the level of an individual’s intellectual capabilities with the average indicators of his age and professional groups.

There is no consensus among scientists about the possibility of obtaining a real assessment of intelligence using tests, since many of them measure not so much innate intellectual abilities as knowledge, skills and abilities acquired during the learning process.

6. Mnemonic processes. Currently, in psychology there is no single, complete theory of memory, and the study of the phenomenon of memory remains one of the central tasks. Mnemonic processes, or memory processes, are studied by various sciences that consider the physiological, biochemical and psychological mechanisms of memory processes.

Memory- this is a form of mental reflection, which consists in consolidating, preserving and subsequently reproducing past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.

Among the first psychologists who began experimental studies of mnemonic processes was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who, by studying the process of memorizing various word combinations, derived a number of laws of memorization.

Memory connects the subject’s past with his present and future - this is the basis of mental activity.

TO memory processes include the following:

1) memorization- a memory process that results in the consolidation of something new by associating it with something previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what is important to a person or aroused his interest and the greatest emotions;

2) preservation– the process of processing and retaining information;

3) playback– the process of retrieving stored material from memory;

4) forgetting– the process of getting rid of long-received, rarely used information.

One of the most important characteristics is memory quality, which is due to:

¦ speed of memorization(the number of repetitions required to retain information in memory);

speed of forgetting(the time during which remembered information is stored in memory).

There are several bases for classifying types of memory (Fig. 13): according to the nature of mental activity that prevails in the activity, according to the nature of the goals of the activity, according to the duration of consolidation and storage of information, etc.

Rice. 13. Classification of types of memory

The work of different types of memory obeys some general laws.

Law of comprehension: The deeper the understanding of what is memorized, the easier it is fixed in memory.

Law of Interest: interesting things are remembered faster because less effort is spent on it.

Installation law: Memorization occurs more easily if a person sets himself the task of perceiving the content and remembering it.

Law of first impression: The brighter the first impression of what is being remembered, the stronger and faster its memorization.

Law of Context: information is more easily remembered if it is correlated with other simultaneous impressions.

Law of volume of knowledge: The more extensive the knowledge on a certain topic, the easier it is to remember new information from this area of ​​knowledge.

Law of the volume of memorized information: The greater the amount of information for simultaneous memorization, the worse it is remembered.

Law of braking: any subsequent memorization inhibits the previous one.

Edge law: What is said (read) at the beginning and end of a series of information is better remembered; the middle of the series is remembered worse.

Law of repetition: repetition promotes better memory.

In psychology, in connection with the study of memory, you can find two terms that are very similar to each other - “mnemonic” and “mnemonic”, the meanings of which are different. Mnemic means "pertaining to memory" and mnemonic– “related to the art of memorization”, i.e. mnemonics These are memorization techniques.

The history of mnemonics goes back to Ancient Greece. Ancient Greek mythology speaks of Mnemosyne, the mother of nine muses, the goddess of memory and memories. Mnemonics received special development in the 19th century. in connection with the laws of associations that have received theoretical justification. For better memorization, various mnemonics techniques. Let's give examples.

Association method: The more diverse associations that arise when memorizing information, the easier the information is remembered.

Link method: combining information into a single, holistic structure using supporting words, concepts, etc.

Place method based on visual associations; Having clearly imagined the subject of memorization, you need to mentally combine it with the image of the place, which is easily retrieved from memory; for example, in order to remember information in a certain sequence, it is necessary to break it down into parts and associate each part with a specific place in a well-known sequence, for example, a route to work, the location of furniture in a room, the location of photographs on the wall, etc.

A well-known way to remember the colors of the rainbow is where the initial letter of each word in a key phrase is the first letter of the color word:

To every – To red

hunter - O range

and wants - and yellow

h nat – h green

G de – G blue

With goes– With blue

f adhan – f purple

7. Attention - this is a voluntary or involuntary direction and concentration of mental activity on any object of perception. The nature and essence of attention cause disagreements in psychological science; there is no consensus among psychologists regarding its essence. The difficulties in explaining the phenomenon of attention are caused by the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form, it is always “attention to something.” Some scientists believe that attention is not an independent process, but is only part of any other psychological process. Others believe that this is an independent process with its own characteristics. Indeed, on the one hand, attention is included in all psychological processes, on the other hand, attention has observable and measurable characteristics (volume, concentration, switchability, etc.) that are not directly related to other cognitive processes.

Attention is a necessary condition for mastering any type of activity. It depends on the individual typological, age and other characteristics of a person. Depending on the activity of the individual, three types of attention are distinguished (Fig. 14).

Rice. 14. Classification of types of attention

Involuntary attention– the simplest type of attention. It is often called passive, or forced, since it arises and is maintained independently of human consciousness.

Voluntary attention controlled by a conscious goal, connected with the will of a person. It is also called strong-willed, active or deliberate.

Post-voluntary attention is also purposeful in nature and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the activity itself becomes so interesting that it practically does not require volitional efforts from a person to maintain attention.

Attention has certain parameters and characteristics, which in many ways are a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. TO basic properties of attention usually include the following:

concentration– this is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a certain object, the intensity of connection with it; concentration of attention presupposes the formation of a temporary center (focus) of all human psychological activity;

intensity– characterizes the effectiveness of perception, thinking and memory in general;

sustainability– the ability to maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention for a long time; determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, significance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions of human activity;

volume– a quantitative indicator of objects that are in the focus of attention (for an adult – from 4 to 6, for a child – no more than 1–3); the amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the capabilities of the individual’s short-term memory; the characteristics of perceived objects and the professional skills of the subject themselves also matter;

distribution– the ability to focus attention on several objects at the same time; in this case, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes simultaneously, without losing any of them from the field of attention;

switching – the ability to more or less easily and fairly quickly transition from one type of activity to another and concentrate on the latter.

2. Emotions and feelings

Emotions and feelings are a person’s experiences of his relationship to objects and phenomena of reality, to what he knows, to himself and other people.

Emotion– this is a direct reflection of the existing relationship, an experience associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs. Emotions are involved in all mental processes in any human condition. They are able to anticipate events that have not yet occurred and can arise in connection with ideas about previously experienced or imagined situations.

Feeling- a more complex, established attitude of a person to what he knows and does. As a rule, a feeling includes a whole range of emotions. Feelings are unique to humans, they are socially determined, they give fullness and brightness to our perception, so emotionally charged facts are remembered longer. Different peoples and different historical eras express feelings differently.

Emotions and feelings are inextricably linked with the physiological state of the human body: with some, a person feels a surge of strength, an increase in energy, and with others, decline and stiffness. Emotions and feelings are always purely individual. Some of them are congenital, some are acquired during life as a result of training and upbringing. The more complexly organized a living being is, the higher the level on the evolutionary ladder it occupies, the richer the range of emotions and feelings that it is capable of experiencing. The oldest in origin, the simplest and most common emotional experiences among living beings are pleasure obtained from the satisfaction of organic needs, and displeasure if the corresponding needs remain unsatisfied.

In psychology, there are several basic, or fundamental, emotions: joy, surprise, suffering, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame.

Depending on the combination of speed, strength and duration of feelings, the following are distinguished: types of emotional states: mood, passion, affect, inspiration, stress, frustration (a state of disorganization of consciousness and personal activity due to severe nervous shock).

Emotions and feelings are inseparable from a person’s personality. Emotionally, people differ from each other in many ways: emotional excitability, duration, stability, strength and depth of the emotional experiences they experience, the dominance of positive or negative emotions.

Improving higher emotions and feelings means personal development of a person. This development can be carried out in several directions:

Inclusion of new objects, people, events, etc. into the emotional sphere;

Increasing the level of conscious control of your feelings;

The gradual inclusion into the moral sphere of increasingly higher values ​​and norms, such as conscience, decency, sense of duty, responsibility, etc.

So, the creation of mental images of the environment is carried out through cognitive mental processes, which are consolidated into a single, integral cognitive mental activity of a person. The image of the surrounding world is a complex mental formation, the formation of which involves various mental processes.

Shevchenko Olga Viktorovna 2010

Shevchenko O. V.

SIGNIFICANT SIGNS OF SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS AS DETERMINANTS OF LIFE ACTIVITIES OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY

Spiritual traditions are one of the most important factors in the stability, continuity and orderliness of social life. Like any social phenomenon, they have a large number of properties and characteristics: main, secondary, general, individual, specific, etc. Analysis of spiritual traditions allows us to highlight their most significant features.

One of the important features is continuity - the ability of spiritual traditions to be passed on from generation to generation, which expresses a mechanism for transmitting social experience. This ability of traditions reflects the dialectical process of their development, expressed in the law of negation of negation, which involves preserving accumulated experience, transferring it to a new generation and reproducing this experience in a new round of social development, taking into account the realities of a renewed reality. For example, the spiritual tradition of Orthodoxy, which was founded in 988 by Prince Vladimir, significantly determined the culture, way of social life and worldview of the Russian people.

Continuity is a way, a mechanism for transmitting the valuable and significant experience of previous generations to their descendants for the life of Russian society and the army.

Another significant feature of spiritual traditions is repetition, which accompanies any development. In this case, repetition is understood not as a meaningless and obligatory repetition of the past, but as an appeal to past experience necessary for social development in the modern conditions of the Russian state. This is especially relevant in our time, when we are trying to find ways and means in the past to resolve today's problematic situations in order to successfully modernize Russian statehood.

It should be noted that a change in the sociocultural forms of existence of human society leads to a rethinking of traditions, but it cannot destroy traditions in general, but only gives them new content using the method of axiological interpretation.

Thus, the representative of the phenomenological direction of philosophy P. Ricoeur defines tradition as a kind of living being, developing through the ongoing process of interpretation. The continuity of tradition is permissible only as an opportunity for its interpretation, as continuous work with tradition. He believes that if only the formal side of a tradition is transmitted, without understanding its content, taking into account modern realities or the present time, then this leads to the death of the tradition. “A tradition, understood even as the movement of a deposit, remains a dead tradition if it is not a continuous interpretation of this deposit: “heritage” is not a sealed package that is passed from hand to hand without opening, but a treasury from which one can draw by the handful and which is only replenished in the process of this exhaustion. Every tradition lives thanks to interpretation - at this price it is prolonged, that is, it remains a living tradition.”

In other words, innovations enter tradition by rethinking past experience and giving primary traditions a new meaning, which is organically woven into the existence of the traditions of modern Russian society.

For example, the spiritual tradition of a compassionate attitude towards neighbors who need help is rooted. Moreover, help to a person in trouble can be provided by completely strangers to him. The well-established spiritual tradition of jointly experiencing someone’s grief, showing sympathy for someone else’s physical or mental pain, compassion, the willingness to “give your shirt off your back” has deep historical roots and originates in the communal life of the people.

In the modern period of social development, the effect of this spiritual tradition is manifested with particular force, most often in days of social upheaval. Thus, the terrorist attacks on March 29, 2010 in the Moscow metro united people in common grief. Forest fires in the summer of the same year and their consequences for the population of many regions of Russia significantly contributed to the manifestation of such spiritual traditions as sacrifice, mercy, compassion, mutual assistance, etc.

The repetition of spiritual traditions reflects the need of society for the continuity of the norms of behavior, spiritual qualities, and values ​​that it needs, which will allow it to survive during periods of catastrophic upheavals and maintain spiritual integrity.

A significant feature of spiritual traditions is their stability, which is determined by the consolidation and vitality of various spiritual formations in a given sociocultural environment. Traditions become sustainable when they take the form of mass habits and are supported by public opinion. They manifest themselves in the social and individual lives of people and regulate the relationships and life of people. It is in tradition that a person largely finds answers to the questions that faced previous generations and which he himself will have to solve throughout his life.

One of the spiritual traditions important for social unity is long-suffering as reasonable calm and the ability to survive in the most difficult conditions.

For example, philologist A.V. Sergeeva, conducting a comparative analysis of the mental characteristics of Russians and French, notes that the servile (ceremonial-reading) psychology of Russians can be condemned, “but you can try to understand this as a forced model of behavior, as a result of the fatalistic attitude to life and conformism of Russians.” She suggests thinking about “why in modern Russia, despite appalling working conditions and an unfair system of life, despite non-payment of wages, despite the obvious deformation of relations between employee and employer (which has never been dreamed of by Westerners), speeches with social causes are extremely rare protests? For example, at the beginning of 2002, Argentine citizens, out of fear of a 50% devaluation of their currency, staged pogroms throughout the country and forced five (!) presidents to resign one after another. And in Russia, after the crisis of 1998, when the ruble depreciated by 400% and millions of people lost their savings, jobs and hope of returning to their previous financial status, no one thought of going to the barricades or legally using existing instruments of democracy: for example, recalling your deputy, demand at least some action from him...” Such lack of initiative again and again reproduces in the liberal press the cliche about the eternal obedience of Russians.

However, such behavior of the Russian people is explained by their desire for sustainable, stable development, since the objective conditions for the development of society are the most unfavorable: economic instability, spiritual nihilism, significant social stratification, outdated and worn-out material and technical complex, unfavorable natural conditions, etc.

Thus, the stability of a spiritual tradition is determined by its significance and necessity for public life, its rootedness in the mass consciousness and the consciousness of the individual, including military personnel of the Russian Army.

An essential feature of spiritual traditions is also their mass distribution, which is determined by the number of carriers - representatives of a single socio-cultural environment.

Thus, the Maslenitsa holiday, which arose back in the pagan period, symbolized for the Aryan and Slavic tribes the new year with the farewell of winter and the welcoming of spring, with the honoring of the god of spring - Yarila (Yar, also called Kupala - the deity of life and fertility). “Maslenitsa is a holiday, mystery, action, service (and sacrifice) in the name of Yar. Pancakes are an image of the Sun, an image of the god Yarila, an icon of God, an objective, living word of an ancient Russian, a prayer to him. The man ate hot pancakes in butter - the bread body of God Yarila, with deep faith in communion with the world's luminary, the life-giving Sun, the Husband of the Earth, its fruition."

With the adoption of Christianity in Rus', the Maslenitsa holiday received a new axiological interpretation. Its celebration is held in the last week before Lent. This is not just permission to eat pancakes, butter, cheese, eggs and other foods. Every day of Maslenitsa has its own purpose: Monday - meeting; Tuesday - flirting; Wednesday - fracture, revelry, gourmet; Thursday - wide, walk-four; Friday - mother-in-law evenings; Saturday - farewell, sister-in-law's get-togethers; Sunday is forgiveness day.

Almost every major city in Russia has a traditional place for Maslenitsa, which develops into mass festivities. In Moscow, the holiday is traditionally held on Vasilyevsky Spusk, where many foreigners come. More and more often there are thoughts that the celebration of Maslenitsa should become the calling card of Russia, and pancakes as a symbol of the holiday should become its brand.

It should be noted that the extent to which traditions spread depends on their social recognition and personal significance. Passed on from generation to generation and adapted in large groups to new historical realities, traditions become widespread.

An expressive feature of spiritual traditions is the high emotionality of their manifestation. To transform a tradition into a mass symbol, in addition to its understanding and recognition, it is necessary that it evoke positive emotions in its bearer - the subject. This is achieved through appropriate rites, ceremonies and rituals. For example, a wedding ritual, a child's baptism, a wedding. The emotional component of spiritual traditions penetrates deep into the souls of people, which makes spiritual traditions attractive to them and contributes to the conscious fulfillment of ritual instructions.

An essential feature of the spiritual traditions of Russian society and the army is their social determinism, that is, dependence on a set of factors of social development. We can name two main groups of factors: external, which include state policy, ideology, the goals of educating the younger generation and the spiritual orientation of the development of society agreed upon with them, and internal, which fix in traditions “the cause-and-effect relationship between the affirmed actions and the spiritual ones formed by these actions.” qualities."

If we consider today’s life activity of society, it should be noted that the previous ideological and ideological system based on it, on which more than one generation of citizens were brought up, turned out to be unclaimed, and a new one, which would not have a declared, but an effectively practical character, has not yet been created. This significant circumstance makes it difficult to build a life perspective in the minds of young people and leads to the loss of their social activity.

Finally, an important feature of spiritual traditions is their value character, which is manifested in the fact that the content of any tradition contains a value that is significant for the life of the individual and society. For example, love for the Motherland on a personal level is expressed in love for the “small” Motherland, and on a social level - in love for the Fatherland. This is primarily due to the psychological characteristics of a person’s consciousness, in whose memory concrete object concepts and deeply psychological phenomena, processes and events are primarily retained. This determines the fact that valuable

The spiritual nature of spiritual traditions is their core and largely determines the motives of action and behavior of people.

In structural terms, spiritual traditions, using the terminology of I. Lakatos, can be defined by two interrelated elements. Firstly, this is a hard core, which includes the mental values ​​of Russians, such as patriotism, tolerance towards representatives of other nationalities and religions, paternalism, hospitality, compassion for people who find themselves in difficult life situations, etc. Secondly, the protective belt is a historically mobile component that serves for the axiological interpretation of spiritual values ​​in certain historical periods of the development of society on the basis of the dominant ideology and demand by society.

It should be noted that some spiritual formations embedded in the hard core acquire an opposite character in the modern period. For example, the spiritual tradition of honesty and decency, which in the Soviet period was supported not only by ideology, but also by society as a whole, was expressed in the fact that enterprise, which took the form of resale of material assets and basic necessities, was considered speculation and was a state punishable phenomenon. In a market society, this form of activity is called entrepreneurship and is encouraged by the state. Market society pursues a social Darwinist ideology based on adaptability and survival, in which the said spiritual tradition cannot be fully realized.

However, in the modern period, entrepreneurship in some areas of activity causes concern among the Russian leadership. Thus, in the pharmaceutical sector there is an unreasonable multiple increase in prices for medicines vital for citizens. The industry is often controlled by the state antimonopoly service.

A capitalist-market society strives for maximum benefit and super-profits, which was noted by the ancient Greeks in the aphorisms: “For some it is war, and for others it is the mother”; “For some, death is grief, and for others, it’s business,” etc. The economic basis of society is determined by social relations, and if some companies strive to obtain maximum economic profit by infringing on the interests of the people, and this is approved by the government, then a loss of spiritual values ​​occurs. Such an unhealthy situation significantly complicates the life of society and contributes to social tension, since

a significant part of society hopes for social and material assistance from the state.

In the late 80s - early 90s. XX century the hard core of the spiritual traditions of Russian society and the army underwent significant deformation under the onslaught of “shock Westernization” during perestroika. However, by the end of the 90s. There was a “revival” of traditionalism. Having become disillusioned with the vague and ambiguous “American-style universal human values,” Russian society, especially its intellectual component, being at a social crisis, felt an urgent need to turn to the domestic mental spiritual values ​​of Russians and take a different look at the mechanism for transmitting those that are significant for Russian society. values, i.e. essentially on spiritual traditions as a factor of national self-identification and the vitality of society. In other words, destructive spiritual relativism pushed society to turn to spiritual traditions that correspond to the Russian mentality and ensure the spiritual healing of the nation.

It should be noted that traditions are inherently constructive and positive in nature, manifested in the ontological existence of man and society. The history of the development of any society without taking into account the traditional beginning is unthinkable, otherwise a personality cannot be fully formed in the absence of state-recognized and socially significant and personally necessary ideals that determine its national identity and contribute to a person’s self-control: “Appeal to tradition, considering it as the ontological basis of human existence allows you to find stable, enduring, sustainable, significant values ​​in its flow. Traditions in this case become the spiritual and practical ontological field within which the life and existence of an individual acquires its stability and ability to manifest itself as necessary.”

Currently, the traditionalist paradigm of thinking is embodied in projects for spiritual and social guidance for the development of society. Thus, Russian President D. Medvedev and the Russian government, implementing the spiritual tradition of respectful treatment of veterans, in particular of the Great Patriotic War, strive to implement those social projects that should emphasize the significance of their feat in the name of Russia. For example, in honor of the Great Victory, every war veteran in need of housing should receive it

regardless of the existing formal conditions, for example, the time of registration for obtaining living space.

Of course, if this spiritual tradition is continued and veterans of other wars (Afghan and Chechen) will be able to have the same social security, and this will be supported by the country’s political elite and covered in the media, if their exploits are spoken about from the “high tribunes” , rather than apologizing for ill-considered mistakes on the part of the political and military leadership, public respect for military work and for a man in uniform will only grow. In turn, this will influence the willingness of military personnel to selflessly serve the Fatherland.

Thus, the essential features of spiritual traditions that make up their content as a sociocultural phenomenon that ensures the stability of the life of Russian society are continuity, repetition, stability, mass distribution, high emotionality of manifestation, social determinism and value character.

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6. Sergeeva A.V. Russians: behavioral stereotypes, traditions, mentality. M., 2005.

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