Closed loop. Creation of closed production cycles

“We can still provide ourselves with wholesome and healthy food. But as long as the concept of profit exists, your task as a biological organism is simply to survive." Anatoly Kokhan

Modern civilization at the dawn of its formation can provide itself with safe and healthy food. Closed ecological agricultural cycles can provide environmentally safe and healthy food.

Take a plot of land for your personal farming and try, at least sometimes, to eat yourself and treat your family with an environmentally friendly product that cannot be bought, either at the market, or in a store, or for any money.

The basis of a closed agricultural cycle is the balanced maintenance of farm animals and the cultivation of crops on a limited plot of land as a quasi-closed ecosystem, part of which is a consumer physically removed from its boundaries - a person.

Thus, we obtain a self-renewing consumption resource in the form of an environmentally friendly, complete agricultural product.

Closed ecological agricultural cycles will make it possible to resolve the issue of producing environmentally friendly, nutritionally complete and healthy products in terms of maintaining immunity during the development of technologies for the production of complete mineral nutrition, if the use of mineral nutrition shows its feasibility.

Closed ecological agricultural cycles exclude the use of mineral fertilizers, growth stimulants, herbicides and similar agricultural technologies.
Bacteriological and anti-infective measures are carried out as necessary. Closed ecological agricultural cycles are localized in a limited area, which maintains a certain bacteriological regime, the composition of microflora and fauna, which does not promote, but hinders development dangerous infections.

The initial testing of prototype technologies for closed ecological agricultural cycles is currently being carried out on the basis of the private farm of Anatoly Kokhan.

The direction of work to create and improve closed ecological agricultural cycles must be continued and developed. To date, some significant results have already been obtained. Of course, the achieved results and recommendations must be expanded and refined, but today they can already be used in practice.

At the present stage, products obtained using a closed ecological agricultural cycle are not so much important for everyday nutrition, but as an analogue of a medicine that allows you to restore natural functions human body, related to the construction and restoration of tissues, metabolism, treatment and prevention of diseases that have become widespread in urban life, as well as changes in human nutrition.

The products of ordinary private household plots, hunting trophies and collected forest gifts cannot replace them or be their equivalent due to uncontrolled environmental pollution. The cleanest areas are potentially and actually the sites of increased pollution.

Creation of a closed ecological agricultural cycle.

To create closed ecological agricultural cycles, it is advisable to use agricultural lands, but long-term use of herbicides has led to long-term pollution, and the lack of crop rotation has led to land depletion. Meadow grasses, shrubs and the overgrowing of agricultural land with forests, of course, clean the land, but at the same time they impoverish the soil and cause a surface accumulation of pollutants and carcinogens. Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to carry out measures to clean up any territory planned for the organization of closed ecological agricultural cycles.

Initially, it is necessary to use agricultural areas that are traditionally suitable for various types of agricultural work.

Preparing a site for organizing a closed ecological agricultural cycle. Territory planning.

First of all, it is necessary to plan the territory of the site and begin its development and cleaning. It is necessary to take into account climatic conditions, soil characteristics, landscape features and site humidity.

In this case, you must take into account not only the characteristics of the top layer of soil, but also the subsequent ones, especially the characteristics associated with moisture absorption, looseness and, of course, the chemical reaction and characteristics of the chemical composition.

At this stage, you should have already pre-planned the type of closed-loop ecological agricultural cycle to be used, the types of farm animals raised, poultry, crops grown, fruit trees and shrubs, as well as trees and shrubs used for technical and environmental purposes.

Special attention it is necessary to pay attention to the landscape and the natural circulation of moisture. Your farm should make the most of the terrain and the irrigation structures you may need to build.

The site is planned in such a way that you use minimal electricity and energy-consuming technologies. The turnover of agricultural products must be combined with soil enrichment, environmental cleanup and renewable energy resources.

If you have a small area for individual use, for example: one hectare or less, even if use “for livestock farming” is permitted, you will not be able to keep cattle on it, even one cow. This area is not enough. You won't even be able to keep sheep. In a closed ecological agricultural cycle you can count on a few goats, a small number of poultry and, of course, rabbits. Perhaps the landscape will allow you to make a small pond for fish, crustaceans or mollusks. Part of the plot will have to be allocated for crop production and vegetable gardening.

In any case, you will have to use equipment, so immediately plan passages and sanitary barriers.

Fruit trees and shrubs will serve as sanitary barriers and snow retention. If you use firewood, you need to consider replanting fast-growing trees for firewood. The cycle must be complete and closed, no matter what types of farm animals you breed or what crop rotation you organize.

If possible, you should organize water collection on the site for agricultural, technological, domestic and fire-fighting purposes.

It is also necessary to plan a collection site, sorting and disposal procedure for waste associated with the use of equipment, packaging and transportation means that are not involved in the ecological renewal cycle.

Primary cleaning of the site from pollution and launching a closed ecological agricultural cycle.

Cleaning up a site from contamination should begin by searching for information about the previous use of the site, as well as using neighboring sites and searching for potential sources of air pollution, spring and storm water, and potentially hazardous objects on your site from the point of view of contamination. Particular attention should be paid to official and actual cattle burial grounds, existing spontaneous, organized and abandoned landfills, cemeteries and spontaneous burial sites of infectious and chemically hazardous waste.

After examining the condition of the territory and potential threats, surface debris is removed and hazardous sources of pollution are eliminated. It must be remembered that any recycling is part of the ecological cycle. For this purpose, it is not the burial or disposal of biological and chemically hazardous materials that is carried out, but their neutralization in order to ensure subsequent biological safety.

After surface cleaning, measures are taken to neutralize potential contamination threats.

Final cleaning is carried out from biologically active pollutants and herbicides and fertilizers previously used on the agricultural site. Final cleaning lasts about seven years and is combined with the restoration of soil cover by growing crops and keeping farm animals.

This is the period of launching a closed ecological agricultural cycle. During this period biological system allows us to include a person as a consumer, and the food product will be superior in quality to the products of traditional and industrial agriculture, however, the ecological system is still at the stage of coming into balance and freeing itself from previously accumulated pollution. It should be noted that such systems cannot be isolated from global and large-scale territorial pollution of the current period.

The introduction of closed ecological agricultural cycles does not eliminate the problems of environmental protection and waste disposal from industrial production, transport, extractive industries, settlements and retail chains. However, the production of agricultural products itself becomes safe and ceases to be a source of environmental pollution.

Seven-year agricultural cycle of biological purification and soil restoration.

An experiment on Anatoly Kokhan’s private farm showed that the biological treatment cycle was seven years. During this time, farm animals were completely transferred to full nutrition from the same land plot and the soil cover of the land plot was sufficiently enriched with organic matter for agricultural plants.

One should not think that a closed ecological agricultural cycle is possible using only fencing technology. It is not enough to build a fence and let animals in there to live and reproduce. Ecological systems are self-regulating. From such a system it is impossible to painlessly, for the ecosystem itself, select biological material as food for an organism located outside the ecological system itself.

Fencing is an important detail for ensuring the sanitary regime of closed ecological agricultural cycles, however, the determining factor in the functioning of ensuring the selection of biological material from a closed ecological cycle (for cooking) is the management of populations of fauna and flora and the replacement of waste products of the remotely served population in a closed ecological cycle .

First of all, it is necessary to use green manures (green fertilizers). Then forage crops are combined with keeping herbivores and poultry. At the same time, plant trees. Then you move on to the planned formation of a closed ecological agricultural cycle.

While cleaning the soil, you must have a complete understanding of what animals and poultry you can keep and what food you will grow for this. During this period, you will be able to experience the technologies of growing plants, animals and poultry from your own experience.

Practical organization of a closed agricultural ecological cycle.

Growing vegetables, berries and fruits in a closed ecological agricultural cycle involves a complete rejection of chemicals that protect against pests.

The fact that growth stimulants and chemicals for controlling weeds and pests are abandoned calls into question the yield of agricultural products. Therefore, pest control is carried out with the help of their natural enemies. Weed control - non-industrial cultivation methods.

It is advisable to grow vegetables in a closed ecological agricultural cycle for human consumption; in case of surplus or illiquid stock, they are fed to domestic animals.

Potatoes are an important crop in the human diet. However, growing potatoes is associated with damage from the Colorado potato beetle. In a closed ecological agricultural cycle, potato cultivation is accompanied by the maintenance of a sufficient number of adult guinea fowl - a natural enemy of the Colorado potato beetle. At the same time, the guinea fowl must be raised without the use of intensive feeds and technologies used in industrial poultry farming in order to preserve its natural diet.

Cabbage is a very useful plant, but it is also highly susceptible to various types of pests and is loved not only by humans, but also by pets and birds. To protect cabbage from pests, small birds are used, for which an excessive number of birdhouses are installed at the growing site or special protected growing methods are used.

Tomatoes are not only susceptible to cold weather, but they are also popular with birds. If there is an excess population of small birds, all ripe fruits will be destroyed. Therefore, tomatoes must be covered with non-woven material. In addition, tomatoes cannot be grown if there are significant numbers of weeds and the soil should be covered with light-proof non-woven material.

Cucumbers are well suited for growing indoors and open ground. Lightproof non-woven material is used to control weeds.

Zucchini, squash and pumpkins are grown in small quantities on the manure of poultry and animals, without contact with the latter, since for many of them they are a delicacy. These crops can be grown on compost heaps and pits.

Field crops are among the most important agricultural crops. Bread is the basis of the human diet. An experiment on Anatoly Kokhan’s private farm showed that grain grown industrially causes progressive obesity in animals and poultry, while fodder grown in a closed ecological agricultural cycle allows animals to develop harmoniously and even excess consumption does not cause severe obesity.

When growing field crops, it is necessary to follow the rules of crop rotation and change crops in places. However, closed ecological agricultural cycles do not use fertilizers or herbicides. This causes infestation of crops with weeds, which reduces crop rotation requirements. In addition, grains must be collected together with weed seeds. The presence of weed seeds in animal feed eliminates the need for supplements that are vital for animals and poultry, since they receive additional essential elements from the weed seeds.

Field crops can be grown in small areas and harvested in the traditional way or using small-scale mechanization.

The main recommended field crops are wheat, barley and oats. It is useful to use millet, both the grain and the harvested straw of this crop are of high value, but you must make sure that millet can actually be grown in the conditions of your strip.

Storing grains encourages the breeding of rodents, while keeping farm animals and birds will attract wild predators. Therefore, there should be dogs and cats on your property. These pets are street maintenance differ in health and solve problems with rodents and wild animals. Do not use hunting dogs, you will lose your livestock.

It is advisable to grow alfalfa from forage grasses; it enriches the soil well and is a valuable forage crop not only for herbivores, but also for almost all birds. But alfalfa is not the only suitable one; clover, grass mixtures or other herbs can be used. No products are used in closed ecological agricultural cycles chemical industry, which is favorable for bee breeding.

Let's consider keeping the most common animals in a closed ecological agricultural cycle.

Rabbits are very nice view for cultivation and one of the few species suitable for growing in microfarms. The rabbit is a herbivore, tolerates any frost well, does not require water in the cold season, and gets along well with ice. In winter, grains are added to the diet. It is very sensitive to inbreeding, so only individuals planned for slaughter can be kept in enclosures. When kept, it requires daily observation; if nasal discharge occurs (runny nose), “dandruff” or nodules form on the ears (and other external signs of any diseases), the animal must be immediately slaughtered. If you follow this simple rule, you will never use medications that may subsequently enter the body of a person who does not need them.

Sheep cannot be kept in a completely “wild” state. Sheep breeding also requires breeding work, without which the population is doomed to very rapid extinction. Sheep should not be allowed to come into contact with potentially dangerous places. A place for disinfection of vehicles, their parking, storage of oils and equipment. An animal does not die from contaminated food, but it becomes unsuitable for human consumption. Sheep are a very good species for breeding, require scheduled slaughter and are very critical to the cleanliness of feed. When sheep are raised in closed ecological agricultural cycles, the meat does not have a distinct animal smell.

Cows are the most difficult species to raise on a private farm due to the insufficient space allocated for this. One unit of cattle requires at least one hectare of land for grazing and fodder. Cows are very sensitive to feed variety and quantity. An animal becomes an adult only in the third year of life, and a bull becomes an adult animal only at the age of five. Readiness of meat for food accordingly. The quality of meat does not change upon reaching adulthood. Animals that have not reached adulthood do not have sufficient amounts of essential substances in their meat.

In a closed ecological agricultural cycle, an animal that produces milk is highly desirable. A fermented milk product in combination with ground grain products completely replaces food additives in the diet for raising chickens of various types of poultry. You can, of course, use worms, but this requires significant costs to provide the required amount of biomass. In nature, this deficiency is compensated for by insects. However, air pollution and accumulated toxic substances have reduced the population of insects, the breeding of which in a closed area - as part of the food chain - is still very expensive. But that doesn't mean it's impossible. This is a separate area of ​​research.

Poultry is one of the necessary parts of closed ecological agricultural cycles. The most important birds common for use in closed ecological agricultural cycles are guinea fowl, chicken, turkey, duck, goose.

Purchased chickens and adult birds of commercial breeds must be vaccinated; the first vaccination is done in the egg before the chick hatches. Vaccinated birds remain carriers of the diseases against which they were vaccinated. Therefore, any bird must be bred from eggs using an incubator. If you buy a commercial bird and place it with your own, your bird will die because the commercial bird is vaccinated and yours is not.

Bird droppings have a high content of substances that fertilize the soil and in primary concentration are destructive even for all weeds. This property of bird droppings is used to protect plants with a buried root system, such as fruit trees, during cultivation. Bird droppings are placed at some distance from the trunk on the surface, creating a ring of non-competitive growth, which is subsequently dug up. This makes it possible to fertilize the soil for the fruit tree and remove weeds that interfere with the growth and development of new plantings.

Digestion of the bird requires the presence of pebbles in the stomach, since the bird does not chew its food. In addition, the bird lays eggs, for which it needs calcium in almost ready-made form. Thus, any bird needs fine gravel and limestone all year round, preferably in the form of crumbs or flour.

The guinea fowl is in first place, since this bird gives preference to insects in its diet, but they eat berries with the same pleasure, and if there is a lack of plant food, they will dig up crops and peck them with roots, even if the feeder is full of grain. The guinea fowl, or African chicken, flies and withstands severe frosts. Like all animals, it does not like damp, cold air. Does not die due to local frostbite. Does not tolerate inbreeding.

Chicken is the most common and unpretentious type of poultry. The chicken species used in industrial production differ high performance in the production of eggs and meat. However, these indicators are achieved with the use of growth stimulants and medications against the background of special nutrition, which give a quantitative yield of eggs or meat, with a complete loss of their quality. These are not viable hybrids and genetically modified individuals in an evolutionary sense. During breeding, the offspring of industrial birds lose the quality of the industrially used ancestor, gradually degenerating into viable breeds from which industrial birds were obtained.

For use in closed ecological agricultural cycles, non-industrial breeds are applicable, which produce much less production, but of adequate quality, given that feed is used that ensures a natural existence that does not require intensified development, which eliminates the ingress of substances unusual for traditional nutrition into human food.

Chickens will grow for a long time, lay eggs in about a year, but will not be a synthetic allergen. Poultry meat will have traditional nutritional and healing properties, however, will differ significantly in taste qualities from products of intensive poultry farming.

Turkey is one of the most ancient birds used in agriculture. Turkey poults are born with poor eyesight, grow slowly and poorly, and require warmth and care. However, despite the disadvantages of breeding, adult birds have low feed consumption and good meat. The proportion of green mass in the diet of turkeys is higher than that of chickens. Turkey is characterized by low mobility, as a result of which turkey meat is softer than that of other birds. Turkeys eat insects well, but they love berries, so they are not used to protect fruit trees and berry bushes from pests, especially during the fruiting period. A very good bird, but requires close attention. Chicken eggs are placed under the turkey along with turkey eggs, but a little later, so that the chicks hatch at the same time.

It is advisable to raise small turkey poults with chickens. Turkey poults follow the example of nimble chickens, so they eat and grow better. However, keeping chickens and turkeys in the same area is impossible. The fact is that some diseases of chickens, which they easily tolerate, are fatal to turkeys. Therefore, chickens and turkeys should not be in the same area.

The duck is one of the unpretentious, but very voracious birds. Ducks need grass and low-calorie food. Ducks are omnivores and excellent litter producers. Feeding ducks grains grown in a closed ecological agricultural cycle does not lead to obesity. However, it should be noted that ducks even eat poisonous plants, which usually causes the death of the bird. Therefore, the area for keeping ducks must always be prepared in advance. Excessive numbers of ducks in a limited area can lead to contamination of the area, which can cause the death of the bird. This is especially true for ducks, since the duck gets a significant part of its diet by straining the contents of any puddle. Duck chicks can drown, especially if they have not fledged. Therefore, chicks need to be kept in the presence of water in which it is impossible to drown (believe me, chicks without a mother are like homeless children, they can manage to drown in a saucer of water). But in fact, it is better to raise a duck to full plumage before releasing it into the pond. Ducks on the pond compete with fish, knocking out frogs and small snakes. Therefore, a pond where there is no fish is optimal for ducks.

Although the goose spends all its time in the water, it is a herbivore bird. The goose is one of the most profitable birds. In summer, one goose needs at least 15 square meters of grass. The goose is a strong bird with high survival rate, but is practically not bred commercially. Goose eggs purchased from farmers are practically unsuitable for incubation due to improper maintenance and inbreeding. Breeding work with geese must be carried out very scrupulously. In closed ecological agricultural cycles, geese can replace herbivores.

Fruit trees and berry bushes in closed ecological agricultural cycles.

The most common fruit trees in central Russia are apple trees, pear trees, cherries, sweet cherries, cherry plums, and plums. Fruit trees require maintaining fertility and tillage. In addition, fruit trees are sensitive to soil moisture. Fruit trees with seeds do well in soils with a high limestone content. The apple tree does not like excess moisture and prefers soils high in iron and iron oxide. All fruit trees require crown formation and do not like crowded planting. Plums, cherries and sweet cherries are subject to attacks from small birds when ripe. All these factors must be taken into account when forming a closed ecological agricultural cycle. The most heat-loving of the listed trees is the cherry; an appropriate place should be allocated for its planting.

Excess apples and pears can be used to feed rabbits, cattle and sheep. Cherries and plums that have not been consumed by humans can be used as a feed additive for poultry.

Wood heating in a closed ecological agricultural cycle.

For a house of 120 sq. meters, 25 acres of tree planting is enough for heating purposes. There are two ways to grow trees for firewood. The first one involves planned felling. For example, 25 acres are divided into 10 parts; every year one 10 part is cut down and planted. The second involves one-time planting, annual sawing off of large branches and replacement of dead trees.

A similar amount of firewood will provide 50 acres of fruit tree garden.

A place for planting trees for firewood is a favorable place for raising animals and poultry.

The need for heating fuel depends greatly on the design of the house. Application of thermal accumulators, for example, Russian stove, jet stove or modern analogues significantly reduce fuel consumption. Solar convection heating systems are also effective, even in winter.

You can learn more about the technologies of closed ecological agricultural cycles at advanced training courses or free lectures in training center “Modern Civilization “Open World Campus”.

Anatoly Kokhan

1

A systematic analysis of the possibilities and boundaries of reusing materials within the framework of industrial ecology was carried out. A classification of non-renewable materials is given. The directions for using certain classes of non-renewable materials are reflected. Criteria for the effectiveness of reusing materials are considered. The structural features of a closed cycle are given. Possible forms of a closed cycle are characterized. The importance of a closed cycle for ensuring sustainable development is shown. The role of energy in ensuring a closed cycle is considered. Incineration as a possible waste disposal process has been studied. The dual (positive and negative) role of technology in ensuring sustainable development is shown. The importance of innovative technologies for the successful transition to industrial ecology is determined. It is concluded that there is a need for expanded use of existing and proven sustainable technology; innovation and development of new sustainable technology.

industrial ecology

sustainable development

closed loop

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3. Dorokhina E.Yu., Panteleev S.S. On the issue of the three pillars of sustainable development // Scientific works SWorld. – 2012. – T. 33, No. 4. – P. 16–21.

4. Allen D.T. An Industrial Ecology: Material flows and engineering design. Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas - Discussion Paper Austin, 2003.

5. Cohen-Rosenthal E. Making sense out of industrial ecology: a framework for analysis and action // Journal of Cleaner Production, 12. Jg. (2004), H. 8-10, pp. 1111–1123.

Closing the circulation of materials by returning them to production or consuming residues from production processes or end-of-life old products and waste materials is called a closed cycle. The closed cycle as an economic activity has a long historical tradition.

Purpose of our research- a systematic view of the possibilities and boundaries of the return of materials within the framework of the transition to industrial ecology (IE). This is a significant problem that has not yet been solved for a number of reasons. Closed-loop processes are difficult to capture at a glance, and in particular it is difficult to distinguish between closed-loop and waste management. Although the main structural features of a closed cycle are known, this concept is so multifaceted that even in the PrE it is defined in different ways. For PR, all forms of a closed cycle are important - reuse, other use - in all their manifestations, and the transitions between these forms are often blurred. As a matter of fact, the possibility of reusing materials in economic circulation is one of the main necessary prerequisites for the functioning of the PrE. A property observed in nature is the ability to disassemble complex materials to their original components for new use of the latter. It is necessary to find out which forms of closed loop play a significant role and which applications are encountered. There are 3 classes of non-renewable materials (see table).

Classification of non-renewable materials

This classification is relative, since technical capabilities and economic conditions are constantly changing, and process participants do not always know which class the material belongs to.

The transition to PR requires, firstly, increasing the use of materials from classes I and II in industrial production processes, secondly, avoiding materials from class III, and thirdly, finding ways to compensate for irreplaceable materials from class III through innovations in classes I and II. Of course, in class III we are talking primarily about highly dissipative materials, which, when used, disperse into the environment. The limits of their reuse are determined only by the laws of thermodynamics, but as their use increases, the necessary costs tend to infinity.

The economic boundary of the closed cycle of different materials is determined by the ratio of the share of attractive raw materials in natural materials to its share in secondary materials. The smaller this value, the more profitable the return. With a ratio significantly greater than one, a closed cycle is an economically unprofitable form of obtaining raw materials. Ultimately, it all depends on the density of the raw material in the original material, which tends to decrease. On the other hand, it is believed that as the concentration of newly acquired raw materials in recycled materials decreases, the energy costs for recovery increase exponentially.

It has been empirically proven that the economic potential of reusing heavy metals that constitute hazardous waste has not yet been exhausted. However, it is countered by dissipative losses of ecotoxic substances, the concentration of which in the ecosphere in many cases increases. Since the use of heavy metals continuously increased during industrialization, dissipative losses gradually became increasingly higher value. Although not all ecotoxic effects and critical concentrations are known, significant environmental disturbances can be expected from certain levels.

We see great potential in highlighting EDP applications, as a lack of information and legal regulations limit initiatives even for their cost-effective application. Against the use of non-renewable materials III class there are two reasons: irreversible use and depletion of relevant materials; toxic effects on ecosystems.

At the same time, there can be only one path, implemented consistently by all interested parties. This is the path leading in the direction of PrE, i.e., to ensure that all highly dissipative materials meet the criterion of consistency with the environment. To wait until technological progress makes it possible to close the circulation of materials, when resources become so expensive that there is no other way, would be an expression of the inappropriate inertia of existing industrial systems. Each stage and each element of the PrE requires an active approach. The following stages of a closed cycle can be distinguished:

Direct closed cycle (within the same production process);

Indirect closed cycle (within the same production process with temporary or spatial transfer);

Integrated closed cycle (a combination of both of the above entities with the additional inclusion of structural elements or blocks of the production process);

System-integrated closed cycle (a combination of internal closed-loop provisions integrated into the process with external production processes implemented at another enterprise).

However, it is necessary to ensure that recycled products are used as early as possible and in the immediate region. This will provide economic benefits associated with reduced transport and storage costs. The higher the value of newly used goods, the stronger the latter aspect becomes.

PrE requires a concept that generalizes all forms of a closed loop into a holarchical system. In addition, new technologies for material recovery are needed, continuing the legacy of reliable and long-established closed cycles of metals, glass and paper. In this case, we are talking about materials for which, due to their relatively simple chemical and mechanical separability, a closed cycle is already theoretically possible. Of course, even in already implemented material cycles, there are still unresolved problems with impurities and insufficient purity of recycled materials, which prevent more complete reuse of materials. For example, in the case of metals that acquire specific properties when alloyed, mixing in a closed cycle leads to a regular decrease in the quality of secondary materials. Note that metals are characterized by good adaptability to a closed cycle. Regularly appearing impurities with each cycle accumulate in secondary raw materials and reduce its purity, which actually corresponds to downcycling. Within the framework of EDP, it is possible to expand the boundaries of circulation control, as new technical and organizational cleaning processes are gradually developed for those circulations of materials in which this phenomenon has not previously been encountered. In the future, this will become possible on a much larger scale, since natural raw materials are also characterized by mixtures of materials, which are then separated through technological processes. However, for the functioning of the EDP, a focus on closing the cycles of the materials used in production is inevitable. In this regard, “Design for Environment” will play a significant role. With PrE, the share of a closed cycle in production tends to 1, since this is the target value set by nature as a “model”. In any case, this value can only be achieved in the long term, since many materials in the current closed cycles lose quality, and usable raw materials can only be obtained by adding new materials.

Closed loop and energy

The importance of circularity for a sustainable economy can be assessed by analyzing the following basic principles proposed by ecology:

a) all applicable non-renewable resources should be reused whenever possible;

b) the ratio of energy used to produce and consume products and energy used to re-provide raw materials should be changed in favor of a closed loop (i.e., the share of closed-loop energy in overall economic energy consumption will increase significantly);

c) non-renewable resources can be put into circulation only to the extent that there is regenerative energy available for this, unsuitable for other forms of use;

d) the consumption economy should be recognized as economically equivalent to the production economy, since the creation of added value there represents an essential basis for production.

The prerequisite for the implementation of these rules is that in the long term only renewable energy resources will be available and only a limited amount of energy per unit of time. The resulting restrictions on energy use in an industrial society must be operationalized using sustainability criteria. Points b) and c) show that this causes a distribution problem. If the limited resource “energy” is not lost, as it has been until now, during the unwanted dissipation of substances in the processes of production and consumption, but is directed to the return of raw materials, then it becomes obvious that the previous methods of production exploited the foundations of their own existence from two sides: raw materials and energy. If both sides are now considered from an energy point of view and their use is subjected to natural limitations, then energy availability will ultimately become the bottleneck of industrial processes. If more materials must be brought into economic circulation or bound into products, then more scarce energy must be used. According to ecology, with increasing use of biomass, energy consumption increases. maintenance and repairs. That is, the transition to PR cannot be in vain for the volume and quality of both industrial production and mass consumption. Although efficiency and consistency (consistency) are necessary for a viable economy, without fulfilling the conditions of existence they are not the target characteristics. Technology that generates material and energy flows will play a decisive role in the transition to sustainable development. It is therefore inevitable that already when planning and designing products, the closed-loop ability of the materials used and, in addition, the possibility of using more recycled materials should be taken into account. This means nothing less than a complete renewal of production methods while constantly taking into account the requirements of the Pre-Employment. If we are talking about returning materials to economic circulation, then it is necessary to solve a multi-criteria problem that takes into account, on the one hand, the relationship between economic costs and environmental consequences, and, on the other hand, the quality of newly acquired materials and their economic efficiency. Thermodynamics indicates that energy costs (and, accordingly, costs) increase with a decrease in the share of recovery and a decrease in the quality of secondary raw materials. The connection is expressed as follows. The lower the density of the material to be recycled, the more expensive it is to concentrate it to an acceptable level, since this entails a disproportionate use of energy. However, this process requires detailed analysis. If we consider the conditions for the repeated and further use of materials at the ecological level, then at 5 stages of trophism from the original producer to primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, as well as destructors, one can see a relatively increasing loss of energy in the form of emitted energy, i.e. unhealthy heat. To transition to PR, energy losses from one to another stage of consumption must be described by normative methods that take into account natural and environmental principles. It is currently difficult to determine exactly which closed-loop processes will have an impact due to excessive energy use. negative influence for sustainable development, i.e. on the “strength” of the ecosystem. In the foreseeable future, the energy of the sun will still be radiated into the Earth's ecosystem, so the bottlenecks will be the preservation of non-renewable materials and the elimination of substances alien to nature from the natural cycle. The negative environmental “cost” of material loss cannot exceed the cost environmental consequences providing energy. Or, to put it another way, in terms of sustainability, the optimal closed-loop anthropogenic processes are those in which the negative cost of (ultimate) loss of material avoided is comparable to the cost of providing the (regenerative) energy needed for the process. The problem of “assessment” based on this simple rule has not yet been solved.

Incineration as a waste disposal strategy

The combustion of materials that are no longer integrated into economic circulation is called “thermal application” by some experts and is also considered a form of a closed cycle. From a thermodynamic point of view, this cannot be the case, since the burned materials contain negentropy (negative entropy), but when burned either produce entropy in the form of dissipation or, at best, useful heat. The resulting thermal energy (which, from an entropic point of view, is a devalued form of energy) is compared with the energy contained in the burned (and dissipated) materials. The latter is many times more important than the extracted heat. The combustion of previously used materials, but for various reasons that have lost their usefulness, according to thermodynamics, is an unprofitable business, and therefore cannot be classified as a closed-cycle method and should be an exception within the framework of the PrE. It represents a forced measure in the absence of imagination and creative approach. Only in isolated cases, which should be carefully checked, can incineration become a sustainable solution, while remaining generally an exception. Closed-loop processes require adequate technology that takes into account economic, environmental and social interests. In particular, under current conditions, the economic and environmental optimum of technological processes are far from each other and, undoubtedly, require convergence. It is known that the creation of combustion facilities requires high capital investments, so some segments of society may be interested in their construction. At the same time, many dependencies (environmental, social) are underestimated. Uses that could compete with incineration are rejected.

The importance of innovative technologies for ensuring sustainable development

Technology as a product of the cultural evolution of mankind during the transition to PR acquires great, if not decisive, importance. Technology plays a key role in transforming socio-economic processes within the EDP. Technical innovation was the core of industrialization and the economic development that followed it. Moreover, their role is twofold. Each new technology only becomes successful when the human component added to it positively corresponds with technology, i.e. they are capable of connection. In this case, the new technology can spread widely. This process is called technology diffusion.

Technology, on the contrary, can become an obstacle to the transition to PR, since shadow dependencies arise with high investments.

Historically, cultural and technological evolution can be divided into 3 major phases: hunter-gatherer society, agricultural society, and industrial society. In the course of cultural and technological evolution, due to the use of new technologies, anthropogenically caused consumption of energy and raw materials has continuously increased. The idealized view of many environmentalists is that the sustainable option for the future is the abandonment of technology (in a general sense), since technology is the main link causing the environmental crisis.

Conclusion

In our opinion, the dynamics of technological development is a decisive element in the transition to PR. Anthropogenic transformation of natural systems has already advanced so much that technology and its effect on the environment have become an integral part of planet Earth. Life as a phenomenon originated and is maintained through the integration of matter and energy. Anthropogenic and cultural development is integrally linked with environmental development. The first is possible only by transforming matter based on the use of energy. And the final solution to this problem has been taken on by technology, which must adapt to the newly emerging requirements of sustainable development. The type and form of use of old and, above all, new technology depends on the creativity of the individuals involved and general economic conditions. Ultimately, the introduction of technical inventions is determined by the economic effect they provide to investors. Investors again depend on the incentive system. The new cultural organization of matter will always be associated with technology, since only technology launches phenomenal material and energy flows. Thus, technology corresponds to two strategic options: increasing use of existing and proven sustainable technology; innovation and development of new sustainable technology.

Bibliographic link

Dorokhina E.Yu. CLOSED CYCLE AS A FORM OF MANAGEMENT WITHIN INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY // International Journal of Applied and Fundamental Research. – 2016. – No. 8-5. – pp. 772-776;
URL: https://applied-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=10167 (access date: 03/22/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

CLOSED PRODUCTION CYCLE - repeated use of a material resource (water, air, etc.) in production with pre-cooling, cleaning, etc. processes that return the resource to the quality required for a given technology. C. z. item can cover a number of industries; in this case, the resource from the last in the production chain goes to the first.[...]

Phosphorus production and processing involve the consumption of significant amounts of water. During the production process, this water is contaminated with numerous impurities, among which the most toxic are: yellow phosphorus, fluoride, cyanide and sulfur salts, phenols, phosphine. Organizing the operation of a phosphorus plant without releasing waste into water bodies and dumping sludge is the most appropriate, both for protecting the natural environment and rational use water resources, and from the point of view of production economics. This organization of water use is based on the presence of interconnected closed cycles, with intermediate water purification to established standards. The main link in this organization is the wastewater treatment workshop. When receiving chemically contaminated water from a plant, it must process it and produce water of the quality established by regulations to supply technological processes, wet dust and gas purification systems and other consumers, as well as process and prepare for disposal the sludge obtained during wastewater treatment.[...]

To this end, complex problems of creating drainless production, using water in closed cycles are being solved, the technology for neutralizing various types of wastewater and maximizing waste disposal are being improved. And it is here that modern methods of water desalination turn out to be particularly effective - methods that are based on the processes of separating water from the impurities it contains.[...]

In order to develop low-waste closed-cycle industries, registers of waste from industrial enterprises, schemes and comprehensive plans are being developed on the problem of intersectoral use of waste and feedstock.[...]

In this regard, in modern society the role and tasks of engineering (technical) ecology are sharply increasing, designed, based on an assessment of the degree of harm caused to nature by the industrialization of production, to develop and improve engineering and technical means of protecting the environment, to fully develop the foundations for creating closed and waste-free technological cycles and production[...]

Due to the high water intensity of phosphorus production and the acute shortage of water in the main regions where they are located, methods for reusing water in closed recycling cycles have become widespread. Typically, these enterprises use two types of circulating water supply - reuse of chemically contaminated wastewater and recycling - for cooling heat exchange equipment. Currently, these systems provide more than 98% of the water needs of phosphate plants. The discharge of water from circulating systems is 7-8,000 m3/day, and part of it, after clarification in storage ponds, is used to recharge these systems. [...]

The production engineer must understand that the vicious circle can be overcome, and this is entirely in the hands of a person armed with knowledge. Currently, the efforts of scientists are aimed at making the resource cycle closed, i.e., on the one hand, processes associated with the extraction and processing of necessary resources are being developed and improved, and on the other hand, their return in a transformed (changed) form to production for repeated and repeated use.[...]

The transition to a closed system - a continuous circulation of substances in the production process, where waste processing is the final link of one cycle and the initial link of the next, is an indispensable requirement of modern economic development. In accordance with this, the issue of collecting and processing plastic waste requires a solution already in the conditions of production that consumes polymer materials.[ ...]

The organization of a closed cycle of industrial water supply to an enterprise by returning treated wastewater in the general case cannot be limited to the direction of these wastewater into circulating heat exchange systems. The water requirement of such systems in many industries is less than the volume of all industrial and domestic biologically treated wastewater of an industrial unit, therefore the bulk of the water is consumed for technological or energy processes. The requirements for the quality of this water are usually higher than for water in circulating water supply systems, and in a number of chemical, pulp and paper industries and in thermal power engineering, significant amounts of water are consumed with a salt content of less than 10-15 g/m3, with a hardness not exceeding 0.01 g-eq/m3 and oxidizability up to 2 g 02/m3.[...]

When creating closed water management systems, the design of water supply and sewerage systems for industrial enterprises must be carried out simultaneously with the design of the main production. In this case, it is necessary to distinguish three independent water supply cycles: cooling, technological and transport.[...]

Compared to solid waste, liquids have an increased degree of harmful effects on the human body and the environment. When working with them, it is especially necessary to ensure hygienic and safe working conditions. The task of modern technology includes not only the elimination of hazards and hazards of production, but also the development of new technological process schemes and the design of devices that would be free from these shortcomings from the very beginning. The measures to create a safe and waste-free technology should include the following: development of closed-cycle systems, ensuring the return of used reagents and water, and complete recycling of secondary products. Of the totality of industrial waste, liquid waste takes up the largest share, and its disposal is associated with the highest material and energy costs. This must be taken into account when developing measures for further development principles of waste-free technology.[...]

Compared to the methods used, radiation purification eliminates the need for large areas, thereby intensifying production and accelerating the process of producing clean water. Particularly beneficial, obviously, will be the use of this cleaning method provided that a closed cycle is created - a circulation of the water used, since this will reduce the required volumes of water consumed. We will demonstrate this in the following specific example.[ ...]

For modern production As a rule, multi-stage purification is required, especially if the range of impurities is diverse. Thus, in the production of electronic equipment, the amount of harmful substances reaches 20-30 items: from carbon dioxide and dust to copper and lead compounds, formaldehyde and epichlorohydrin. Therefore, dry and wet devices, adsorbents and absorbents along with electrostatic precipitators are needed. But for this production, the main task is to reduce the volume and list of waste, their recycling, and the creation of closed cycles.[...]

The development of low-waste closed-cycle industries is still in its early stages. The success of this great undertaking depends to a large extent on technologists involved in the development of new and improvement of existing technological processes. However, difficulties in introducing waste-free, closed-cycle production are created by a narrow sectoral approach to the development of individual industries. It is necessary that enterprises whose waste is recycled be interested in changing the associated technological processes. For example, waste from thermal power plants, consisting of ash and slag from burned fuel, is usually disposed of in a mixed form. Meanwhile, during production building materials they are used separately, which requires some changes in the design and operation of the power plant. The Novocherkassk Polytechnic Institute has developed a corresponding proposal on this issue for the Novocherkassk State District Power Plant.[...]

Actually, the greening of production should be considered the likening of production (technological) processes, i.e., resource cycles, to the natural “closed” cycles of the moving part of chemical elements in the biosphere. It is clear that biogeochemical cycles are also not absolutely closed: part of the substance is excluded from the cycle for a very long time long term(transitions from a small cycle to a large one). The fundamental difference is that the substance leaving the cycle in nature is not a xenobiotic, does not represent pollution and does not go into waste, but into reserve. It is also clear that it is impossible to completely assimilate the resource cycle to the natural biogeochemical cycle. The law of conservation of matter clearly shows that waste-free technology is impossible in principle, and in general it should be understood as an ideal and theoretically unattainable combination of technological processes in which the mass of the resulting products is equal to the mass of raw materials and other materials consumed.[...]

Production processes with a closed cycle and integrated use of raw materials have already been practically implemented at the Lisichansk Soda Plant named after Lenin and the Nevinnomyssk Azot Production Association. Waste from the Rostov Chemical Plant is successfully used as additives in the production of building materials.[...]

Initially, waste-free production was a method of producing a certain group of consumer products, in which raw materials and energy are used most rationally and comprehensively in the cycle “raw materials - production - secondary raw materials - production and consumption waste”, and all the impact on the environment that accompanies this cycle, does not disrupt its (environment) normal functioning, i.e. waste-free production was understood as a closed system, organized by analogy with natural ecological systems.[...]

When designing chemical production, it is of practical interest to compare a waste-free technological scheme with a traditional scheme for obtaining a given product. To carry out such an analysis, reference projects are drawn up for the development and planning of technical policies in the field of creating waste-free technology. The concept of “reference project” implies such a set of technological stages in the cycle “resources - production - consumption - resources”, which ensures the closed movement of material and energy flows.[ ...]

Specific measures to combat water pollution are well known.[...]

Creating economically rational closed water management systems is a difficult but solvable task. The complex physical and chemical composition of wastewater, the variety of compounds it contains and their interaction make it impossible to select a universal structure of closed systems suitable for use in various industries national economy. The creation of such systems depends on the characteristics of the enterprise technology, its technical equipment, requirements for the quality of the products obtained and the water used, etc. Specialists must resolve issues of rational use of water in a closed cycle in the closest connection with the development of the main production technology. Now there are already more than 200 industrial enterprises and individual large production facilities in the country, where closed technical water supply systems have been created. [...]

Electrocoagulation can be used in industries with a closed water supply cycle. But the use of this method in each specific case requires preliminary testing and determination of optimal conditions for wastewater treatment.[...]

In the future, production with closed technological cycles will be created more widely. Air is reused in them, and all waste is recycled.[...]

One of the general principles of creating waste-free production is the cyclical nature of material flows. The simplest examples of cyclical material flows include closed water and gas cycles. Ultimately, the consistent application of this principle should lead to the formation, first in individual regions, and subsequently throughout the entire technosphere, of a consciously organized and regulated technogenic circulation of matter and associated energy transformations. As effective ways to form cyclical material flows and rational use of energy, we can point to the combination and cooperation of production, the creation of industrial complexes, as well as the development and production of new types of products taking into account the requirements of their reuse.[...]

A reference project is a set of technological stages with a cycle of raw materials - production - consumption - secondary raw materials, ensuring the closed movement of material and energy flows. When preparing a reference design for individual species chemical products use the most advanced technological schemes obtaining these products and processing waste, which does not generate secondary waste.[...]

In the United States of America, chlorine production schemes are being designed with single use of water in closed systems. The most progressive solutions are the following: chlorine gas and hydrogen are cooled in surface refrigerators, the resulting condensates are sent to the make-up water cycle, used mainly for the preparation of brine and for underground dissolution of salt.[...]

Improving the technology of industrial and agricultural production aims to minimize emissions and waste that pollute the natural environment. The ideal model for such production is waste-free technology with closed water consumption cycles. Large amounts of money are invested in the construction of treatment facilities - filters, dust collectors, settling tanks, etc. In agriculture, the transition to a more progressive method of irrigation - sprinkling - significantly reduces water consumption and land loss due to secondary salinization and waterlogging. [...]

This fragment of the technological process diagram reflects only part of the production with a closed cycle of water use.[...]

The leading direction in solving the problem of protecting water bodies from pollution by industrial waste is the creation of a technology that would minimize the formation of wastewater in the main production process, and the development of methods for processing industrial waste into secondary raw materials. Among the industries for which this problem has already been solved are the production of phenol with a closed wastewater cycle, aniline and other aromatic amines produced by contact methods, phthalic anhydride and a number of others. [...]

The main direction of protecting the atmosphere from pollution is the creation of low-waste technologies with closed production cycles and integrated use of raw materials. But this is ideal; at present, cleaning gases from pollutants is so far the only effective method of neutralizing the atmosphere. Existing methods purifications can be divided into two groups: non-catalytic (absorption and adsorption) and catalytic. Let's look at a number of chemical cleaning methods for the most common pollutants.[...]

The main direction of protecting the air from pollution by harmful substances is the creation of new low-waste technologies with closed production cycles and integrated use of raw materials. Technological protective measures also include: recovery of solvents, sealing of equipment, reduction of fugitive emissions, replacement of dry processes with wet ones, use of low-smoke and low-sulfur fuels, construction of high (up to 300 m) pipes to remove the zone of maximum pollution and reduce concentrations in the ground layer. Technical measures to combat vehicle emissions include engine adjustment with the selection of the optimal composition of the combustible mixture and ignition mode.[...]

Probably, the spontaneous process of mutual neutralization requires further study. However, this idea, given the impossibility of organizing production with a closed cycle, deserves attention. The authors of the study believe that adding special additives to a randomly formed process would make it possible to obtain substances with predetermined properties. This leads to the idea of ​​supplementing the industrial complexes emerging in any region with another enterprise - a kind of physical-chemical-biological plant that refines everything that remains at the main enterprises and turns their waste into harmless.[...]

In the practical achievement of this goal, other terms are also used: development of resource-saving and energy-saving technology; use of secondary energy resources; use of closed-cycle production, waste-free and low-waste production. In the latter case, it is assumed that all waste, including those that pollute air and water, is almost completely absent or is used in other technological cycles of the given production, related industries or in agriculture. Industries that use consumer waste are also non-waste (low-waste). Production that does not meet these requirements is called ordinary.[...]

Physico-chemical methods for purifying the atmosphere from gaseous pollutants. The main direction of protecting the air basin from pollution by harmful substances is the creation of a new waste-free technology with closed production cycles and integrated use of raw materials.[...]

In some cases, a single measure aimed at protecting the environment does not fully solve it. The most effective are complex solutions that include the entire arsenal of means and methods of environmental protection with the organization of production in a closed cycle and the transition to waste-free technologies.[...]

According to the Institute of Economics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the pulp and paper industry is one of the main environmental pollutants, emitting up to 75% of all waste in the form of suspended particles. We need promising solutions, the implementation of which will sharply reduce emissions into the atmosphere and water bodies. Therefore, in paper production it is necessary to reduce the consumption of fresh water per 1 ton of finished products while using the most closed cycles for the use of recycled water, which at the same time should lead to a reduction in the cost of paper produced. In addition to saving water, fibers and fillers with a closed cycle of using recycled water, more is also achieved rational use heat, which in some cases, for example in the production of newsprint, is very important. Indeed, maximizing the use of heat contained in the wood pulp flow (the main component of newsprint) helps to increase the temperature of the pulp entering the paper machine wire. This facilitates the process of dewatering the pulp and increases the temperature of the circulating water, which leads to an increase in the temperature of the pulp entering the mesh of the papermaking machine. [...]

Industrial wastewater (industrial wastewater) and fecal wastewater from social and cultural facilities are characterized by a number of parameters: quantity (in kg or in l), physicochemical properties of dissolved, emulsified or suspended substances, the degree of their toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, alkalinity or acidity , organoleptic characteristics - smell, color, taste. Industrial wastewater is divided into conditionally clean (from cooling of technological equipment) and dirty (from other workshops, sites, construction sites, etc.). Conditionally clean wastewater is cooled in settling tanks or cooling towers, cleaned of suspended matter and oils, and then returned to production with a limited addition of cold water (evaporation losses). This process is called a closed cycle of water consumption; from the point of view of environmental protection, it is the most harmless. Dirty industrial wastewater is taken to treatment facilities through sewer collectors, solid fractions are removed from them, petroleum products are filtered, then they are disinfected and sent to deep cleaning devices or settling tanks.

Practical tour questions for grade 11:

It is known that the pyramid of biomass of the World Ocean is based not on plants, but on animals, the total weight of which is 20 times greater than the weight of plants. Why?

In order to find out how to regulate population growth, the following experiment was carried out. Different numbers of tadpoles were placed in two aquariums of equal volume. In the first aquarium, where there were twice as many tadpoles, they grew more slowly. A little water was poured from the first vessel into the second, without changing the number of tadpoles in it. As a result, their growth and development, previously intensive, clearly slowed down. Draw a conclusion from this experience.

In tropical open ocean areas, where there is a lot of heat and light, life is very poor. These areas are called "oceanic deserts." What is this connected with?

In the 30s - 60s of our century, DDT was widely used in agricultural practice as an insecticide. One of the consequences of using this insecticide was the death of predators. Explain the reasons for this phenomenon.

Make an ecological chain - mouse - cheese.

Why does natural atmospheric pollution not disrupt the processes occurring in it?

What are the positive consequences of the “greenhouse effect”?

What substances are most dangerous when polluting water bodies and why?

Explain what is the advantage of using closed production cycles over the construction of treatment facilities?

Why do thermal power plants make a big contribution to climate warming? Explain what the greenhouse effect is.

Even within a single common species, birds living at higher latitudes produce more offspring than those living at low latitudes. What do you think caused this?

Predators - cats and dogs - eat differently. The cat rejects stale food, eats thoroughly and slowly, and rarely overeats. The dog, on the contrary, does not disdain carrion, eats in a hurry, almost without chewing and, as they say, does not know when to stop. Is there any biological or environmental explanation for this?

A plot of steppe grass, which can feed only 10 sheep - animals of modest size, provides food for 19 huge ones - camels with a total weight of 8.5 tons. Explain why?

Closely related species live side by side, although, according to the prevailing opinion among Darwinists, there is the strongest competition between them. Why doesn't one species displace the other?

How can we explain the differences in the relationship between heart size and activity in mammals and insects, if in the latter the size of the heart (dorsal vessel) does not depend on their activity?

Practice round answers for 11th grade:

The basis of the plant biomass of the world's oceans is made up of unicellular algae, whose life expectancy is short. But at the same time, these algae have a high rate of reproduction and reproduction. As a result, the biomass of planktonic animals feeding on phytoplankton and having longer duration life turns out to be much higher than the biomass of phytoplankton. In addition, zooplankton itself serves as a food base for various plaktonophages (molluscs, fish, mammals), which further increases the above difference.

Individuals of the overpopulated population of tadpoles (in the first aquarium) released special substances into the water that slowed down the growth and development of individuals within the population.

Lack of mineral nutrition elements, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, necessary for the development of phytoplankton, on which animals in turn depend. Due to the great depths, nitrogen and phosphorus salts, concentrating in the silt at the bottom, do not reach the surface layers of the ocean.

DDT is a cumulative poison, and, transmitted along trophic chains, it accumulates in predators - the final links of such chains. This was the reason for their increased mortality.

Mouse – bumblebees – clover – sheep – milk – cheese.

Substances entering the atmosphere due to natural pollution have always been and are in nature, they are quickly included in natural cycles, industrial enterprises emit substances into the atmosphere that are usually not found in nature: freons, heavy metal dust, radioactive substances. These substances can disrupt natural processes.

An increase in temperature will lead to a reduction in the polar regions and the promotion of heat-loving species of vegetation in them, an increase in humidity will lead to a reduction in the area of ​​deserts, and an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide will lead to an increase in plant productivity.

Salts of heavy metals, organophosphorus and organochlorine compounds - these substances accumulate in the body and are transmitted along the food chain, leading to the occurrence of cumulative toxicosis. Also dangerous are substances - detergents, which are part of modern detergents (washing powders). They form a thin film on the surface of the water, preventing the enrichment of the water with oxygen. They form a similar film on the gills of aquatic inhabitants, causing their death. Petroleum products entering water also cause a similar impact.

Closed production cycles allow for more efficient use of raw materials, which makes them more economical; These are waste-free production facilities that do not pollute the natural environment. Treatment facilities do not provide the opportunity for complete waste treatment, since with an increase in the degree of purification, the cost of this process increases many times, and the production of the main product becomes unprofitable. Thus, treatment facilities can only reduce environmental pollution, but not prevent it.

The increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is one of the reasons for the ongoing warming of the Earth's climate. This is due, first of all, to a violation of the natural balance between the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere as a result of decomposition organic matter and absorbed during photosynthesis. The concentration of carbon dioxide, along with other elements - methane, freons - leads to the formation of the so-called greenhouse effect. The essence of this phenomenon is that carbon dioxide and other substances accumulate, temperature and humidity increase (the same effect can be observed in a greenhouse covered with film or glass).

Daylength hypothesis - in spring and summer at high latitudes, daylight hours are longer and birds have more time to collect food and are able to feed their chicks more. The spring abundance hypothesis—in the spring in mid-latitudes there is a sharp increase in primary production and a rapid increase in the number of insects. The population size of the birds themselves in the spring is very small due to mass death in the winter. Therefore, individuals arriving in the spring find themselves in conditions of abundant food and relatively weak competition. Thus, birds of high latitudes can collect more feed and are able to feed more offspring. The hypothesis of the influence of predators is that in the tropics there are more predators and they destroy larger clutches more often, since parents are forced to leave them more often to search for food than small ones.

The cat is a solitary predator. Therefore, having caught prey and retired, she calmly absorbs it without worrying - she has no competitors. The dog is a pack predator. The caught prey is barely enough for all members of the group. When dividing food, there is no ceremony; there is simply no time to choose more delicious pieces.

Sheep eat mainly wormwood and succulent shoots of herbaceous plants, avoiding thorny plants and dry stems of cereals. In addition, the small and pointed hooves of sheep greatly destroy the soil, which leads to rapid degradation of pastures and sharp decline biomass of vegetative plants. Camels, on the other hand, have a wider food spectrum, eating both dry and thorny plants. In addition, camels, being calloused animals, have very wide feet and, despite their large weight, exert only slight pressure on the soil surface. Thanks to this, plant communities in camel pastures are not subject to degradation.

Closely related species living nearby usually occupy different ecological niches and therefore have different food spectrums, which eliminates competition for life resources.

In insects, the function of the circulatory system does not include supplying organs and tissues with oxygen, as a result of which they have no relationship between the activity and size of the heart. In mammals, activity directly depends on the flow of blood, hemoglobin of which is the carrier of oxygen, and the heart is the organ responsible for moving blood through the blood vessels.

Once upon a time, Walter Stachel gave the world the expression “from cradle to cradle,” meaning a closed cycle. Today, this Swiss analyst is considered one of the foremost specialists in the cyclical economy.

- Tell us about the circular economy model, or, in other words, about the “cradle to cradle” principle.

In the 1970s, the main method of waste disposal was landfills. Discussion of this issue gave rise to the concept of "cradle to grave" and revolved around improving the quality of "graves" for garbage, which, in my opinion, could not be called progress. In response, I began using the term "cradle to cradle", emphasizing that "graves" were a last resort.

I prefer the term “cradle to cradle” to “circular economy” or “circular economy” because they use the word “economy”. Having studied the economic side of the issue, we immediately understand that even the smallest cycles - reuse, refurbishment, modernization and re-marketing of goods and components in industry - bring great financial benefits. The reason for this is minimal costs for the buyer and maximum profits for the manufacturer.

When studying economic indicators, it is necessary to simultaneously consider what exactly will bring maximum profit. For example, when developing new products, it is important to know the actual or equivalent water content of raw materials.

While labor-intensive, small cycles also bring great benefits socially. consuming very small quantity raw materials and energy resources, and being local in nature, they increase the level of local employment and, thereby, stimulate the economy of the respective regions. In the context of sustainable development, we are constantly working to optimize these three factors: economic, environmental and social.

There are areas where the circular economy has been applied for many years, and we may not even be aware of those phenomena in our world that already meet its criteria. Take, for example, the concepts of reuse, remarketing of goods and components, or remanufacturing. The clearest example eBay and any other national or regional site through which used goods are sold consumer-to-consumer (c2c) or business-to-consumer (b2c) are successful in their application. And although before eBay there were flea markets or clothing stores thrift stores, what we have today is a huge global repeat marketing platform. Essentially what we are trying to achieve within the circular economy model.

eBay's goal is to sell products at the highest possible price. In other words, the main goal of a circular economy business model is profitability, and the objective is results. This involves rethinking the idea of ​​buying and selling goods as services rather than products and making buying and selling an outcome.

While the goods rental business model has always existed within the industrial economy, in the circular economy it covers a much wider range of goods. If we can rent a car, an apartment or an office, then why not rent clothes? Renting clothes for special occasions has become common, but why not rent other types of clothing too? Renting handbags is still in its infancy, but rental of tools and equipment for construction sites has already become commonplace. Consumers can rent computers and cell phones at almost any airport.

The circular economy also favors the collective consumption of goods as services, as can be seen in public transport, including railways, aviation, subways, municipal bicycles and taxis, as well as toll roads, bridges and tunnels. In all these operations you gain a result. When you purchase the right to use an item, you are assured of a guaranteed outcome and that the item's life cycle has been properly managed.

One of the latest areas to which the purchase of results has spread is electronic goods. We all use the Internet, smartphones, cloud services, electronic banking services and the like, forgetting that satellites are used to make them work. Even the simplest ATM withdrawal while abroad involves the cloud, the Internet and satellites. Today, GPS is used in virtually every industry, from aviation and logistics, cargo transportation and oil production to our cars. In all these cases, we purchase the service without any liability for the contents of the product. We just enjoy the result.

The outcome economy uses the principles of a circular economy until we stop buying goods and switch simply to services. To a certain extent, we as consumers, businessmen and even politicians have already become involved in this new economy.

- What do you think about material recovery in the context of reuse or disposal of toxic substances?

Maintaining ownership of the product encourages the company to eliminate the use of toxic substances in the product. If their use cannot be avoided, it will take measures to simplify the process of their extraction and separation and will make great efforts to prevent the reverse. This is especially true for high-value substances, such as rare earth elements used in electrical and digital products that cannot be recycled.

- Why do you think that the circular economy has not received widespread?

Only because the problems we discussed are characteristic mainly of the industrialized countries of Europe and North America. Developing countries face completely different problems related to shortages of resources, skilled labor, goods and food. In conditions of shortages, the best strategy for increasing the standard of living of the population is the mass production of inexpensive goods.

Countries with economies in transition, such as China, having established infrastructure, inventories of goods and a system of public services, can begin to maintain them, properly operate and maintain them in working order. As far as poor and resource-starved African countries are concerned, the circular economy is of no use in their context. Before they can begin stockpiling goods and developing infrastructure that they can service and store, they need to achieve some level of wealth.

The circular economy will never be a global model. It has already come to developing countries, but only because of their poverty. The population of these countries is forced to restore and completely modernize products, but this is done at a low technological level. The reuse of goods in these countries is accompanied by high level pollution. In African and Asian recycling plants, electronic devices are burned to extract rare earth elements. So it turns out that many less developed countries are already implementing circular economy principles, but ironically, in doing so, they are causing damage to the environment and the health of their citizens.

The traditional, linear concept of an industrial economy still has many advantages in the eyes of economic actors, and one of them is the possibility of externalizing the cost of risk and production waste. If you can pass that cost on to the government or consumers, your profits will increase, you'll make more money.

In the long term, political stability must be taken into account. For example, in the Sahara Desert an environmental project called “DESERTEC” is being implemented. This is a huge solar panel that will generate electricity to supply Europe. The project has been implemented for about five years and is supported by large European companies. If you look at the current state of the Sahara, it may seem that investing billions in an al-Qaeda-controlled region is pure madness. I think that if you want to help Africa or a lot of other countries, then you need to give them the kind of help that will enable them to help themselves, but you should never try to do the work for them.

- What are the main obstacles at the state level do you see and how to overcome them?

They are mainly related to the existing economic model. Politicians mostly live in industrial economies. In other words, if they want to create new jobs or take action to develop the economy, all they can understand are programs like Cash for Clunkers. They want to scrap cars that are over eight or nine years old and force people to buy new ones. At the same time, they completely ignore the alternative option, which consists in completely modernizing the engines, but environmental characteristics are determined mainly by them. A complete engine upgrade may cost as much as the Cash for Clunkers program, but will save 80% of the vehicle's investment.

In my opinion, the most significant thing politicians can do is change the tax system. The introduction of a system of socially responsible taxation, that is, taxation of non-renewable resources (energy and raw materials) and exemption from taxes of renewable resources, which include human labor, would be a huge incentive for the development of a circular economy.

A second important aspect of socially responsible taxation could be the application of value added tax only to transactions in which added value is actually generated. Since this does not happen in the case of transactions carried out within the framework of the circular economy, there can be no talk of applying VAT. This concept was accepted in principle by the British Treasury and a number of others. European countries(in particular Scandinavian), where VAT is applied equal to 25%. By not charging VAT on the refurbishment, complete refurbishment or re-marketing of goods, businesses will see the benefits of being socially responsible in a circular economy.

The income tax was invented in Europe and was intended to finance the war effort. In France these were the Napoleonic Wars and the First World War. At the end of hostilities, the tax was not abolished.

In China, Russia, India and a number of other countries there is no payroll tax. Eleven US states do not have an income tax, and another 12 are considering doing away with it. So how do the governments of these entities generate their income? In Texas, for example, taxes are taken from oil production. The situation is similar in Florida: construction is taxed there. Half of government revenues Russian budget secured by the production and sale of oil and gas.

Governments should tax what they want to restrict and exempt what they want to stimulate, such as labor. Of course, each country must independently regulate taxation issues, based on its priorities.

- How can the business community stimulate the circular economy?

Developing business models for taking back or remarketing their own products is the most that businesses wanting to get involved in promoting the circular economy can do. To do this, it is necessary to develop products taking into account their entire life cycle and using a modular concept based on standardized components, giving preference to systemic rather than isolated solutions.

It's very simple: if a company doesn't want its products returned, it can't make a profit from them at the end of their useful life. If developing green products increases costs and generates too little profit, then there is little incentive to do so. Why produce intellectual goods if someone else will profit from them? If the company begins to sell the results of using its products, retaining ownership of them, and therefore the resources invested in them, then its future income can increase significantly.

Throughout the 20th century, commodity prices fell steadily. Since 2000, their growth began, and today they have reached a level comparable to 1900. Obviously, retaining ownership of materials and resources is pointless if the new product is cheaper than the one purchased ten years ago.

This approach is justified when commodity prices rise, because, in a nutshell, today's goods are tomorrow's resources sold at yesterday's prices.

By starting to sell results instead of goods and retaining ownership through the use of rent or leasing, the company receives the guarantee that in five or ten years it will have at its disposal all the necessary resources to produce new goods.

In addition, instead of starting a recycling cycle for components or entire products, a company can engage in complete modernization. In the case of retention of ownership, this decision remains with the individual producers. Only they can decide what is the best course of action for them at the end of the product's life.

- In some industries it is relatively easy to switch to renting or leasing, in others such a transition will require significant capital investments to launch new processes. How can a company determine the right time to transition?

Honestly, I don't think now is the right time. A very good moment was five or ten years ago, when companies were growing rapidly, and because of this, the market did not so insistently require them to use innovative solutions. In fact, if you decide to change your corporate strategy, any time is right.

Sustainability is easy for rental market players to achieve by simply ensuring that the buildings they offer are properly insulated and highly energy efficient. When schools, subsidized housing and government offices are taken into account, the share of public buildings in the total stock increases significantly. Bringing these buildings to modern thermal insulation standards is very labor-intensive, but requires virtually no expenditure on energy resources and materials. If labor costs were lower, for example through tax exemptions, costs could be cut significantly.

The long-term benefit is a large reduction in energy costs to heat or cool these buildings. This relates to one of the puzzles that most governments have not solved - the Kyoto Protocol. Governments have asked us for clarification on how to significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions or greenhouse gases when creating new jobs in the local market. I think that if construction companies embraced this business model entirely and started demanding government support, it would be extremely difficult for governments to say they couldn't afford it.

The main issue is incentives. The fact is that instead of modernizing buildings, construction companies can opt for demolition and new construction, because that is what their job is. At the same time, reconstruction and technological modernization of existing buildings require little time, money and, by and large, provide much better energy efficiency.

- What are the main difficulties that companies may encounter when transitioning to a circular economy model?

Let's look at this issue using the example of the carpet company Interface. Ray Anderson, the company's CEO, led the transition and was the first to offer 10-year carpet leases. The idea has attracted few people so far. The problem lies not with the company itself, but with its customers, who may feel capable of managing the entire system at a much lower cost.

Budget payments, for example, are clearly intended to provide for schools, roads, and the armed forces. Once a binding 20-year social responsibility agreement, similar to Interface's proposal for green carpet rentals, is proposed, the Treasury faces a major hurdle because, once it accepts such an agreement, it will not be able to freely transfer cash between sectors.

By entering into a lease agreement, the government will have to pay a fixed amount annually. If they buy a carpet and, with the help of a local service industry, use it for 20 years, then at the end of this period they find themselves in a difficult financial situation (like the sequestration that took place in the USA or the austerity regime in the EU), and therefore they accept a simple solution: don't buy new carpet.

Such freedom of action for the Treasury is not possible if the government leases the carpet under a long-term agreement. People usually don't want to talk about these challenges, but it's the very reason why so many new business models simply fall apart at the marketing stage. The reason is simple: the consumer has his own problems that are not related to the carpet, but he is not able to solve them.

Everything depends on the type of activity. Michelin sells tires as a service, and manufacturers jet engines- power by hour. Because these markets are clearly defined, the consumer can see benefits in both cases. He no longer has to think about the products because he receives them in the form of a service at a fixed price, and this is the best option for him.

Consider the automotive industry, another market for mass-produced goods. Here, the idea of ​​selling results or machines as a service is contrary to what is being done today: highly efficient production within centralized, global supply chains, followed by distribution through dealers.

An automaker's move to rent or share cars means it needs representatives or rental bureaus at every airport and city, which in turn means it can no longer make optimal use of its knowledge of how to efficiently produce cars.

Often, when moving from selling goods to selling services, companies are faced with a problem that is completely unfamiliar to them, do not have the necessary skills and are forced to establish new distribution and return channels. And businessmen are asking: “Why don’t we just continue with the traditional business model, even though it is not socially responsible?” Or “Even if my current activities do not create new jobs, save resources or prevent waste, and changing the situation in the short term does not benefit either government or industry, why should I?”

- So why should companies do this?

Actually, they don't have to do this. When I gave presentations on the circular economy in the 1990s, I often ended them with a slide that said, “You don't have to do any of the things discussed here. No one is asking you to survive.” After someone told me that this slide was depressing, I stopped doing it. But it remains an argument for sustainable development. You can completely ignore all the circular economy concepts, but if even one of your competitors uses them and succeeds, then it turns out that your decision caused your company to exit the market.

- Today, much attention is paid to reducing waste production rather than discarding it.

I think for profit reasons material costs have always been the focus of the manufacturing industry. Today's change is that we will move from processes that consume materials to processes that create products, which means zero waste.

A great example of this change is 3D printers, which currently work primarily with plastic. If they can be adapted to work with metals, then the era of much more material- and energy-efficient waste-free production processes will dawn.

The circular economy has the potential to solve the problem of waste generated at the end of a product's life. I have never been a supporter of so-called zero-waste technologies, since in the Western world zero is an unmotivating goal. It is much better to look at the situation from the other side and replace the idea of ​​zero waste with the idea of ​​100% profit. Your shareholders expect you to turn a ton of materials into a ton of products that you then sell, so talk about the concept of 100% profit to any Western executive and he will immediately become interested.

- In the UK, another approach is very popular - carbon offsets.

Today the price of carbon is around 3 euros per ton, which tells us that this market, if it ever existed in Europe, has collapsed.

Another challenge associated with offsetting emissions is finding investment opportunities. Investments in social sustainability today account for only 5% of all investments. If you look at large companies, from whom you can purchase these offsets, you will see that they are investing primarily in the money markets because they simply do not see enough opportunities to invest in emissions offset activities.

Yes, the idea was indeed interesting, but it meant that companies might try to hide their carbon footprint. The reality is, and I've said this before, either you do it for yourself or you find another solution. Attracting external resources will not help solve this problem.

You can reduce your carbon dioxide emissions by switching from coal or oil to natural gas. The shale revolution that we are seeing in the USA is taking place only because in any form natural gas, whether methane or biogas, more hydrogen molecules and less carbon, resulting in reduced carbon dioxide emissions and increased water production. In this way, you will reduce not only carbon dioxide emissions, but also all greenhouse gases, including nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides, by approximately 80%. But at the same time energy efficiency does not increase!

Therefore, taking care of reserves and optimal ways to use them, we refuse to solve our problems through production more goods (at least in industrialized countries), while our economy moves one step closer to a circular model, and society benefits from the creation of regional jobs, reduced waste generation and significant reductions in resource consumption.