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Morphological principle of Russian spelling. Basics of Russian spelling

CONCLUSION THREE: in order to consciously apply the morphological principle of spelling, it is necessary to have an idea of ​​the grammatical meaning of both the word as a whole and its individual parts in particular.

The morphological principle of Russian orthography is so logical and generally consistent that there are practically no exceptions. ( It is estimated that in texts in Russian, 96% of spellings meet this principle.) One can easily imagine what a storm of indignation this categorical statement will cause among diligent readers of grammar reference books, where almost every rule is accompanied by a long list of notes and exceptions, bashfully compressed into small petite lines.

However, most of these seemingly anomalous spellings are by no means exceptions. They were born as a result of certain restrictions and violations of the morphological principle, which, in turn, also have their own historical pattern and are subject to the logic of the centuries-old development of the very system of our language.

Let's compare two well-known verbs - to get angry and to quarrel. It is easy to notice that both of them are written through a double C, although such a spelling corresponds to the morphological composition of the word only in the first case (prefix ras + quarrel), and in the second (prefix ras + quarrel) - the word, according to the morphological principle, should I would write with a triple C: ra sss orate. However, the absence of such a form is well explained. The fact is that in the Russian language “there are only two degrees of consonant length: consonants can be either long (which is conveyed in writing by writing two letters, cf. Kassa), or short (which is conveyed by writing one letter, cf. Kosa). The third there is no degree of length of consonants, so writing three identical consonants is phonetically meaningless" [Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976. S. 168-169].

Thus, it turns out that writing only two consonants at the junction of morphemes, although morphologically there should be three such consonants (bath - but bathroom, although the adjective suffix -n- is attached to the root of baths), or one consonant, when according to the morphological principle there should be be written two (crystal - but crystal, Finn - but Finnish, finka, column - but column, manna - but semolina, uniform - but formenka, operetta - but operetta, ton - but five-tonka, antenna - but antenna man), is explained by the action historically established phonetic patterns of the Russian language.

Now it becomes clear the spelling of adjectives such as Nice, Cherepovets, German, which, at first glance, conflicts with the spelling of Constance, which was mentioned above.

In fact: by adding the suffix -sk- to the base, according to the morphological principle, we would expect to see the form Nice. However, such a form would reflect the third degree of longitude of consonants, which is absent in the Russian language. Our spelling was free to choose from two options (Nice or Nitssky), in equally violating the morphological principle in favor of phonetic patterns. The reasonableness of preferring the first one possible options is obvious: it at least preserves the spelling of the generating stem of a word, especially a foreign word, intact.

We must not forget that spelling norms developed gradually, preserving the heritage of the past, and therefore they cannot but reflect the linguistic state of previous eras. It is safe to say that the remaining 4% of “anomalous” spellings that do not fall within the scope of the morphological principle of spelling did not arise spontaneously, but under the influence of certain phonetic traditions that have developed over the long centuries of the existence of our language.

On the pages of various manuals, textbooks and grammars, the same spelling patterns are often interpreted differently (for example, spellings in root morphemes with alternating vowels like -zor- -zar- are considered by some authors to be subject to the phonetic principle of spelling, while others consider them to be a consequence of the traditional principle ). However, since you and I are in at the moment We are concerned not so much with scholastic as with practical problems, let’s forget about terminological accuracy and ask a more specific question: “What, exactly, are these phonetic traditions and what trace did they leave in Russian orthography?”

The principles of Russian spelling are considered very complex, but compared with other European languages, where there are a lot of traditional, conventional spellings, the spelling of the Russian language as a whole is quite logical, you just need to understand what it is based on.

This article talks about the morphological principle of Russian orthography, examples of which are the majority of words in our language.

What is morphology

Understanding what the morphological principle of Russian spelling is, examples of which are given already in the first grade primary school, is impossible without the concept of morphology as such. What is morphology? In what areas of knowledge is it customary to talk about it?

The application of the concept of morphology is much wider than the linguistic field, that is, the field of language study. The easiest way to explain what it is is by using the example of biology, where this term actually comes from. Morphology studies the structure of the organism, its components and the role of each part in the life of the organism as a whole. For example, the internal morphology of a person is anatomy.

Thus, morphology in the linguistic sense of the word studies the anatomy of a word, its structure, that is, what parts it consists of, why these parts can be distinguished and why they exist. The “components” of a person are the heart, liver, lungs; flower - petals, pistil, stamens; and the words are prefix, root, suffix and ending. These are the “organs” of the word that are in complex interaction with each other and perform their functions. The topic “Morphemics and word formation” at school is aimed specifically at studying these components words, the laws of their connection.

Preliminarily answering the question about the main principle of our spelling, we can say that we write down the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) as elements of writing; this is the morphological principle of Russian spelling. Examples (the simplest ones to begin with): in the word “balls” we write I, as we write it down, we transfer the root “ball” without changes, just as we hear it in the word “ball”.

Are there other principles of spelling?

To understand the essence of the morphological principle of Russian orthography, it needs to be considered against the background of other principles.

Let us clarify what spelling or spelling is. These are the rules that govern writing. specific language. The main principle that underlies these rules is not always morphological. Apart from this, first of all we need to talk about phonetic and traditional principles.

Recording sounds

For example, you can write down a word as it is heard, that is, write down sounds. We would write the word “oak” as follows: “dup”. This principle of writing words (when nothing is important except the sound of the word and the transmission of this sound) is called phonetic. It is followed by children who have just learned to write: they write down what they hear and say. In this case, the uniformity of any prefix, root, suffix or ending may be violated.

Phonetic principle in Russian

There are not many examples of phonetic spelling. It affects, first of all, the rules for writing the prefix (without- (bes-)). In cases where we hear the sound C at its end (before voiceless consonants), we write down exactly this sound (carefree, uncompromising, unscrupulous), and in those cases when we hear Z (before voiced consonants and sonorants), we write it down (uncomplaining, carefree, slacker).

Traditional principle

Another important principle- this is traditional, it is also called historical. It lies in the fact that a certain spelling of a word can only be explained by tradition or habit. Once upon a time, a word was pronounced, and therefore written, in a certain way. Time has passed, the language has changed, its sound has changed, but according to tradition the word still continues to be written this way. In Russian, this, for example, concerns the spelling of the well-known “zhi” and “shi”. Once upon a time in the Russian language these combinations were pronounced “softly”, then this pronunciation disappeared, but the writing tradition was preserved. Another example of traditional spelling is the loss of connection between a word and its “test” words. This will be discussed below.

Disadvantages of the traditional way of writing words

In the Russian language, there are quite a lot of such “evidence” of the past, but if you compare, for example, with the English language, it will not seem to be the main one. IN English Most of the writings are explained precisely by tradition, since no reforms were carried out in it for an extremely long time. That is why English-speaking schoolchildren are forced not so much to understand the rules of spelling words as to memorize the spellings themselves. Only tradition, for example, can explain why in the word “high” only the first two letters are “voiced”, and the next two are written simply “out of habit”, denoting zero sounds in the word.

Widespread use of the traditional principle in the Russian language

As mentioned above, the spelling of the Russian language follows not only the morphological principle, but also the phonetic and traditional one, from which it is quite difficult to escape completely. Most often we come across traditional, or historical principle Russian spelling, when we write down so-called dictionary words. These are words whose spelling can only be explained historically. For example, why do we write “ink” with an E? Or "underwear" with E? The fact is that historically these words are associated with the names of colors - black and white, since at first ink was only black, and linen was only white. Then the connection between these words and those from which they were derived was lost, but we continue to write them that way. There are also words whose origin can be explained using modern words generally impossible, but their writing is strictly regulated. For example: cow, dog. The same applies to foreign words: their spelling is regulated by words of another language. These and similar words just need to be learned.

Another example is the spelling qi/tsy. Only convention can explain why I is written in the roots of words after T (with the exception of some surnames, for example, Antsyferov, and the words tsyts, chicks, chicken, gypsy), and in the endings - Y. After all, the syllables in both cases are pronounced exactly the same and are subject to no verification.

Obvious logic when writing words with traditional spelling no, and, you see, they are much harder to learn than “testable” words. After all, it is always easier to remember something that has an obvious explanation.

Why the morphological principle?

The role of the morphological principle in spelling is difficult to overestimate, because it regulates the laws of writing, makes it predictable, eliminates the need to memorize an endless number of words in traditional writing and “unraveling” spellings in phonetic writing. After all, in the end, the correct spelling of words is not a simple whim of linguists. This is what ensures easy understanding of the text, the ability to read any word “on sight”. Children's writing “vykhodnyi myzbabushkay hadili nayolku” makes reading the text difficult and slow. If we imagine that words will be written differently each time, the reader, his speed of reading the text and the quality of his perception will suffer from this, first of all, since all efforts will be aimed at “deciphering” the words.

Perhaps, for a language that is at least rich in word forms (that is, less rich in morphemes) and has less word-formation capabilities (the formation of words in the Russian language occurs very easily and freely, according to the most different models and using the most different ways), this principle would be suitable, but not for a Russian. If we add to this the rich cultural discourse, that is, the complexity and subtlety of thoughts that our language is designed to express, then a primitive phonetic notation is completely unacceptable.

The essence of the morphological principle of the Russian language. Examples

So, having examined the background of the existence of the morphological principle and found out what morphology is, let’s return to its essence. It's very simple. When we write down a word, we choose not sounds or words as recording elements, but parts of words, its constituent elements(prefixes, roots, suffixes, postfixes and inflections). That is, when writing a word, we build it, as if from cubes, not from but from more complex ones, significant entities- morpheme And “transfer”, each part of the word must be written down unchanged. In the word “gymnastic” after N we write A, as in the word “gymnast”, since we are writing down an entire morpheme - the root “gymnast”. In the word “clouds” we write the first letter O, as in the form “cloud”, since we “transfer” the whole morpheme - the root “clouds”. It cannot be destroyed or modified, because the morphological principle says: write down the whole morpheme, regardless of how it is heard and pronounced. In the word “cloud,” in turn, we write the final O at the ending, as in the word “window” (this is the ending of a neuter noun in the nominative singular).

The problem of following the morphological principle in Russian writing

In Russian, the problem with writing according to morphological principles is that we constantly fall into the traps of our pronunciation. Everything would be simple if all morphemes always sounded the same. However, in speech everything happens completely differently, which is why children, following the phonetic principle, do this large number errors.

The fact is that sounds in Russian speech are pronounced differently, depending on their position in the word.

Search for standard morphemes

For example, at the end of words we never pronounce a voiced consonant - it is always deafened. This is the articulatory law of the Russian language. It’s hard to imagine, but this doesn’t happen in all languages. The English, on the contrary, are always surprised when Russians try to apply this law and pronounce a voiceless consonant at the end, say, English word"dog". In a “stunned” form - “doc” - the word is completely unrecognizable to them.

To find out which letter should be written at the end of the word "steamer", we must pronounce the morpheme "move" in such a way as not to put it in the weak position of the absolute end of the word: "go". From this example of the use of a morpheme it is clear that its standard ends in D.

Another example is vowel sounds. Without stress we pronounce them blurry; they sound clearly only under stress. When choosing a letter, we also follow the morphological principle of Russian orthography. Examples: to write the word “walk”, we must “check” the unstressed vowel - “pass”. This word has a clear, standard vowel sound, which means that we write it in a “weak” position - without stress. All of these are spellings that obey the morphological principle of Russian orthography.

We also restore other standards of morphemes, not only root ones, but also others (for example, we always write the prefix “NA” one way and no other way). And it is the standard morpheme, according to the morphological principle of Russian orthography, that we write down as an element when we write a word.

Thus, the morphological principle of Russian orthography presupposes knowledge about the structure of the word, its formation, part-speak, and grammatical features (otherwise it will be impossible to restore the standards of suffixes and endings). To write fluently and competently in Russian, you must have a rich vocabulary- then the search for “standards” of morphemes will take place quickly and automatically. People who read a lot write competently, since a free orientation in the language allows them to easily recognize the connections between words and their forms. It is during reading that the understanding of the morphological principle of Russian orthography develops.

Non-state educational institution

Parochial school "Kosinskaya"

Moscow

Article
“Basic principles of Russian spelling”

prepared

teacher of Russian language and literature

Ganeeva Victoria Nikolaevna

Moscow 2014

Basic principles Russian spelling.

Spelling (Greek o rthos – correct, grapho – I write) literally means 'spelling', i.e. correct writing that complies with the norms. But the meaning of the words “spelling” and “spelling” are not the same; the second word has a broader meaning that includes punctuation.

Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections: transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters; continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings of words and their parts; use of capitals and lowercase letters; ways to transfer words from one line to another; graphic abbreviations of words.

Representation of the phonemic composition of a word by letters.

This is the main section of spelling. It is directly related to graphics. Graphics establish rules for matching letters and phonemes in significatively strong positions. The area of ​​orthography is significatively weak positions of phonemes. IN in some cases Spelling also “interferes” in the area of ​​graphics – an area of ​​strong positions. Graphics determine the meanings of letters in their combinations with each other, regardless of specific words. Orthography gives rules for writing letters in words and morphemes.

The basic rule for spelling unstressed vowels: in unstressed syllables the same vowels are written as under stress in the same morpheme. We write o in the word water (although we pronounce [vada]) because under the stress in this root we hear [o] and write o: water, aquatic. We will write down the word pronounced [l`isa] fox, if we check the first vowel with a word foxes, and write down the forests , if we check with a word forest. This is how we determine which phoneme the sound of the weak position corresponds to, and write the letter denoting this phoneme.

The same general rule applies to voiced and voiceless consonants. At the end of a word and before a noisy consonant, the same consonant is written as before a vowel and a voiced consonant in the same morpheme. We write b in words tooth, teeth , although we pronounce [zup], [zupk`i], because before the vowel and before the sonorant consonant in this root we pronounce [b] and write b: teeth, dental. We are writing a request , although we pronounce [proz`ba], since before the vowel in this root we pronounce [s`] and write ask.

The principle of checking here is the same as for vowels: the sound of a weak position is checked by a strong position; In this way, the phoneme to which a given sound belongs is determined, and it is designated by the corresponding letter. The same letter denotes a phoneme in strong and weak positions - this is the phonemic principle, the basic principle of Russian orthography.

The phonemic principle also determines the spelling of hard and soft consonants: ь does not indicate the softness of the sound, but the softness of the phoneme, that is, softness that does not depend on position. For example, in the word climb pronounced [s`] before [t`], but the softness of [s`] here is due to the following [t`] (the same position before [t`] also determines the deafness of [s`]). In a position that is strong in terms of hardness ~ softness - at the end of a word - this softness is not present: climbed The phoneme here is hard, so in the form climb is not written after s . In shape imperative mood climb is also pronounced [s`t`], but the phoneme is soft, since the softness of the sound is preserved at the end of the word: lez - le [s`]. The softness of a phoneme is indicated soft sign. In a word go to sleep pronounced [s`n`], but when [n`] is replaced with [n], [s`] is also replaced with [s]: y [sn] y . Therefore, softness [s`] is not independent here; it is not indicated in writing. In a word ice floe pronounced [l`d`], when replacing [d`] with [d], the softness of [l`] is preserved: [l`d] s . Here the softness of the phoneme is indicated in writing by a soft sign.

The phonemic principle determines the spelling of all morphemes of a word: prefixes, roots, suffixes, endings. In a word approach pronounced [pts-], but the prefix is ​​written under- , since the check shows phonemes: p [o] access, along [d] steer . In the suffix of wordsbirch, aspenpronounced [ъ], but written O, since in the same suffix in strong position pronounced [o]: oak. In words on a chair and from a bullet the final vowel is the same - [and], but in the first case it refers to the phoneme (cf. per hundred [l`e`]), and in the second - to the phoneme (cf. from the earth [l`i`]). After soft consonants, the phoneme is indicated by the letter e, phoneme – and.

The phonemic principle ensures uniform spelling of the same morpheme in different forms the same word in in different words. Yes, in a word city as part of different word forms it is written the same, although it is pronounced differently: [gor't], [gor'd] a, [grad] a, [garat] ki, at [gart], at [gard], foreign [garod']niy, [garats] skoy. Writing city- in all these cases reflects the phonemic composition of this root – . Spelling the same morphemes the same way makes it easy to recognize words with those morphemes, which promotes quick comprehension and reading.

The basic principle of Russian orthography is also defined as morphological. The morphological principle consists in the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes. In fact, the same morphemes in writing are often conveyed differently: the historical alternations reflected in writing destroy the unity of the writing of morphemes. Yes, in words city ​​and citizen the same root is written differently. In roots and in many affixes such non-phonetic alternations are common; Wed : burn - burning - burning - ignite - arson; mouse onok - mouse onk and - mouse onok.

Historical alternations are transmitted in writing (hence, a single spelling of the same morphemes is not preserved), but phonetic alternations are not transmitted in writing (hence, the same letter denotes the entire series of positionally alternating sounds, i.e., a phoneme in the understanding of the Moscow Phonological schools). Thus, uniformly different spellings the same morphemes are usually a manifestation of the phonemic principle of orthography.

In some cases, our orthography is built on a morphological principle that operates contrary to the phonemic one. Thus, graphic uniformity of morphemes is maintained when writing her) under stress after sibilants:yellow - turn yellow, acorn - acorns, bakes - cries, shuttle - shuttle, cheeks - cheek.In these cases, after the sibilants, the phoneme appears under stress, but it is written her) to maintain uniformity with the same morphemes, where it alternates with or may be in an unstressed position: whisper () – whisper () – whisper ().

The spellings also correspond to the morphological principledisinformation, counterplay, pedagogical institute, super-ideal– with and after consonants corresponding to hard phonemes. Here the appearance of the root is preserved, contrary to the rule of writing graphics s after such consonants (cf.:unprincipled, background).

The phonemic principle operates when the phoneme is in a strong position (this is, in fact, the principle of graphics), and when the phoneme is in a weak position and can be determined by a strong position. 80% of such writings.

In some cases, verification is impossible, since in this morpheme the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: dog, axe, boot, barn, passage, picky, young, to the hall, football, table, health, sit, sit t. In this case, a hyperphoneme appears: from tank, from pog, fu ball etc. The phonemic principle here limits the choice of letters, but does not provide an unambiguous solution: you can write dog and dog, football and fudball . Writings in similar cases carried out on the basis of phonemic and traditional principles.

The traditional principle of spelling is that the spelling fixed by tradition is used. The choice of letter is not motivated by modern linguistic patterns. From the point of view of sound correspondences, for example, it makes no difference o or a write in the pre-stressed syllable in words boot, dog . Traditional spellings must be memorized.

The traditional principle comes into play not only in cases where a phoneme cannot be placed in a strong position, but also when there is an alternation of phonemes in the strong position of the same morpheme: glow - dawn . In unstressed position there is also a hyperphoneme here: for good reason. Choosing a letter in words z arya, to ripen determined by tradition. Vowels in the root clone- – clan- can be shock: bows, bows. Choice about for unstressed syllables is based on tradition:inclination, incline.

In most cases, the traditional principle does not contradict the phonemic one, but complements it; 15% of such writings. But in a number of cases the traditional principle contradicts the phonemic one. In a strong position this is written u in the word assistant, h in the words of course, boring etc. In a weak position this is, for example, spelling rootsmountains- – gar-, swim- – swim-, in which only [a] is stressed, and without stress is written and o, and a.

In conflict with the phonemic principle is also the phonetic principle, which is that a letter denotes not a phoneme, but a sound. This principle is used to write final consonants in prefixes.without-/bes-, from-/res-, from-/is-, bottom-/nis-, once-/ras-, through-/through-: cloudless, joyless, boundless – useless; find, cut, publish – redeemetc. The final phoneme of the prefix is ​​here, this is evidenced by the pronunciation [z] before vowels and sonorant consonants, but the letter is written h , if pronounced [z], and With , if pronounced [s]. The phonetic principle is not applied quite consistently here: in wordsbad taste, tastelessat the end of the prefix it is pronounced [s]; in wordssilent, frypronounced [sh, zh]; in wordsto become generous, to split on site with zero sound. Thus, the phonetic principle here is complicated by the traditional one.

Spelling o or a in the prefix once-/time- – rose-/grown-also meets the phonetic principle - O written under stress when pronounced [o], A written without accent:sledge, search, placer; collapse, search, scatter. And here the phonetic principle is complicated by the traditional one (cf.: wanted ). It is written phonetically s after c: gypsies, cucumbers, Kuritsyn, pale-faced.

Differential spellings are based on the differentiation in writing of words or forms that match in phonemic composition: burn - burn, arson - arson, cry - cry, rye - rye, carcass - carcass, coccyx - coccyx, company - campaign, o rel - Eagle.

Also in the Russian language there are rules for continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings.

List of used literature

  1. Granik G.G. Secrets of spelling. – M.: Education, 1991.
  2. Kustareva V. A. History of the Russian language. – M.: Education, 1982.
  3. Rozhdestvensky N. S. Properties of Russian spelling as the basis of its teaching methods. – M., 1960.
  4. Modern Russian literary language. / Ed. P. A. Lekanta. – M.: Higher. school, 1988.
  5. Totsky P.S. Spelling without rules. – M., 1991.
  6. Filina L.V. Russian language. Encyclopedia. – M.: Education, 1979.

The word “spelling” (Greek orihos - correct, grapho - writing) means “ correct spelling" Spelling is a system of rules that establishes the uniform spelling of words and their forms.

Russian orthography is based on three principles: morphological, phonetic and traditional.

The leading principle is morphological. It consists in the same spelling (regardless of their pronunciation) of morphemes - meaningful parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings). For example, the root house- is in all cases denoted by these three letters, although in the words home and house the sound [o] of the root is pronounced differently: [da]mashny, [dъ]movoy; the prefix from- is always written with the letter t: vacation -■ start, lights out - [hell] fight. The morphological principle is also implemented in suffixes; for example, the adjectives linden and oak have the same suffix -ov-, although it is pronounced differently in these words: льп[ъв]й, oak. Unstressed endings are indicated in writing in the same way as stressed endings, although vowels in an unstressed position are pronounced differently; compare: in the ground - in the gallery, underground - under the gallery. The morphological principle of spelling helps to find related words and establish the origin of certain words.

For example, the spelling of prefixes ending in z is based on the phonetic principle: without-, voz-, iz-, niz-, raz-, through- (through-). The final [z] of these prefixes before the voiceless consonant of the root in oral speech is deafened, which is reflected in the letter; cf.: toothless - heartless, object - educate, expel - drink, overthrow - descend, break - saw, excessive - striped.

The traditional principle is that words are written as they were written in the old days. Traditional spellings are not justified either phonetically or morphologically. The spelling of words such as cow, dog, axe, carrot, sorcerer, giant, noodles, drum, feeling, holiday, etc., has to be memorized. Among the words with traditional spelling there are many borrowed ones: acidophilus, color, component, intellectual, terrace, neat, opponent, etc.

Differentiating spellings occupy a special place in the Russian spelling system. These are different spellings of the same or similar-sounding, but different in meaning words: ball (‘assessment’) and ball (‘dance evening’). There are few cases of differentiating spelling in Russian: company (‘group of people’) and campaign (‘event’), crying (eusch.) and cry. (v.), burn (n.) and burn (v.), etc.

The use of words is also based on the semantics of words capital letters. For example, in contrast to the common nouns respectable person, warm fur coat, proper names are written with a capital letter: Venerable, Shuba (surnames). (For more information on the use of capital letters, see § 47-49.)

Except the above principles The Russian spelling system uses the principle of continuous, separate or hyphenated (semi-continuous) spelling. The words are written together or with a hyphen: blue-eyed, one by one; separately - phrases: dazzlingly bright. But in practice, the choice of one of the spellings is related to the degree of lexicalization of the elements of the phrase. Some phrases have already become words and therefore are written together: crazy, others still obey the rule of writing phrases separately: a narrowly utilitarian approach.

Word hyphenation rules are not directly related to spelling, as they are caused by the need to place words on a line. But the chaotic breakdown of words during transfer makes reading difficult, so it is recommended to transfer words by morphemes and syllables. (For more details, see the section “Word hyphenation rules.”)

Brief information from the history of Russian spelling

IN Ancient Rus'(X-XII centuries) writing was phonetic: they wrote as they spoke. In the XII-XVII centuries. Significant changes have occurred in the phonetic system of the Russian language: the fall of the reduced [ъ] and [ь], the development of akanya, the loss of qualitative differences in the pronunciation of sounds denoted by the letters ѣ and e. This led to the fact that the spelling began to differ significantly from the pronunciation. Pronunciation begins to influence writing: the spellings zdrav vm appear. sdrav, where is vm. kadg and others. By the 16th century. the text begins to be divided into words (before this they wrote without spaces between words), capital letters are introduced.

In the 17th century The first works on Russian orthography appeared, among which the most popular was the grammar of M. G. Smotritsky. It proposed spelling rules, often artificial. However, this attempt to unify spelling was a positive development.

Spelling problems became particularly acute in the 18th century. Writers of that time complained about the diversity of spelling. For example, A.P. Sumarokov in his article “On Spelling” noted that “nowadays scribes have lost all measures and write not only without shame, but, looking around lower: and the audacity of ignorance has surpassed all measures.” In V. K. Trediakovsky’s treatise “A conversation between a foreigner and a Russian about ancient and new spelling” (1748), a phonetic principle of spelling was proposed, based on literary pronunciation (“to write according to the bells”).

Considering the lack of a unified national pronunciation (the existence of many dialects), M. V. Lomonosov advocates a reasonable combination of morphological (by this time established in the language) and phonetic principles of spelling, taking into account historical tradition. In the chapter “On Spelling” (“Russian Grammar”, 1755, published 1757), Lomonosov gave rules for spelling roots, prefixes, etc., in which the morphological principle was consistently followed. In some cases, Lomonosov recommended preserving traditional spellings.

In the first half of the 19th century. grammarians N.I. Grech, A.Kh. Vostokov, I.I. Davydov, F.I. Buslaev appeared, who played a positive role in the unification of spelling. But nevertheless, Russian spelling remained disordered.

A significant event in the development of Russian orthography was the work of J. K. Grot “ Controversial issues Russian spelling from Peter the Great to the present day" (1873). Groth's work consisted of two parts: a historical and theoretical description of spelling and an analysis of difficult spelling cases.

In addition, Grot compiled a reference book for schools “ Russian spelling"(1885). Grot's works to a certain extent streamlined Russian spelling.

In 1904, the Academy of Sciences created the Spelling Commission. A subcommittee emerged from it (it included A. A. Shakhmatov, F. F. Fortunatov, A. I. Sobolevsky, F. E. Korsh, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, etc.) to work on simplifying Russian spelling. The subcommittee published a draft to simplify Russian spelling, but it was not adopted.

Russian spelling was simplified only by decrees Soviet government. The decree of the Council of People's Commissars of October 13, 1918 established the following spellings: 1) the ending -ого (-и) in the form of the genitive case of masculine and neuter adjectives [previously they wrote -ago (-yago) in the unstressed position: red scarf; -ogo (-his) - in shock: gray-haired man]; 2) ending -y(s) in the form nominative case plural adjectives, participles and pronouns in all genders [previously they wrote -ыя(-я) in words of the feminine and neuter gender: red roses; -s - in words masculine: red tulips]-, 3) writing prefixes without-, voz-, from-, niz-, (raz-)rose-, chra-(through-) according to the phonetic principle: before voiceless consonants it was recommended to write with (previously they wrote w in all cases: homeless, unlimited).

But decrees could not eliminate all particular contradictions in Russian spelling. For example, the spelling of adverbs formed from a preposition and a noun was not regulated (they wrote without restraint and without restraint), the spelling of double consonants was not unified (they wrote gallery and gallery), etc. Practice required further simplification of spelling and its systematization.

In 1929, a commission under the Main Science of the People's Commissariat for Education took up the issue of spelling. The “project” of the Main Science on new spelling (1930) was not accepted, since the proposals made in it were not based on scientific basis(suggested spellings were black, cut, revolution, kind, delaish, etc.).

In the 30s, several commissions were organized (Commission under the Scientific Language Committee of the People's Commissariat for Education, Commission under the USSR Academy of Sciences, Government Commission for the Development of a Unified Spelling and Punctuation of the Russian Language), which were engaged in streamlining spelling and punctuation. As a result of the work of the commissions, in 1940 the draft “Rules of Unified Spelling and Punctuation” was published with the appendix of a short spelling dictionary. In the draft “Rules”, for the first time, a comprehensive statement of the basic rules of Russian spelling was given, the experience of written language practice in schools, higher education institutions was taken into account. educational institutions, publishing house However, the draft “Rules” needed some refinement and clarification. Great Patriotic War interrupted this work for a long time. Only in 1947 was the government spelling commission able to publish new project“A unified set of rules for Russian spelling and punctuation.” The 1950 discussion on linguistics also touched upon issues of spelling. This caused a revision of the draft “Unified Code of Rules”.

In 1951-1954. The spelling commission continued to work on improving the draft “Unified Code of Rules”. In 1954, on the pages of the magazine “Russian Language at School” and “Teacher’s Newspaper”, a wide discussion was held on issues of Russian spelling in connection with the project of the “Unified Code of Rules”. School and university teachers, researchers, and editorial staff took part in the discussion. During the discussion, various opinions were expressed regarding the draft “Unified Code of Rules” and on general and specific issues of Russian orthography. A number of proposals were reflected in those approved by the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Ministry higher education USSR and the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR “Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation” (1956). Thus, it was customary to write ы after consonant prefixes (to improvise), to write monosyllabic nouns in the form of the prepositional case with -i (o ki), to write with a hyphen compound adjectives, indicating shades of colors (pale pink), continuous writing not with nouns expressing new concepts (non-Marxist, non-specialist), etc.

"Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation" had great value to improve the spelling of the Russian language; they became the first officially approved set of Russian spelling rules, mandatory for all institutions and citizens. In accordance with the “Rules,” the “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” was compiled (edited by S. I. Ozhegov and A. B. Shapiro, 1956). In 1982, the 19th edition of this dictionary was published (edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, I. F. Protchenko, L. I. Skvortsov).

"Rules" played important role in the unification of spelling. However, many of them were not resolved the most difficult questions Russian spelling: the spelling of complex words, adverbs, particles, etc. is still awaiting simplification. In 1964, the commission for improving Russian spelling at the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences published new “Proposals for improving Russian spelling.” Widespread discussion in the press of this draft showed that many of its provisions were objectionable. The spelling commission continues its work.

Spelling issues constantly attract the attention of linguists. Scientific basis Many studies have been devoted to Russian spelling: Ivanova V.F. Difficult cases of using and spelling particles not and neither. M.-, 1962; Questions of Russian spelling. M., 1964; About modern Russian spelling. M., 1964; Problems of modern Russian spelling. M., 1964; Spelling of proper names. M., 1965; Butina B. 3., Kalakutskaya L. P. Compound words. M., 1974; Unresolved issues of Russian spelling. M., 1974; Ivanova V.F. Difficult issues of spelling. M., 1975; its ok. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 19fj6; hers. Principles of Russian spelling. L., 1977; Kuzmina S. M. The theory of Russian orthography: orthography in its relation to phonetics and phonology. M, 1981.

Spelling

Spelling(from the Greek ortos - straight, correct and grapho - I write) is a system of rules establishing the uniformity of spellings required for a given language. Orthography can also be called a branch of the science of language that studies the spelling of words at a certain stage of development of this language.

Modern Russian orthography includes five sections:

1) transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters;

2) continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings;

3) use of uppercase and lowercase letters;

4) ways of transferring words;

5) graphic abbreviations of words.

The rules for transmitting the sound side of speech through letter symbols can be based on different principles. The principles of orthography are the basis on which the spelling of words and morphemes is based, given the choice of letters provided by graphics.

Spelling (from the Greek orthos - straight, correct and grámma - letter) is the correct spelling, which should be chosen from a number of possible ones. For example, in the word railway station letters are spellings O(a letter can be written A), To(a letter can be written G), l(possibly written ll). Each of the five sections of spelling has specific spellings associated with it. So, for example, firstly, a specific letter in a word: we sweat And wO roh, proposalO live And proposalA go away etc., secondly, continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spelling of words: slowly, in an embrace, like spring; third, uppercase and lowercase letters: Motherland And homeland; fourthly, word transfer: sister And sister, on-throw And over-break: fifthly, graphic abbreviations: etc. (and so on), etc.. (and others), cm. (Look).

Russian writing, like the writing of most peoples of the world, is sound, that is, the meaning of speech in it is conveyed by conveying the sound side of the language with conventionally accepted graphic symbols - letters.

In writing, the sounds of the Russian language are conveyed through a certain number of letters, which together form the alphabet. As is known, graphics are the study of letters. The world's spelling systems vary in how they use graphics capabilities. For example, certain difficulties may arise when, in different phonetic conditions, one letter (due to its polysemy) denotes different sounds. This situation can arise with qualitative reduction (in the word rivers letter e denotes the sound [e], and in a word river by the same letter e the sound [and e] is indicated), as well as when consonants are deafened at the absolute end of a word (in the word meadows letter G denotes the sound [g], and in the word meadow same letter G denotes the sound [k]). In such cases, the choice of letters is determined by spelling rules. Thus, it is spelling that regulates the spelling of a particular letter denoting a phoneme in a weak position.

In the modern Russian language there are three principles of spelling: morphological (phonemic, phonemic, morphophonemic, phonemic-morphological), phonetic and historical (etymological, or traditional).

The morphological principle is the main, leading principle of Russian orthography. By tradition, this principle is called morphological, although it would be more correct to call it morphophonematic, since, firstly, the same letters of the alphabet designate a phoneme in all its modifications, and secondly, this principle ensures the same spelling of morphemes (prefixes, roots, suffix and ending) regardless of their pronunciation, for example, the root -mor- is written the same way, regardless of position, in words sea, maritime׳ yay, sailor etc.

The following spelling rules are based on the morphological principle:

    writing unstressed vowels, verified by stress: (in the roots of words: VO ׳ bottom - inO Yes׳ – VO dyanoy – navO day; in service morphemes: O׳ t-stranded And from-fight, wise׳ ts And old man, on the table' And on a chair).

    writing voiced and voiceless consonants at the end of a word ( luG – luG ah, luTo – luTo A) and at the root of the word before consonants ( laV ka-laV ok, frying pand ka - frying pand OK);

    writing verifiable unpronounceable consonants ( Bybuilding niy – opobuilding at, lest ny – lest b);

    writing prefixes on a consonant, excluding prefixes on h (OT give How OT catch, ond build How ond break etc.);

    use of letter e after sibilants in stressed position in the roots of words, as well as in suffixes of verbs and verbal words ( nighte vka – nighte wow, wowe sweat - she bird, betweene vka – demarcatione wat);

    writing hard and soft consonants in combination with soft consonants ( most ik – most , but incm and – incm Ouch);

    writing unstressed endings nouns, which are usually checked by the stressed endings of nouns of the same declension and in the same case form(cf.: in the village, in the park - in the saddle; in joy - in the steppe; in the sky - in a bucket, etc.).

The phonetic principle (or phonetic spellings) is that the spelling conveys the sound of the word; in this case, the letter denotes not the phoneme, but the sound. Phonetic spellings are close to phonetic transcription (as is known, transcription is the transfer sounding speech in writing).

The following spellings are based on the phonetic principle:

    writing prefixes ending in h (from-, through-, up-, bottom-, times-, rose-, without-, through-, through-) with a letter With before voiceless consonants and with a letter h before all other consonants and before vowels ( publish - write down, exalt - chant, rise - climb, depose - overthrow, distribute - distribute, wordless - impassability, extreme - striped);

    writing a letter A in an unstressed prefix times- (ras-), despite the fact that under the stress in this prefix it is written O (section׳ t - distributed, signed׳ t - painting, story׳ call - ro׳ tales, races׳ fall - ro׳ rash);

    writing a letter s after consonant prefixes (excluding inter-, super- and borrowed prefixes) before initial letter And root (cf.: background - search - super interesting). In addition, after hard consonants in compound words, the letter and is retained (medical institute, sports equipment);

    writing a letter O in suffixes –onok –onka after hissing ones (bear cub, cap, etc.);

    writing a letter s after ts at the endings of nouns and adjectives ( streets, cucumbers, pale-faced, Ptitsyn, Kunitsyn, etc.);

    missing letter b in adjectives with the suffix –sk-, formed from nouns ending in b(Mozyr - from Mozyr, Zversky - from beast; cf.: September - from September, December - from December).

    Writing individual words (wedding - cf.: matchmaker, woo; hole - cf.: open; kalach - cf.: colo, etc.).

The traditional (historical) principle of Russian orthography is that a particular spelling is determined by the laws of the language at a certain stage of its historical development. IN modern language such writings are preserved by tradition.

Traditional (historical) writings include the following:

1) writing words (usually borrowed) with unverified unstressed vowels a, o, e, and, i (boots, laboratory, panorama, team, smell, vinaigrette, conductor, deficit, intellectual, confusion, month, hare etc.);

2) writing roots with alternating vowels a/o, e/i (dawn - illumination - dawn; tan – sunbathe – burn; touch – touch; bow – bend over – inclination; proposal – attach – canopy; plant – sprout – grow – grown; gallop - jump - jump; collect - I will collect; run away - I'll run away; shine - shine; unlock - unlock, spread - spread; wipe - wipe etc.);

3) writing letters i, e after letters f, w And ts(as is known, the sounds [zh], [sh] were soft until the 14th century, and [ts] – until the 19th century): six, tin, skis, width, briar, goal, whole, qualification, quote, circus etc.

4) writing double consonants in the roots of borrowed words ( kilogram, coral, highway, baroque, antenna, assimilation etc.);

5) writing a letter G in place of the sound [v] in endings -wow, -him genitive case of adjectives and participles ( strong, blue, walking etc.);

6) writing a letter b after hard sizzling f, w at the endings of 2nd person singular verbs in the indicative mood ( go, look, read) and in forms of the imperative mood ( eat, cut, spread). In addition, according to tradition it is written b after hissing adverbs at the end, with the exception of words already, married, unbearable (just, completely, exactly, backwards, wide open etc.);

7) writing words with unverifiable vowels in combinations oro, olo (milk, cow);

8) writing individual words ( backpack, asphalt, station etc.) .

Differentiating (different) spellings explain the spelling of words and word forms that have different meanings and are related to homonyms. It is thanks to the presence of differentiating spellings that homonyms, homoforms, and homophones are distinguished. For example, writing letters A or O helps to understand in what meaning words are used ToA company"event, exercise" and ToO company(group of people). The meaning of homonyms can differ by writing a single and double letter: ball(celebratory evening) and point(grade); writing in uppercase and lowercase letters: Novel(male name) and novel(literary genre), Eagle(city) and eagle(bird), etc.

The differentiating spellings include the following:

1) presence or absence of a letter b for words with a hissing stem (the presence b at the words feminine: daughter, oven, rye, power; absence b for masculine words: guard, march, cloak);

2) writing letters O or e to distinguish between nouns and verb word forms ( coolO g, podzhO G– nouns and coole g, podzhe G– verbs in the masculine past tense form);

3) writing some roots with alternating vowels, the choice of which is determined by the semantics of the word (cf.: dip a pen in ink - get wet in the rain; trim (make even) - leveled (made equal);

4) writing prefixes pre-, pre- also depends on the semantics of the word (cf.: betray a friend - give form, successor (follower) - receiver (apparatus));

5) writing endings -om, -th in the instrumental case singular form of nouns in – ov, -in, indicating the names of people and names of settlements (cf.: with Sergei Borisov - with the city of Borisov);

6) writing ъ, ь depends on the location of these letters in the word ( cf.: entrance, volume, pre-anniversary, immense - sparrows, bindweed, pouring, bench, on the bench);

7) some continuous, separate or hyphenated spellings, with the help of which the lexico-grammatical meanings of homonymous words are clarified ( Wed: too(union) – Same(pronoun with particle), that's why– adverb or part of a conjunction, from that– pronoun with preposition, etc.).

Even though general rules for separate writing, the simple ones are sufficient (words in phrases and sentences are written separately from each other, and morphemes in a word are written together), there are many cases when it is difficult to make a choice: before us are individual words or parts of words, for example: dear or deeply respected, no or none, bad weather or bad weather etc.

Many spellings are very contradictory. Thus, there is still no single approach to writing adverbs, and they are written either together, sometimes with a hyphen, sometimes separately (cf.: to the top - to capacity, slowly - like spring). Nouns and adjectives of the same type are also written differently (cf.: checkpoint - checkpoint, national economic - people's democratic etc.).