China in the XIV - XV centuries. Ming Empire

On January 23, 1368, the leader of the fight against Mongol rule in the lower reaches of the river. The Yangtze rebel group Zhu Yuanzhang was declared in Yingtian (Nanjing) the emperor of the new empire - Ming. In September of the same year, his troops captured the capital of the country under the Mongols - the city of Dadu (Beijing). The Mongol court fled north and the Yuan Empire fell. Over the next three years, Ming troops cleared almost the entire territory of China from Yuan authorities and completed the unification of the country with the annexation of Yunnan (1382) and Liaodong (1387).

The administrative apparatus of the Ming Empire began to take shape even before its proclamation, in the rebel camp of Zhu Yuanzhang. The history of the formation of the new government shows that the popular movement, the main force of which was the peasantry and which therefore, along with an anti-Mongol orientation, had features social protest, already on early stage found itself under the control of the top leaders who sought to consolidate their leading position in the traditional forms of Chinese statehood. Back in 1356, the local Secretariat (xing-zhongshusheng) and the Military Council (xing-shumiyuan), as well as the Six Departments - the highest executive bodies that existed only in the central government apparatus - were created in Nanjing. To control the agriculture of the areas subordinate to Zhu Yuanzhang, a special Administration (intiansi) was established.

At Zhu Yuanzhang's headquarters, a large role was played by his comrades-in-arms and associates who had previously helped him and fought with him - Li Shanchang, Xu Da, Tang He, Song Lian, etc. But along with them, Zhu Yuanzhang began to attract the former ones who had served Yuan into the administrative apparatus being created officials and military leaders.

In 1361, the leadership of the “red troops” granted Zhu Yuanzhang the title of gong - one of the highest in the hierarchy of nobility; in 1367 he proclaimed himself a wang - a ruler one step inferior to the emperor. The path to the throne was framed within the framework of traditional concepts.

In the first years after the proclamation of the Ming Empire, its administrative apparatus copied the Tang-Song models of the 7th-12th centuries, as well as some Yuan orders. However, this structure, which in no way removed the emperor himself from power, did not suit Zhu Yuanzhang, who received the throne in a long struggle with his rivals and did not trust even his closest circle. Therefore, he soon began radical reforms of the administrative apparatus, the main goal of which was to fully strengthen centralization and the personal power of the sovereign.

The local administration was the first to be reformed. In 1376, instead of local secretariats, Provincial Boards (bujengs) were created. In addition, each province established an Inspection Office (anchasi), which performed judicial and control functions, and a local Military Command (duzhihuisi). All three of these bodies (san si) were independent of each other and reported directly to the central government. Thus, local power was fragmented and, to a greater extent than before, subordinated to the center. Lower floors local administration remained the same: provinces were divided into regions (fu), districts (zhou) and counties (xian).

Chief among the reforms was the transformation of central government. In 1380, accusing Chancellor Hu Weiyong of conspiracy and treason, Zhu Yuanzhang abolished the posts of chancellors and the entire Palace Secretariat subordinate to them. A special decree prohibited them from ever being restored. Thus, the more than thousand-year tradition of existence at court was stopped officials, who to some extent shared their leadership functions with the emperors. The six Departments began to report directly to the emperor, and their chiefs found themselves at the top of the administrative ladder.

In 1380, a reform of the highest military command was also carried out. Instead of one Main Military Directorate, five Regional Directorates were created. Their command functions were divided with the Military Department, and all of them were again subordinate directly to the emperor himself. In 1382 the Chamber of Censors was reformed. They were instructed to serve as the “ears and eyes” of the emperor.

In addition, Zhu Yuanzhang tried to create a unique alternative to the traditional administrative apparatus in the person of appanage rulers, who became numerous sons of the emperor. They received a headquarters (palace) in one of major cities countries, a certain staff of their own officials, troops subordinate to them, various privileges, generous provisions and, most importantly, the broadest, but not clearly defined powers in the field, determined by the personal orders of the emperor. In the person of blood relatives endowed with power, Zhu Yuanzhang hoped to create a support for his personal power at the local level and further strengthen control over the local administration.

As a result of the described reforms, all the main threads of governing the country were concentrated directly in the hands of the emperor. However, he alone could not cope with the flow of papers arriving at the court and requiring resolution, the number of which in some weeks exceeded a thousand. In 1382, several special secretaries - dasyueshi - were appointed to consider them. Initially, they only reviewed the content of matters that were not of primary importance. But gradually they received more and more powers: they prepared decisions, draft decrees and orders, etc. At the beginning of the 15th century. they were united into the Inner Palace Secretariat (neige). Over time, the new Secretariat increasingly replaced the emperor and became in fact the highest administrative body, similar to the previous Palace Secretariat, headed by chancellors. The autocracy of the emperor, which reached its apogee at the end of the 14th century, gradually again entered the framework of those legally undocumented restrictions that were developed by the Chinese political tradition. Against this background, the reign of Zhu Yuanzhang looks more like an exception than a rule. Its features were generated by the severity of the current situation.

Having no hereditary rights to the throne, having won it in a fierce struggle with many contenders and constantly fearing a new explosion popular movement, the founder of the Ming Dynasty was distinguished by extreme suspicion and cruelty. He saw terror as one of the means of strengthening his power. Persecution fell on the bureaucracy, the titled nobility, and old military personnel. They were carried out in campaigns, each of which subjected tens of thousands of people to repression.

For trial and reprisals, in 1382 a special paramilitary unit was created at the court - Jinyi-wei (brocade robes). It obeyed only the emperor. In 1386, a decree was promulgated that encouraged general surveillance of each other and denunciation. Strict police control was established on all roads.

Created at the end of the 14th century. the atmosphere of terror left a definite imprint on the entire subsequent internal political life of the country during the Ming period with its continued secret services, the disorder of punishments and executions, and the arbitrariness of individual emperors. In 1420, another punitive and investigative institution was created - Dongguan, and in 1477 a third - Xiguan. All this affected political culture China in the late medieval period.

After Zhu Yuanzhang's death in 1398, the new emperor's closest advisers, Zhu Yunwen, began implementing counter-reforms. The most significant among them was the attempt to abolish the inheritances distributed by the founder. The resistance of the appanage rulers resulted in an armed uprising of one of them - Zhu Di - against the government. The bloody and destructive war lasted almost 3 years (1399-1402) and ended with the overthrow of the reigning monarch and the accession of Zhu Di. New repressions and changes in the ruling elite followed. In 1421, and practically even earlier, the capital was moved to Beijing (Beijing) - the center of Zhu Di's former inheritance. Pankin remained in the position of the second capital, but virtually all administration was concentrated in the north - in Beijing.

Not wanting to put up with the growing separatism of the appanage rulers, the government of Zhu Di (1402-1424) took a number of steps to curb their power: their troops were gradually taken away, and partly the officials subordinate to them, individual rulers were deprived of their appanages. The political power of the appanages was finally broken after the suppression of a new coup attempt by Han Wang in 1426. However, the appanage system, having lost its original meaning - to serve as a support for the throne in the province - continued to persist until the end of the Ming Dynasty.

Acute conflicts arise in connection with the capture of Emperor Zhu Qizhen (Yingzong) by the Oirats at the Battle of Tumu in 1449 and the removal of his direct heir from the throne by one of the appanage rulers, Zhu Qiyu (Jingzong). In 1456, Zhu Qizhen, who returned from captivity, managed to regain his throne. However, these events did not cause any changes in the order of administrative management of the country established by that time.

As for the traditional bureaucratic apparatus, the persecution of the end of the 14th century. did not change either the general nature of his activities, or his position in society and the methods of staffing the bureaucracy. There were 9 official ranks, each of which had two ranks - basic (senior) and equal (junior). Certain official positions could only be held by officials of the rank corresponding to this position. In the early years of the Ming Empire, promotion to officials without examinations was widely practiced. But over time, the examination system is increasingly used in the selection for official positions. During the Ming period, its three-stage structure finally took shape: successive tests at the level of counties and regions, provinces, and then in the capital.

Bypassing the exams, graduates of privileged schools, in particular the capital's Guo-Zijian School, could be promoted to official positions.

The organization of the regular army was based on the system of garrisons (wei) and guards (so), introduced in 1368. The garrison was supposed to have 5,600 soldiers and commanders. It was divided into 5 thousandth guards (1120 people each), which consisted of hundredth guards (112 people each). It was assumed that thousands of guards should stand in each region. This system of distribution of troops shows that the purpose of the army was seen not only in repelling external attacks, but also in maintaining internal peace. In practice, the number of garrisons could be more or less than the established figure, and the placement of guards in each region was also not punctually maintained. The total number of troops ranged from 1-1.2 million to 2 million people.

Local Military Commands in the provinces, established in 1375, controlled the garrisons stationed there. Above the local Military Commands were five Regional Military Directorates. The War Department supervised the recruitment of the army and the appointment of officers, the Department of Public Works - the supply of weapons, the Department of Taxes - supplies. During military operations, the command of troops was entrusted to commanders specially appointed by the emperor. They obeyed only the emperor himself. At the end of the war they surrendered their powers. This system was aimed at keeping the main threads of military command in the hands of the emperor.

Initially, the army consisted of soldiers subordinate to Zhu Yuanzhang from the time of the uprising, as well as recruits recruited from the population. Offenders subject to punishment were also recruited as soldiers. Subsequently, military status was made hereditary for soldiers. They, along with their families, were assigned to a special military class (jun hu). Upon the death of the “main warrior,” he was supposed to be replaced by one of his sons, and if there was no son, one of his former fellow villagers.

The soldiers were supplied with food and clothing from the treasury. To reduce the cost of supplying the army, from the very beginning of the Ming Empire, a system of military settlements with the allocation of land to soldiers was widely practiced. Only 0.2-0.3% of the military settlers carried out security service, while the rest were engaged in agriculture.

The compilation of the code of laws of the new empire, called "Da Ming Lü", began even before its proclamation - in 1367. Then it was repeatedly redone and supplemented. The legislation was based on the norms established in the 7th-8th centuries. in the Tang Empire. Subsequently, the vault was overgrown with additions. Along with the “Da Ming Lü”, the norms that had legislative force were set out in the “Supremely Compiled Great Orders” (“Yu zhi da gao”) and the “Testaments of the Royal Ancestor” (Zu xun lu), prepared with the direct participation of Zhu Yuanzhang. , as before, many decrees and manifestos of the Ming emperors.

In foreign policy, the main goal of the Ming Empire was to prevent the possibility of a new Mongol conquest of the country. Quite successful battles with the Mongols went on almost continuously until 1374, then in 1378-1381 and 1387-1388. At the beginning of the fifteenth century. Mongol raids intensified again, and starting in 1409, Zhu Di undertook a series of campaigns in Mongolia with the goal of defeating the enemy, but not expecting to seize his territory. The first campaign ended in failure. But in 1410, the Chinese managed to defeat the main Mongol forces. In subsequent campaigns, which lasted until 1424, China took advantage of the internecine struggle among the Mongol feudal lords, siding with some of them against others. In 1449, the Oirat (Western Mongolian) Khan Esen, having united a significant part of Mongolia, completely defeated the Chinese army, captured the emperor who led it and besieged Beijing. However, the besieged under the leadership of commander Yu Qian repelled the onslaught. After the new unification of Mongolia at the end of the 15th century. Peace was concluded with her in 1488. However, in 1500, Mongol raids began again.

The Central Asian part of the Silk Road remained outside the control of the Ming Empire. From here, at the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. she was threatened by Timur's power, relations with which became strained. But during the campaign against China that began in 1405, Timur died, and his troops turned back.

From the beginning of the 15th century. China is taking active steps in the southern direction. In 1406 he intervened in internal struggle in Vietnam and occupies it. But the increasingly growing resistance of the people forced the Chinese troops to leave the country in 1427. In 1413, the Chinese finally subjugated the peoples living in the territory of the present Guizhou province. In the 40s of the 15th century. Chinese troops seize some areas in Northern Burma. Starting from 1405 to 1433, 7 grand expeditions of the Chinese fleet under the leadership of Zheng He were sent to the countries of the South Seas and further to India, Arabia and Africa. In different campaigns he led from 48 to 62 large ships(not counting small vessels). On board the squadron there were from 27 to 30 thousand soldiers and sailors, craftsmen, merchants, clerks, etc. The main purpose of these voyages was to establish diplomatic and, at the same time, trade relations with overseas countries in the form of a regular exchange of ambassadorial missions.

The Ming Empire fully adopted the traditional Chinese concept of the universality of the emperor's power and the predetermined vassalage of all foreign countries. The arrival of foreign embassies, interpreted in China as a manifestation of such vassalage, was in every possible way stimulated by the first rulers of the Ming Empire, which was born in the struggle against foreign rule and needed to strengthen its authority. The peak of activity in stimulating embassies falls at the beginning of the 15th century. But already from the 40s of the 15th century. The imperial court, after a struggle of different opinions about the rationality of such a policy, abandons active efforts in this direction. Ambassadorial exchange begins to steadily decrease.

Zheng He's expeditions contributed to the emergence and expansion of settlements of Chinese colonists in the countries of the South Seas. However, they did not change the general nature of China’s relations with overseas countries: their vassalage remained purely nominal and largely artificially created by the Chinese side through ritual camouflage.

Since the rebels of Zhu Yuanzhang built their administrative apparatus on traditional foundations, their economic policy and its key link, the agricultural policy, were from the very beginning based on the previous principles that had developed long before the time described. This does not mean that there are no innovations in it. But in general, the rebel power of Zhu Yuanzhang did not change the fundamentals of the previously established situation in land ownership and land use in the controlled territory.

Initially, the needs of the army and the leadership were met by collecting so-called camp food (zhai lyap). It was not regular and was difficult for the population. After the creation of the Administration of Arable Fields (intiansy) in 1356, the compilation of register lists of taxpayers began. Around 1360, collections of “camp food” were abolished, and the needs of the army and the administrative top began to be met by incoming taxes.

Even during the period of struggle for power, Zhu Yuanzhang began to practice organizing military settlements for self-sufficiency of the army, stimulating the cultivation of abandoned and virgin lands, and distributing land holdings to military nobility and service holdings to officials. These undertakings were continued on a larger scale after 1368.

By the end of the 14th century. In the country, 8,507,623 qing of cultivated land were taken into account (qing - 100 mu, mu - approximately 4.6 a). All land in the Ming Empire was divided into two main categories - government, or state (guan tian), and private (min tian). At the beginning of its existence, the fund of state lands expanded significantly due to the fact that lands inherited from previous times were added to lands assigned to the treasury, confiscated from opponents of the new regime and left ownerless as a result of wars and devastation. Their area correlated with privately owned ones as 1:7, i.e. amounted to 1/8 of the total processed fund, which exceeded 1 million qin. State lands housed the estates of aristocrats and officials, allocated to them from the treasury, fields assigned to educational institutions, garden and pasture land, etc. But the bulk of them were occupied by military and civilian settlements (juntun, mintun).

The settlers cultivated over 890 thousand qin of arable land, which amounted to more than 10% of the total cultivated area in the country. The average allotment of a military settler was 50 mu of land, but depending on its availability and quality it could range from 20 to 100 mu. The treasury provided them with seeds, equipment, and draft animals. Their products were seized in different ways: either in the form of a tax of 0.1 shi from each mu, or the entire harvest went to common barns, and from there a maintenance of 0.5 shi of grain was paid (1 shi at Min - 107.37 l) per person per month, or a certain share was allocated per " on duty", and the rest was divided among the workers. The plots of military settlers were not legally hereditary. But in practice, the system of replacing a warrior with a member of his own family led to frequent cases of inheritance of the allocated plot.

Civil settlements were organized from landless or land-poor peasants resettled to areas where there was a surplus land fund, as well as from virgin lands recruited for recovery in marginal and inconvenient places, and from exiled criminals. Settlements were made up of 80-100 households. The tax on them was either 0.1 shi per 1 mu of land, or a tenth of the harvest. The government of Zhu Yuanzhang, in the conditions of post-war devastation and the associated reduction in cultivated areas, was actively involved in the development of abandoned and virgin lands, trying to expand the circle of taxpayers and thereby replenish treasury resources. In the Beijing area alone, 254 civilian settlements were created.

A certain amount of state land was used by peasants who were not organized into settlements. Some of them, along with the land, were transferred to the disposal of representatives of the reigning family, nobility and officials. In the 70s of the XIV century. nobles and officials received land from the court both for permanent possession and for holding in exchange for a salary. These holdings were calculated not by the area of ​​the fields, but by the amount of income generated. However, in 1392, all official lands of officials and part of the holdings of the titled nobility were taken back to the treasury and replaced with salaries, which was dictated by the desire to prevent their transformation into private ownership.

However, the bulk of private property did not consist of court grants. Large and medium-sized landownership, based on the exploitation of tenant labor, had existed for many hundreds of years by the time the Ming Empire was created. And the new government did not change the current situation, leaving the relationship between tenants and landlords outside its competence. Some redistribution of zeily took place in the middle of the 14th century. not only by the will of the authorities, who confiscated it from their opponents, but also spontaneously, in the process of a wide insurgency that swept the country. In 1368, the Ming government recognized property rights " strong houses", i.e. landowners, to the lands seized by them during the uprising. The noted partial redistribution of land occurred mainly in northern regions countries.

While not encouraging the growth of large private land ownership and fighting against illegal methods of increasing land ownership, which led to a reduction in the number of taxpayers and areas of state land (seizure of land by force, forgery and concealment when recording the cultivated area, etc.), the Minsk government at the same time created opportunities for such growth. By decree of 1368, it was allowed to cultivate abandoned lands and not pay taxes on them for three years. In 1380, in the five northern provinces and a number of regions, it was allowed to raise new ones under the same conditions. Finally, in 1391, both nobles and commoners were allowed to occupy in any quantity as their property uncultivated lands that they could cultivate. Naturally, both landowners and peasants could take advantage of the noted decrees. But preferential opportunities were given to the strongest and those who had the necessary means and economic influence for this, i.e. primarily the privileged strata and landowners.

The main channel for the redistribution of land and the growth of large land ownership at the end of the XIV-XV centuries. it remained to be bought from owners going bankrupt or forced to do so by other circumstances. State authorities insisted on mandatory registration of every transaction, but did not suppress the possibility of buying and selling land.

The Minsk government paid close attention strict registration of the population and its property for tax purposes. On a national scale, such a census was carried out in 1370. But the most complete register was compiled in 1381 - the so-called Yellow Register. In addition, in 1387, a general land survey was carried out and a detailed land cadastre was compiled with diagrams of fields - the so-called Fishscale. Village chiefs were required to report annually on changes to be made to the registers. Their general revision was prescribed to be carried out once every 10 years.

Tax collections were based on the previous system of “two taxes” (liang shui) - summer and autumn. They were paid in kind - by those types of products that were grown in the area, and mainly by grain. Each mu of state land received about 5.9 liters of grain, private land - 3.5 liters. However, in practice these tax rates fluctuated depending on local conditions. On state lands they had II, on private lands - 10 gradations. These rates have also changed over time. In 1430, on state lands they already ranged from 10.7 to 107.3 liters per mu.

Since 1376, it was allowed to pay taxes in terms of silver, copper coins and banknotes. But at the end of the 14th century. the share of non-natural tax revenues was still very small - less than 2% of the total amount. This situation began to change in the 30s of the 15th century, when in certain regions of Central-South China the share of silver in the payment of taxes increased.

For the convenience of tax collection, a system of tax elders (liangzhang) was introduced in 1371. Each of them was responsible for the timely collection and delivery of taxes from the region to their destination, which was supposed to pay 10 thousand shi of grain. The elders were appointed from wealthy local residents. Subordinate to them were 1 accountant, 20 distributors and 1000 carriers. Peasants serving this duty alternately served as carriers.

In addition to taxes, peasants and landowners who were not part of the academic-service class were obliged to bear labor duties, as in previous times. They were divided into household, per capita and additional (different). The number of workers allocated to each household depended on its property status and the amount of taxes.

As a result of all these measures in the XIV century. a fairly harmonious system of exploitation of the vast majority of the population was created, covering both state and privately owned lands. At the same time, owners of private land paid slightly lower taxes than workers on public lands.

The aspirations of the Zhu Yuanzhang government boiled down to strengthening a rather simplified scheme: the all-powerful monarch, through an obedient and non-independent bureaucratic apparatus, ensures the collection of taxes from as many taxpayers as possible - mainly independent small owners - and tax funds allow maintaining the army, officials, and bring income to the ruling elite , go to other government needs. It was understood that tax rates should be relatively moderate. This ideal was traditional for Chinese socio-political thought in ancient times and the Middle Ages. But it left no room for development and therefore could not be followed in practice. If under Zhu Yuanzhang, thanks to the marked increase in state lands and small peasant property, as well as tough government measures, it was possible to maintain it in some form, albeit very far from perfect, then from the beginning of the 15th century. There is a greater and greater departure from the norms accepted as the ideal. The main reason for this, as before, was the steadily developing process of concentration of land in the hands of landowners and the erosion of small-peasant farming and the state land fund, associated with a decrease in the number of taxpayers and an increase in private exploitation through rent.

The area of ​​taxed cultivated land from 8.5 million qins in 1393 decreased by 1502 to 6.2 million qins (and according to some sources - to 4.2 million qins). At the same time, the number of tax-paying households (from 1393 to 1491) decreased by 1.5 million, and taxpayers - by approximately 7 million. The noted reduction was not due to economic degradation and population decline, which was the case in the 15th century. was not observed, but due to the growth of rental relations within the framework of private land ownership, which found all sorts of legal and illegal ways to evade taxes.

The ruling elite of the empire is actively involved in the appropriation of private property. Sources note that from the middle of the 15th century. appanage rulers, relatives of the emperor female line and palace eunuchs “everywhere seized state and private arable fields.” Government attempts to combat these prohibitory decrees had little effect. Struggling with unauthorized seizures of land, from 1425 the imperial court itself began to distribute so-called estate fields (zhuang tian), amounting to hundreds and later thousands of qing, to the aristocratic elite. From the second half of the 60s of the 15th century. This kind of possession is reserved for themselves by the emperors themselves; they were called “imperial estates” (huang zhuang). By 1489 there were five such estates with a total area of ​​12.8 thousand qin.

The system of military settlements gradually decomposed. Their lands were seized by the military authorities and eunuchs, whose power and influence at court increased noticeably from the end of the 15th century. By this time, the total revenues to the treasury from military settlements amounted to only a tenth of the income they initially provided.

From the second quarter of the 15th century. The register lists of taxpayers are becoming more and more chaotic and confusing, the tax burden is becoming heavier, the process of peasants passing “under the protection” of the nobility and large landowners, and the flight of peasants from the land is intensifying. Reports of a significant number of escapees appear from the first years of the 15th century. Attempts by the authorities to put the fugitives back on the ground had only limited effect. Individual popular uprisings also broke out.

However, the marked process of gradual departure from those established at the end of the 14th century. orders did not lead the country's agriculture to any serious crisis situation until the end of the 15th century.

Due to the historical circumstances described in the previous chapters, the most developed economically in general and industrially and commercially in particular were the central-southern regions of the country. Of the more than 30 cities that were major centers of crafts and trade, only 1/4 were located in the north, and 1/3 were concentrated in the provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangsu. In this most developed region, more trading and fishing settlements arose than in other parts of the empire, which quickly turned into cities - zhen and shi. In Wujiang county alone in the second half of the 15th century. there were 3 shi and 4 zhen. Moreover, the craft core of such centers grew more and more.

The population of large cities continued to number in the hundreds of thousands. For example, Suzhou had a population of 245,112 in 1379. After the capital was moved in 1421, Beijing grew rapidly. By the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. its population was about 600 thousand people. The shift of the country's political center to the north caused the growth of cities in the surrounding area. But at the same time, this displacement inevitably, although not directly, weakened the possibilities for further socio-economic development of the most promising south-eastern regions in this regard, which had lost the proximity to the capital that meant so much under the imperial order.

At the end of the XIV-XV centuries. The economic specialization of individual regions of the country is more clearly indicated than before. Nanjing, Hangzhou, Suzhou and Huzhou were famous for silk weaving, Suzhou and Songjiang for cotton weaving, Jingdezhen for porcelain, Yixing for ceramics, Guangdong and Sichuan for sweets, Shandong for lacquer, Jiangxi for jewelry, Fujian and Sichuan for tableware, Jiangxi, Zhejiang and Fujian - paper, Yunnan - copper and lead, Foshan - iron, etc. It was at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. widespread received the cultivation of cotton and the production of cotton fabrics. Iron production remained at approximately 4.7 thousand tons per year. The production of silk, porcelain, and jewelry continued to be at a high level for its time, both in quantity and quality. The successes of shipbuilding can be illustrated by the ships of the Zheng He squadron: they were three- and four-masted, about 40-50 m long, carried from 50 to 360 tons of payload and 600 people, had internal waterproof bulkheads, the hull was impregnated and coated with special compounds, a designated waterline and etc. Among the mining industries, salt mining has become widely developed. In the Lianghuai region (in Jiangsu) alone there were 29 salt mining sites.

Promoting the development of small-peasant farming, the Ming government in the early years set a course for strengthening and expanding state-owned crafts and trades. The scale of state-owned production can be judged, for example, by the fact that 18 thousand artisans who served their conscription worked in Beijing annually. At the beginning of the 15th century. State-owned iron smelting furnaces were built in Zunhua, which served 2,500 workers. In Jingdezhen at the end of the 14th century. there were 20 state-owned kilns for firing porcelain, and in the second half of the 15th century. - 50 ovens.

The Department of Public Works (gong bu), partly the Department of Taxes (hu bu), the special palace craft department (neifu wujianju), as well as the military and local authorities were involved in organizing and managing state-owned production. Its main workforce consisted of artisans allocated to a separate class and obliged to perform duties. The register lists of artisans compiled by 1385 included 232,089 households (in the 15th century there were about 300 thousand). The main part of them were recruited in turn - once every 3 years for 3 months - to work in the capital, others major cities, for construction and industrial sites. Soon the terms began to vary from 1 year to 5 years, and later from 2 to 4 years. The state took over their supply and provision of raw materials and other means of production. They paid their own way to the place of work.

From the beginning of the 15th century. some of the artisans (about 27 thousand) were transferred to work at their place of residence (zhu zuo). They worked for the treasury from 10 to 20 days a month, which was harder than the norms of alternate work, but did not require a break from their workshop and no travel expenses.

In 1485, permission was given to pay off duties in silver. This began to be practiced primarily in silk weaving and indicated the unprofitability and gradual displacement of forced labor in the state craft. But progress here was still slow.

There was small quantity(approximately 3 thousand) military artisans, i.e. households of artisans who were included in the military class.

The main production unit in Chinese crafts of the late XIV-XV centuries. The shop-workshop continued to remain, where the owner and members of his family worked. These small workshops, as before, were united into professional guild associations (khan, tuan). Having worked or paid duties, the artisan acted as a private producer, selling his products independently or through intermediaries-buyers. Thus, government and private crafts were directly connected. Parallel existence large government production interfered normal development private craft, narrowing the demand for products, introducing strict management methods into the organization of production, separating workers from their work to perform duties, etc.

During this period, especially from the 15th century, information appears about the existence of separate large workshops organized by private owners (dohu). This primarily applies to weaving production. However, there were still few such workshops even in the most economically developed areas, and wage labor here did not lose its bonded character.

The progress noted above in the specialization of certain regions of the country in the primary production of certain products contributed to the further development of trade. All higher value In this interregional trade, buyers and brokers who have formed intermediary offices (yakuai, yahan, yadyan) purchase. At the end of the 15th century. the income of such offices became so significant that the government repeatedly tried to bring them under its own strict control and use it for your own selfish purposes. Along with this merchant trade, small-scale trade among artisan shopkeepers and peddling continued to flourish in cities and towns. Some urban-type settlements developed primarily as trading centers (shi), and trade in them prevailed over crafts. At the same time, in small trade, the separation between it and craft has still not occurred. Craftsmen, in Beijing for example, were entered into the register lists as “shopkeepers” (puhu).

In the early years of the Ming Empire, the collection of trade tax was streamlined: the number of customs offices was reduced and a single rate was established at 1/30 of the value of the goods. However, already at the end of the 20s of the 15th century. trade tax was levied on the transport of goods by water in various ways: depending either on the quantity of goods and the distance they are transported, or on the size of the boat or ship.

State policy regarding trade was not consistent. On the one hand, trading activity was recognized

The Chinese Ming Dynasty is one of the most famous ruling dynasties in China, it was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang and became the last of the ethnic Chinese dynasties that ruled China from 1368 to 1644.

Before her, the ruling elite was the Mongolian Yuan dynasty, and after the Ming fell, the Manchu Qing dynasty came to power. The Ming Dynasty was also called the Great Ming Empire.

Rise of the Ming Dynasty to power

Before the arrival of the Ming Dynasty, China was an integral part of the Mongol Empire. The oppression of the Chinese, the decomposition of the economy and other discontent with the ruling dynasty led to a peasant uprising. Among the rebels was Zhu Yuanzhang.

At the beginning of the uprising he was a poor peasant, but his marriage to the daughter of one of the rebel leaders, as well as military successes, soon made him the leader of the movement.

It was under his leadership that the city of Nanjing was captured, which later became the capital of the empire. The descendants of the first emperor ruled China for 276 years.

China's management system reform

The founder of the dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, was not from the “shenshi” (one of the four classes in imperial China, people from it became civil servants) and did not strive to respect the interests of this layer of society.

Moreover, he considered the power of officials in governing China dangerous, especially within the framework of the reform of the state apparatus that Zhu Yuanzhang planned to carry out. During the Ming Dynasty, even the position that existed at all imperial courts was abolished - the position of chancellor and chief adviser to the emperor on all political issues.

Until now, China had never known such cruel treatment of high-ranking subjects of the emperor: corporal punishment and canings in front of all courtiers became the norm, and it happened that an effigy of his executed predecessor was hung right in the office of a new official to intimidate him.

Such a despotic method of governance required the ruler to have physical and moral stamina, uncompromisingness and severe rigidity, but not everyone could cope with the temptation of the luxury of life in the palace, and over time, power was concentrated in their hands by none other than the eunuchs.

Economic development during the Ming era

This was a period of rapid development of the entire economy of the Celestial Empire: the production of paper, porcelain and textiles, agriculture, iron mining, and shipbuilding quickly gained momentum. Exchanges with other countries in cultural and economic fields also began to expand.

In July 1405, naval commander Zheng He for the first time led a squadron of 208 ships with 28 thousand sailors. The Chinese are sure that Zheng He discovered America as much as 70 years before Columbus.

The Ming Dynasty was the first dynasty in which the beginnings of capitalism and the first commodity-money relations similar to modern ones appeared. During the early years of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang decided to reduce taxes, as well as attract the population to grow new types of crops imported into the country from other continents - such as tomatoes, corn, peanuts and tobacco.

In China, during the Ming Dynasty, the first manufactories with a dozen or more weaving looms were opened, on which hired workers worked. The volume of production of various goods has increased in the country. Commercial centers were formed in geographical locations with convenient communications, and the first cities appeared and the economy and culture flourished: Beijing, Nanjing, Suzhou, Hangzhou and Guangzhou.

Fall of Ming power

In 1616, the leader of the descendants of the Jurchens, Nurhaci, proclaimed himself khan and founded the Qing (Golden) dynasty. This is how the typical frontier Manchu empire emerged. The economic crisis that overtook China, drought, and the arbitrariness of officials gave rise to a peasant uprising, which the weakened army could not suppress. In just two days, the rebels captured the capital and the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, hanged himself from a tree in the imperial garden.

• One of Beijing's main attractions today is the Forbidden City, which was the official residence of the Ming Dynasty.
• Modern historians evaluate the Ming era as one of the key ones in the development of China - decades of development of science, economics, and social stability characterize this period.
• The complex of mausoleums and tombs of the Ming Dynasty today is a cultural heritage protected by UNESCO - it is 40 square kilometers of palaces built for the afterlife of emperors.
• The Ming is the last dynasty in China that consisted of the Chinese, the next one was the Manchus.

The sixteen emperors of the Ming Dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644 for 276 years. The new empire came into being as a result of a popular uprising and was overthrown in the Peasants' War by the army of Li Zicheng and the invading Manchus, who had previously created Manchuria.

The man under whose leadership the Yuan dynasty fell was from a poor peasant family that made its living by farming and panning for gold dust. Zhu Yuan-chang was 40 years old when he overthrew the Mongol Yuan dynasty as a result of the long-running Red Turban Rebellion and became emperor under the throne name Tai Tzu. The new ruler made the city his capital, surrounding it with a thirty-mile wall.

The thirty-year reign of Emperor Taizu was marked by brutal repression, when any, even the most minor, offense was punishable by death. Not forgetting his origins, the emperor tried to protect the peasants: officials who used their power to oppress the common people faced severe punishment from branding to confiscation of property, hard labor and execution.

Despite Tai Tzu's brutal rule, relative calm was established within the country, and the economic situation in the country also improved. The Empire managed to strengthen its position in Manchuria, liberate the provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan from the Mongols, and even burn Karakorum. However, a more serious problem during this era was the raids of Japanese pirates.

After the death of the emperor in 1398, the legal heir Jian Wen, a gentle and educated man, did not last long in power, but was killed in 1402 by the arrogant and power-hungry Prince Zhu Di, the middle son of the first Ming emperor. In 1403, the prince proclaimed himself emperor. To prove his legitimacy as the Son of Heaven, Zhu Di ordered scholars to rewrite the history of China's ruling dynasties.

In general, despite the usurpation of the throne and brutal terror at the very beginning of his reign, historians evaluate Zhu Di as a brilliant ruler.

To calm the mood of the population and riots, the emperor encouraged Buddhist rituals and adhered to traditional Confucian norms, revised administrative structure empire, thus eliminating contradictions between individual tribes.

The Emperor paid special attention to the fight against corruption and secret societies. Thanks to the newly restored examination system, a new generation of officers and officials was attracted to the government.

The new ruler also took measures to restore the economy: production of food and textiles was increased, new lands were developed in the Yangtze Delta, river beds were cleared, and the Great Canal of China was rebuilt and expanded, which contributed to the development of trade and navigation.

Regarding foreign policy, then the reign of Emperor Zhu Di was more successful at sea than on land. At the shipyards of Nanjing, huge ocean-going ships were built - nine-masted junks, reaching 133 m in length and 20 m in width. The Chinese fleet, numbering 300 similar ships, under the leadership of Admiral Zheng He (one of the court eunuchs) made trips to Southeast Asia, Ceylon, India and even the Persian Gulf, as a result of which many rulers were captured, and the Ming court became tribute comes from distant states. These expeditions significantly expanded the influence of the empire and became the greatest maritime explorations in human history, predating the European Age of Discovery by several decades.

It was Zhu Di who moved the capital of the Ming Empire to and ordered the construction, work on which was completed in 1420. However, fate gave the emperor only a few years to enjoy the new palace: in 1424, the ruler died while returning from a campaign against the Mongols.

For a short time the throne passed into the hands of his eldest son, who died less than a year later. heart attack. Then power passed to Zhu Di's grandson named Xuan Zong. Peace has returned to the country, and the borders have also become calm. Diplomatic ties with Japan and Korea began to develop. After the emperor's death in 1435, Chinese historians would hail him as the model of a Confucian monarch, skilled in the arts and inclined to govern benevolently.

The emperor's heir was one of his two sons, the young Ying Zong, who was barely 6 years old, so real power was in the hands of the regency council, consisting of three eunuchs, among whom Wang Jin was the main one. The situation in the country became turbulent: droughts, floods, epidemics, heavy forced labor, which again fell upon the peasants, forced to participate in large-scale construction work, served as the reason for several uprisings, of which the last two were suppressed with difficulty.

At the same time, Mongolian troops began to attack the northern lands of China. The Emperor, who by that time was 22 years old, under the leadership of Wang Jin, who was not versed in military affairs, gathered an army of half a million and marched against the enemy. The unprepared army was completely defeated by the enemy, and Ying Zong was captured. This became one of the greatest military defeats in history.

The next emperor was the half-brother of the captured ruler, who took the throne name Jing Zong. He successfully repelled the attack of the Mongols, including saving Beijing, reformed the army, and carried out large-scale restoration work. However, his brother was soon released from captivity and, during a palace coup, Ying Zong was again declared emperor. Jing Zong died a few months later - according to some sources, he was strangled by one of the palace eunuchs.

After Ying Zong's death, his son Xian Zong (Zhu Jiangshen) took the throne. During his reign, it was restored and finally completed. According to some estimates, the implementation of this greatest fortification on earth cost the lives of 8 million people. Xian Zong's reign was also notable for the 10-year war against the Mongols, which stabilized the raiding situation.

In addition to his childless official wife, the emperor had an older wife - Lady Wen, his former nanny, who was twice the emperor's age. After Wen's only child died, she did everything possible to prevent the emergence of an heir from other concubines, not even stopping at murder, but she miscalculated. From random connection With a girl from the Yao tribe, the emperor had a son, whose appearance was hidden from Mrs. Wen. Xian Zong was shown the boy when he was already 5 years old. It was this child who became the next emperor.

As usual, with the arrival of a new ruler, executions and exiles followed: the new emperor got rid of greedy eunuchs, officials who received their positions through money or intrigue, dishonest clergy and depraved favorites of the previous imperial couple.

Xiao Zong (the emperor's throne name) strictly followed Confucian principles, took care of the well-being of the people, performed all the necessary rituals, appointed Confucians to high positions and was devoted to his only wife, Lady Chan. Actually, this lady was his only weakness, which caused significant damage to the state treasury, because... the empress was distinguished by her extravagance, and titles and lands went to her relatives and friends.

The number of eunuchs at the court again increased, the number of which exceeded 10 thousand people. In fact, this huge apparatus began to operate in parallel with the civil administration, constantly competing with each other for positions and influence over the emperor. The situation only worsened after Xiao Zong's death, when his 13-year-old son Wu Zong became emperor.

Wu Zong didn't get it positive qualities his father: not only did he prefer the company of eunuchs to the company of his legal wife, but he also became a real alcoholic, terrifying the whole country. They say that while traveling around the country, the emperor kidnapped women from houses, and this was just one of his few amusements. Wu Jing eventually died at the age of 21 in 1522, childless, leaving no legal heir.

After more palace intrigues, the emperor's 15-year-old cousin, Shi Zong, ascended the throne. This man was distinguished by his vindictiveness and harsh disposition: even his concubines were afraid of him, and several of them even dared to attempt an assassination attempt, however, the emperor was saved, and the women were subject to painful execution.

The emperor reigned for 44 years, but no major achievements occurred during this period. Shi Zong led a reclusive life in the Palace of Eternal Life in the western part of the Forbidden City and continued his policy of isolation, fearing spies and dangerous alliances from abroad. Therefore, trade that could improve the economic situation in the country remained prohibited, as a result of which the eastern coast of the country suffered from raids by Japanese pirates and lived on smuggling.

Emperor Shi Zong, increasingly moving away from business, became interested in fortune telling and the search for the elixir of immortality. The emperor's chief Taoist adviser prescribed him pills containing red lead and white arsenic, which greatly undermined the ruler's health. In 1567, the emperor, whose mind was already completely weakened, died in the Forbidden City.

His eldest son Lung-qing became the heir, but his reign lasted only 5 years and the emperor practically did not interfere in the affairs of governing the country.

In 1573, the throne was taken by his son Shen Tsung (Wan-li), who was distinguished by his rationality and sober approach to governance. However, every year his interest in politics faded away, and contradictions between the monarch and officials increased. They say that in the second half of his reign, the emperor began to completely ignore officials who, trying to attract his attention, gathered in crowds near the Forbidden City and, kneeling, shouting the name Wan-li.

But, in addition to the poorly coordinated work of the government, a threat from the West began to approach China, which was still unclear at that time, but later brought irreparable troubles to the Celestial Empire. In the late 60s of the 16th century, the Portuguese settled in Macau and began trading in 1578, having received permission from China to purchase goods in Canton. This attracted the attention of the Spaniards to Asia, who sent an expedition to colonize Manila, where Chinese dominance had already been established. In 1603, military conflict broke out in the Philippines, and the Chinese were expelled from the archipelago.

In addition to this war, which claimed the lives of 20 thousand people, internal uprisings periodically arose in China; the authorities launched punitive campaigns against the rebellious Miao tribe, as well as against the Japanese who invaded Korean territory. But the decisive role in the fall of the Ming dynasty was played by the military campaign against the Jurchens, a tribal alliance of Mongols and Tungus that arose in the 12th century and was pushed to the northeastern lands. Mixed with migrants from Korea and other peoples, they became known as Manchus.

At the end of the 16th century, one of the Manchu leaders, 24-year-old Nurhaci, united many Manchu aimags under his rule, creating an empire and declaring himself emperor. To rid Manchuria of vassalage, Nurhaci undertook a series of successful military campaigns against China, which again led to an economic crisis in the empire, increased taxes and popular uprisings. In addition, failures undermined the emperor's health: Shen Zong died in 1620.

After the death of the emperor, the situation in the country only worsened. The population by that time exceeded 150 million people. The constant reduction in silver entering the treasury, inflation, congestion in cities, the gap between rich and poor, piracy, and natural disasters again became the cause of popular uprisings. Peasants experienced the economic crisis especially hard: for several years, severe winters raged in northern China, causing severe famine, during which cases of cannibalism were noted. Many families were forced to sell their children into slavery, the younger generation was looking for any means of subsistence - many of them poured into the cities, others began to join the ranks of robbers, women became servants or prostitutes.

In addition to internal uprisings, an external threat remained in China: in 1642, the Manchus resumed their raids, eventually capturing 94 cities. The power of the ruling house was finally weakened: the Manchus and rebels besieged the emperor from all sides. In 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng approached Beijing. The last Ming Emperor, Chongzhen, refused to flee and hanged himself in a house on a hill in the imperial palace complex in order to ascend to heaven riding a dragon, according to Chinese beliefs. Another 20 years later, the Manchus executed the Ming prince Yun-li, who fled to Burma. Thus ended the 300-year era of the Ming Dynasty.

Having ascended the throne, Zhu Yuan-chang did a lot to strengthen the central government. The essence of his agrarian policy, in particular, boiled down to increasing the share of peasant households in the wedge of ming-tian lands and strengthening strict control over the distribution of state-owned lands guan-tian. Distribution of land to the landless and land-poor, resettlement of peasants to empty lands, creation of various kinds of specialized, i.e., treasury-sponsored settlements, both military and civilian, and finally, the creation of all-Chinese tax and land registries, Yellow and Fishscale - all this meant , that the entire system of agrarian relations in the empire was again brought under the strict control of the central administration.

A fixed taxation with relatively low taxes was introduced, and some categories of households were sometimes exempt from taxes altogether, as had happened before. The service system was universal, but was implemented one by one, as needed, according to allocation. The functions of elders, who were responsible to the authorities for maintaining order and implementing state decrees, were also performed alternately. As for private holdings, that is, those cases when lands of the Ming-Tian category in relatively large quantities accumulated in the hands of the rich and were sold in the form of leasing them, then at the beginning of the Ming there were apparently few such lands, and even rent the payment should have been moderate, if only because any tenant had an alternative: the state actively offered all landless and land-poor plots on very unburdensome conditions.

Zhu Yuan-chang's agricultural policy was successful and contributed to the creation of a strong, centralized empire. True, the endowment of the emperor's relatives with inheritances in which they felt almost independent rulers - a tribute to the traditional norm, the last of its kind in the history of China - led to turmoil after the death of the founder of the empire, but it was relatively quickly eliminated by one of the sons of Zhu Yuan ‑Zhang, Zhu Di, who ruled under the motto Yongle (1403–1424). Zhu Di restored the central government apparatus, which had fallen into some decline, built by his father according to the classical Confucian-Tang model (supreme chambers; six central departments in the executive system; provincial departments with the division of power into civil and military; examination system, etc.), after This system operated quite effectively for about a century, which affected, in particular, the sphere of foreign policy.

Having successfully expelled the Mongols from the territory of the empire (they were pushed back to the north, where they then began to actively develop the steppes of modern Mongolia), the Ming army carried out several successful military operations in the south, in the region of Vietnam. In addition, the Chinese fleet, led by Zheng He, from 1405 to 1433 made several prestigious naval expeditions to the countries of Southeast Asia, to India, and even to the east coast of Africa. The expeditions were quite impressive: they consisted of several dozen multi-deck frigates with a crew of hundreds of people on each of them. However, these magnificent and expensive voyages placed a very heavy burden on the treasury and did not bring any economic benefit to the country, as a result of which they were ultimately discontinued (the ships were dismantled). For comparison, it is worth recalling the almost simultaneous expeditions of Columbus, Vasco da Gama or Magellan, which were much more modestly equipped, but laid the foundation for the Great Geographical Discoveries that marked the beginning of a new era for all mankind. Impressive difference. It demonstrates better than many theoretical arguments the fundamental structural differences between the European market-private ownership method of economy with its individual personal interest, energy, enterprise, etc., and the Asian state command-administrative system, for which prestige and demonstration of greatness were important first of all and the omnipotence of power.

The situation was similar in land foreign relations, especially trade. Since ancient times, these connections in imperial China were organized in the form of the so-called tributary trade and were officially perceived in China as the arrival of barbarians with gifts to bring tribute to the Chinese emperors. Official gifts 31 were accepted solemnly and, according to the ancient norms of reciprocal-prestigious exchange, required reciprocal gifts from the emperor, and the volume and value of imperial awards and grants had to be as many times greater than the “tribute”, in which the prestige of the Chinese emperor was valued by the Chinese themselves above the prestige of any of the those rulers who sent the mentioned tribute. Hence the results: trade was extremely profitable for foreigners, who were faced with the easily solvable task of presenting the caravan as an official mission. This led to the fact that the Chinese authorities were forced to introduce official limits on such caravans for each country. However, tributary ties of this type did not stop, because they contributed to the self-assertion of the Chinese in their ideas that the whole world consists of potential tributaries and vassals of the Emperor of the Celestial Empire.

In Ming times, when trade flourished, these kinds of considerations dominated and at one time almost led China to dramatic events. At the turn of the XIV–XV centuries. An official message was sent to the greatest conqueror Tamerlane himself, inviting him to pay his respects to the Chinese emperor. Having received such a proposal and indignant at the impudence of its authors, the ruler of half the world began to prepare for a punitive campaign against China, and only the unexpected death of Timur in 1405 saved the empire, which had just recovered from the rebellion of the appanage princes, from the planned invasion.

In general, throughout the first century of its existence, the Ming dynasty pursued successful policies, both internal and external. There were, of course, some hiccups. Thus, in 1449, one of the Mongol khans, the leader of the Oirat tribe Esen, managed to make a successful expedition deep into China right up to the walls of Beijing. But this was only an episode; practically nothing threatened the capital of Ming China, as did the empire as a whole. However, from the end of the 15th century. The country's situation became much worse: China, as was typical for the second half of the dynastic cycle, began to slowly but surely enter a period of protracted crisis. The crisis was general and comprehensive, and it began, as usual, with changes in the economy and social structure of the country, although it manifested itself most clearly in the field of domestic politics.

It all started, as has happened more than once, with the complication of agrarian problems. The population grew, the number of peasants who did not have land or had it in insufficient quantities increased. In parallel with this, the usual process of absorption of the Ming-Tian peasant lands was going on: the rich little by little bought up or took away the lands of the ruined peasants for debts, who then either left their homes or remained on them in a new social capacity as tenants. Those who changed their place of residence often came to the same conclusion. All this led to a decrease in treasury revenues for the reason already mentioned: it was almost impossible to take an equal tax from the rich, because a considerable part of the rich had benefits, sometimes tax immunity, while others were often among the shenshi, who played an important role in local government, had influence in the office of the district chief and achieved virtuosity in reducing their taxes. True, in this case, the tax burden was formally shifted onto the shoulders of others, but this solution was also unprofitable for the treasury, because it worsened the situation of farmers and gradually brought the country's economy into disarray. critical condition. The shortfall in taxes, which was a consequence of the described process, forced the treasury to resort to various additional small, local, emergency and other levies and duties, which together again placed a heavy burden on taxpayers and also led to a crisis.

A kind of vicious circle was created. During the years of previous dynasties (Tang, Song), this circle was broken through decisive reforms. The Ming Dynasty was unable to do this, because the demand for reform met with stiff opposition from the court. This, in fact, was the essence of the protracted crisis that dominated Ming China for almost a century and a half and ultimately led to the death of the dynasty.

The Ming emperors after Zhu Di, with rare exceptions such as Wan Li, who restored the Great Wall, were mostly weak rulers. Affairs at their courts were usually run by temporary workers from among the relatives of the empresses and eunuchs - a picture very similar to the one that was one and a half millennia earlier at the end of the Han. It is not surprising that at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. A powerful opposition movement was formed in the country, led by the most influential Confucians, among whom perhaps the most prominent place was occupied by members of the House of Censors-Prosecutors, who in their reports to the emperor denounced the arbitrariness of temporary workers and administrative omissions in the country, and also demanded reforms. Messages of this kind met with severe rebuff, accompanied by repression, but the opposition did not stop its denunciations, rather even increased its efforts in this direction. At the end of the 16th century. it was officially organized around the Donglin Academy in Wuxi, which arose on the basis of a local school that trained experts in Confucianism and future officials. By this time, the reform movement and advocacy of virtuous government had already gained universal recognition in the country. And such prominent officials as the famous Hai Rui, not only defiantly, within the limits of their power, went to aggravate relations with the proteges of the court, with the protégés of temporary workers, not stopping at severe punishments for embezzlers and other offenders, but were also ready, having gained popularity among the people , literally demand reforms from the emperor.

From the beginning of the 17th century. supporters of reforms significantly strengthened their positions. At certain moments they even managed to gain the upper hand, gaining influence over one or another emperor. True, this emperor, prone to reforms, was soon quickly eliminated by the palace clique, and persecution fell on the Donglin people. To their credit, it should be noted that persecution did not frighten them and did not force them to betray their beliefs. More than once or twice, another influential official submitted a report to the emperor with denunciations and demands for reforms and at the same time prepared for death, expecting an order from the emperor to hang himself (the symbol of this was usually sending a silk cord to the culprit). The power of eunuchs and temporary workers was overthrown only in 1628. But it was too late. The country at this time was engulfed in the flames of another powerful peasant uprising, led by the peasant Li Tzu-cheng.

How did Mongol rule end?

With the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, the decline of Mongol rule began. The imperial authorities failed to subjugate the northern nomadic tribes. Civil strife began. Riots broke out, Mongol officials became richer, while Chinese peasants became increasingly poor.

One of the rebels was Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398), who experienced all the hardships peasant life during the years of Mongol rule. During the great famine, he took refuge in a Buddhist monastery. At the age of 23, he joined the rebels and, leading them, won victories one after another. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered Dadu, present-day Beijing, expelled the Mongols and founded the Ming Dynasty in Nanjing. In the following decades, he systematically strengthened and expanded his power and took the imperial name Taizu. He begins to restore the country, exempts the peasants from taxes and transfers land plots to them. With the establishment of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), China was freed from foreign rule.

The brilliant period of the Ming dynasty comes with its third emperor, Yongle, who reigned from 1402 to 1424. He moved the capital from Nanjing back to Beijing and began building an imperial city, which partially survives to this day.

Who built the "forbidden city"?

The Imperial City is the longest residence on earth. It was surrounded by a 7-kilometer wall, and its area was 720,000 square meters. m. The city consisted of numerous palaces, temples, houses, gardens and lakes. All buildings were covered with yellow roofs (yellow is the color of the emperor). Inside the imperial city there was a “forbidden city” - a palace ensemble, where the uninitiated were forbidden to enter under pain of death.

Yongle himself lived in the luxurious palace for only 4 years.

Before the Ming Dynasty came to power, China was politically fragmented. Throughout the three centuries of Ming rule, the unity of the empire was maintained. To protect against the Mongols, they fortified the Great Wall. They improved the canal network, but above all they revived the traditions of Chinese dynasties. However, the desire to rely on the country's historical past increasingly isolated China from the rest of the world, inevitably dooming it to cultural stagnation.

The Ming era was also the era of great navigators. China has not only expanded its borders on land, but has also become a major maritime power. The Portuguese and Spanish navigators were yet to make great discoveries, but the Chinese already possessed excellent shipbuilding techniques.

Who turned China into a maritime power?

In the Ming court, eunuchs served as advisors and servants to the emperor. They exercised universal control, subjugating even the secret police. By the end of the Ming dynasty, there were an estimated 70,000 eunuchs in the imperial court.

One of them was the Muslim Zheng He. He was originally from Annan, his real name was Ma, in 1404 he changed it to Chinese. He made a career serving in the women's quarters of the Yongle Emperor, then as a military leader. However, he became famous for seven sea expeditions, which he visited from 1405 to 1433. He sailed to Southeast Asia, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, Red Sea and to the east coast of Africa.

Zheng He's flotilla numbered several hundred huge junks. Supplying more than 20,000 seafarers and covering such enormous distances is an amazing achievement in itself. In addition to the sailors, countless detachments of translators, doctors and officials served on the ships.

More than 300 ships took part in the first voyage. The first three expeditions were sent to India. The next targets were Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and the East African coast. Thanks to Zheng He's expeditions, China's trade ties with many countries were strengthened. Unlike European navigators, who several centuries after the Chinese made expeditions to the Far East, Zheng He did not build bases; countries were subject to tribute only in connection with the opportunity.