Individual form of training. Shape as a mathematical concept

Form is a feature of an object that is accessible to visual and muscular-tactile perception.

In the shape of an object, more or less typical characteristics are distinguished: roundness or elongation, stability or dismemberment, symmetry of parts or asymmetry.

The specific tasks of mental education when familiarizing with the form are:

· Formation of ideas and knowledge about form as a sign of an object and beauty;

· Development of the ability to see, distinguish, compare, group objects according to their shape;

· Development of the ability to see form in combination with other signs in life, in objects of art;

· Development of vocabulary and coherent speech and teaching children to use precise names of forms and their features, figurative, expressive words, generalized words-concepts;

· Teaching children how to apply knowledge about shape in a variety of ways different types activities;

· Nurturing cognitive interests.

A child’s ability to perceive and see form in an object is not innate, but is formed in the process of upbringing and training.

Familiarizing children with form as a sign of an object and a generalizing concept has a certain sequence, repetition and complication from one age group to another.

Junior group.

The teacher teaches children to see and distinguish objects by their shape, introduces them to the basic geometric shapes - a ball and a cube - and names them himself. The teacher organizes visual and tactile-muscular perception, cognitive actions with objects, teaches ways to examine objects, test them in games, in activities with building materials, and toys.

In classes with an individual child or a small subgroup, the teacher shows a ball and says: “This is a ball” - and performs actions with it, emphasizing its shape.

Cognitive practical actions should be performed repeatedly. The period of practical testing does not need to be shortened. During repeated lessons and games, the teacher again names the figure and its features.

In subsequent lessons, in games, the teacher asks the children to show and bring. Place the balls in the basket. Based on the action performed, he checks whether the children have learned the name and whether they correlate the word with the object. In the future, he exercises the children in naming the shape of an object.

By organizing games with balls and other toys, the teacher trains children to distinguish them by shape and at the same time includes something new in the familiar - color - and teaches them to distinguish balls by color. In the following classes, the teacher offers balloons different sizes- large and small, then calls the words “big - small” and uses the word to reinforce the difference.

The teacher organizes a lot of play activities with cube-shaped objects - he encourages them to examine the cubes, rearrange them, and move them. Visuo-motor perceiving the cube, the child feels the edges and planes and practically knows the features of this figure.

Determining the shape and size can already be included in one lesson, since the previous mastery of the shape of the ball contributed to the development of children’s attention, the ability to look and see. Both in subsequent lessons and in games, the teacher exercises the children’s ability to choose large and small cubes from building materials.

Then the teacher organizes a comparison of the ball and the cube as two different figures.

In the future, he consolidates the idea of ​​​​a ball and a cube in various classes and games..

Thus, teacher ml. gr. in accordance with the program, teaches children to distinguish between a ball and a cube in shape and call them with the exact word, teaches them to apply learned concepts in different types of activities.

Middle group.

The teacher consolidates ideas about a ball and a cube and improves methods of sensorimotor examination of objects based on visual and tactile-muscular perception. Introduces children to new shapes: rectangle, square, triangle, cylinder - and teaches them to distinguish between straight, square, and triangular objects. As the content expands and becomes more complex, the requirements for children’s mental activity expand and become more complex, and new qualities are formed. cognitive activity. The teacher teaches you to see the same form in objects of different content.

And in the middle group, the teacher first introduces objects in which various forms are expressed, and especially those with which children need to be introduced in accordance with the requirements of the program.

The teacher familiarizes children with new figures in the usual way that is already familiar to children.

New form quality common feature Many surrounding objects should be revealed with content familiar to the child.

Mastering ideas about the basic forms of objects, the ability to group objects according to their shapes does not occur only in classes, in didactic games, it requires “practice” in life.

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When examining an object as a whole, the eye perceives its geometric shape and structure. Almost all visible elements are limited on all sides by shells or planes different shapes. This means that every element, every object has a certain spatial form. The primary elements of the spatial form of objects are geometric appearance, size, position in space, mass, texture, texture, decor, color and chiaroscuro.

Geometric view. This is a property (element) of the form as a whole and its parts, determined by the ratio of its sizes in three space coordinates, as well as the nature of its surface (straight or curvilinear, broken). Depending on the predominance of one of the three dimensions, the following types of shape are distinguished: volumetric, planar and linear. The volumetric view is characterized by three sizes. The planar appearance is characterized by a sharp decrease in one of the dimensions. In linear form, one dimension dominates the other two when their magnitude is relatively small.

Form lines. It is human nature to relate emotionally to the phenomena and objects around him. A person associates the idea of ​​rest and movement, light and heavy, passive and active with various types lines, their slope and character (Fig.).

A horizontal line, for example, is associated with the concept of peace, static, passivity. It helps to visually reduce the figure vertically.

A vertical line - energetic and hot - expresses an upward desire, visually lengthens the shape.

An inclined line is associated with instability, fall, and the closer it is to the horizontal, the more it is associated with confidence and calm.

A diagonal line is perceived differently. It acts as a force that overcomes passivity and expresses movement and dynamics. There are right and left diagonals. They are perceived differently. The right one is the diagonal of the rise, the left is the diagonal of the fall. The diagonal is typical for asymmetrical clothing, soft and hard draperies, etc.

A wavy (smooth) line characterizes uniformity of movement, softness, and fluidity. Smooth lines are used in clothing of complex styles.

A broken line is associated with uneven movement, sudden changes in events, ups and downs.

A spiral is associated with the concept of rotation, and an arc is associated with overcoming some obstacles and subsequent takeoff.

To create the shape of products, the designer uses geometric lines in a complex, i.e. in various compositional subordination and combinations. In this case, one of the lines should play the role of the main, leading one, on the basis of which the entire composition is built.

Form size. This is the extent of the form and its elements in three coordinates. The size of the form is determined in relation to the size of a person, the size of products of other shapes or individual elements of the same shape. When comparing the forms, their equality or inequality is visible. The size of the form can visually increase or decrease when comparing large and small. Small details in a large form emphasize its size, while large ones, on the contrary, reduce it.

Position in space. This is a property of a form, determined by its location among other forms, as well as relative to the observer in the system of frontal, profile and horizontal planes. An object whose shape approximates a rectangular parallelepiped having two equal dimensions can occupy three typical positions in relation to the observer: frontal, profile and horizontal. A cube in which all three dimensions are equal has only one typical position. The same can be said about objects whose shape approaches these figures.

Mutual position forms in space in relation to each other and the viewer can also be considered according to another criterion - by location relative to each other or the viewer closer, further, higher, lower, left, right. In relation to the horizon line, forms can be located above, below or at its level.

Mass of the form. This is the visually perceived amount of material of the entire object or its parts that can fill the space within the geometric shape. The mass of the form depends on the size of the object. A larger shape visually corresponds to a larger mass. The perception of mass also changes depending on the geometric appearance of the form. The greatest visually perceived mass is possessed by shapes that approach a cube and a sphere, and all those whose dimensions in three coordinates are equal or close to equal. Shapes that approach linear have the minimum weight, so long and narrow clothes always seem less massive than short and wide ones.

The perception of mass changes depending on the degree of filling of the forms. As the degree of filling increases, objects appear more massive. The most massive objects are those that have no voids. The change in the visually perceived mass of a form depends, in addition, on the color, texture and texture of the material from which it is made, and on the size of the objects adjacent to it. The visually perceived mass of a form increases if smaller objects are located next to it. If their size increases, then the mass of this form visually decreases. All these illusory changes in the mass of forms are often used when designing products.

Texture(Latin factum - processing, structure). Texture is the visible structure of the surface of a form. The texture can be smooth, shiny and glossy, matte and rough, coarse or fine-grained, etc. Each material (metal, glass, fabric, paper, sand, stone, etc.) has its own texture. Its perception depends on the distance of the viewer to the surface in question, the nature of the lighting (if it is lateral, then the roughness is clearly visible).

The volume and weight of the product shape depend on the texture of the material. Increasing the surface texture increases the volume and weight of products. A smooth and shiny surface, on the contrary, gives lightness and visually reduces volume. The texture of the material can even influence the perception of the proportional relationships of the form.

Texture(Latin texturg - fabric, connection, structure). Texture - features visible on the surface of a material internal structure. Products made of wood, stone, and leather, for example, have an expressive texture. Various textures are used as a decorative means, revealing the aesthetic originality of the material.

Color. This is the property of bodies to cause certain visual sensations in accordance with the spectral composition of the light reflected, transmitted or emitted by them. There are physical, physiological, emotional and psychological properties of color.

TO physical properties Colors include hue, brightness (lightness) and saturation. Hue is what allows one color to be distinguished from another: red, green, blue, etc.

Brightness, or lightness, is characterized by the amount of reflected or transmitted light. Each color has a certain lightness. Orange is lighter than red, blue is darker than cyan, brown is darker than pink, etc.

All colors are divided into achromatic and chromatic. Achromatic - white, gray, black - do not have selective absorption and differ from each other in lightness. Chromatic - spectral and mixed - are distinguished by color tone, lightness and saturation.

Saturation refers to the proportion of pure spectral color in a given color. It is determined as a percentage. The saturation of the corresponding spectral color is taken as 100%, and white or other achromatic color is taken as zero. Thus, spectral colors have a saturation equal to one, and achromatic colors have a saturation equal to zero. The most saturated colors are the primary spectral colors and purple. They are called clean, open, intense. The colors located between the main spectral ones are intermediate (yellow-green, blue-violet, orange-yellow), less saturated, they are called complex, calm, restrained, soft. The saturation of any color decreases when white or black is added to it. Colors whose saturation is reduced by adding white are called bleached (pink, lilac, etc.). Colors whose saturation is reduced by adding black are called dark colors.

Physiological properties color is its ability to affect the human body, for example:

intense red color causes too much excitement and increases blood pressure;

green promotes the expansion of capillaries, lowers blood pressure, relieves visual fatigue, and calms; yellow stimulates brain activity;

blue and violet have a beneficial effect on the lungs and heart, increasing their endurance;

gray and black colors can cause a depressed, depressed state.

The emotional and psychological properties of color are associated with physiological effects and all kinds of illusions and associations. Thus, according to the nature of perception, all colors are divided into warm and cold. Warm colors - red, orange, yellow, yellow-green - are associated with the sun, fire, warmth. They are bright, catchy, dynamic, increasing size and volume. Cool colors - blue, blue, violet, green-blue - are associated with water, ice, and cold. These colors are calmer, less prominent.

There are light and heavy colors. Light colors include all light and cool colors, heavy colors include dark and warm colors. Colors are divided into “protruding” - light and warm and “receding” - dark and cold. The properties of color to bring people closer or further away, to make objects lighter or heavier, to increase or decrease their volume are widely used in fine and decorative arts. In particular, the spatial properties of color make it possible to create visible image depth on a flat painting canvas.

Due to the associative nature of perception, colors evoke different feelings and sensations in a person, special emotional moods, and evoke certain images:

red color is perceived as exciting, hot, the most active and energetic, courageous, passionate, the color of valor, strength, power;

green - calm, moderate and refreshing - creates the impression of softness, pleasant and beneficial peace; symbol of spring, fertility, youth, freshness, joy, hope, memories;

yellow - exciting, revitalizing, cheerful, cheerful, fussy, flirtatious, somewhat daring, the color of fun and jokes, a symbol of sunlight, warmth, happiness;

orange - hot, cheerful, cheerful, fiery, cheerful;

blue - light, fresh and transparent; white is light, cold and noble, a symbol of purity.

Affects color perception a whole series factors that can change visible color tel. The change in their color is often associated with the spectral composition of light sources. So, in the light of incandescent lamps there are more yellow rays than in sunlight, therefore yellow colors become more saturated, reds become lighter, the hue becomes yellow, blues darken, lilacs acquire a yellow tint, and violet ones become red. The color of the material also depends on the texture of the surface. Colors on glossy shiny surfaces appear lighter, on matte surfaces they appear darker (satin and velvet).

The perception of color also depends on the phenomena of contrast. There are simultaneous and sequential contrasts. In turn, simultaneous contrast can be a contrast in lightness and color, or chromatic. Simultaneous contrast in lightness means that colors located on or near a dark background become lighter, while colors located on or near a light background become darker. White on a black background it appears especially bright, and black on white appears deep black. Identical gray pieces of fabric on a black, white and gray background will look different. On a white background the fabric appears darker, on a black background it appears lighter, and on a gray background it will hardly change.

The variety of contrast in lightness also determines the edge, or border, contrast. At the border of light and dark, the light becomes even lighter, and the dark becomes darker, which creates the impression of unevenly colored areas. To eliminate the edge contrast, the planes are separated by a contour line.

Simultaneous chromatic contrast is a change in color depending on another color surrounding it. The color always changes in the direction opposite (complementary) to the surrounding color. For each chromatic color, another chromatic color can be found, which, when mixed with the first in certain proportions, gives an achromatic one. These two chromatic colors are called complementary. On the color wheel, complementary colors are located at opposite ends of the diameters. Additional color pairs are: red and bluish-green, orange and blue, yellow and blue, green and purple, etc.

As a result of chromatic contrast gray on different backgrounds acquires a different apparent color. So, on a red background a gray pattern turns green, on a green background it turns red, on a blue background it turns yellow, etc.

Consistent contrast occurs when considering two colors not simultaneously, but alternately. The second color will appear to be the complementary color of the first.

Color is not only an element of form, but also an important means of unifying and harmonizing its other elements. The color of industrial products is chosen taking into account their functional purpose and methods of operation, design, material, composition.

Chiaroscuro. It is a consequence of the different angle of incidence of light rays from the illumination source on the form and is characterized by the distribution of light and dark areas on its surface. The formation of light and shadow effects depends on the shape of the object, the relief and texture of the material, and the direction of incidence of the rays from the light source. Chiaroscuro on clothing, for example, is largely determined by the relief of the shape. The relief is created by folds, overlays, seams, folds, drapery, etc. The abundance of details and draperies overloads the form with light and shadow effects and increases its volume. If chiaroscuro is formed by sparse vertical lines, the volume of the form is visually reduced: the effect visual illusions.

Decor(French decor, Latin decoro - I decorate). This is an element of the shape of products in the form of an ornament or design.

Ornament(Latin ornamentum - decoration) - a drawing (pattern) built from organized elements. There are two main types of ornament: geometric and figurative.

A geometric pattern is built from abstract geometric shapes (squares, triangles, rhombuses, circles), as well as strokes, dots and lines, which, alternating in a certain order, make it possible to obtain patterns from the simplest to the most complex. Geometric patterns are widely used to decorate modern products made of glass, ceramics, fabrics and other materials.

Fine ornament reproduces specific objects of the real world - plants, animals, things. Fabrics, knitwear, glass, ceramics, etc. are widely decorated with fine ornaments.

It is in this age group that fairly definite knowledge about the shape of objects and geometric figures as standards of form is formed. Children learn to distinguish between a ball, cube, square, circle, triangle, using techniques for examining these figures using tactile-motor and visual analyzers. In addition, In design classes, they get acquainted with some elements of building materials: cubes, bricks, plates, prisms, bars.

They look at and compare the ball and the cube, find similarities and differences in these objects (figures). Addressing a question to the children, the teacher draws their attention to the features of the figures: “What is this? What color are the balls? Which one is smaller?

According to the teacher's instructions, one child picks up a small ball, and the other takes a large one. Children pass the balls in a circle: the small ball catches up with the big ball. Then the direction of movement changes. During such games, the features of the ball are clarified - it is round, it has no corners, it can be rolled. Children compare balls of different colors and sizes. Thus, the teacher leads them to the conclusion that shape does not depend on color and item size.

Similarly, knowledge about the cube is clarified and generalized. Children take the cube in their hands, trying to roll it. It does not roll. The cube has corners and edges, it stands stably on the table or floor. You can build houses and columns from cubes by placing one cube on top of another.

The most important points when getting acquainted with the form are visual and tactile-motor perception of the form,

Various practical activities that develop children's sensory abilities. Children's examination of the shape of an object includes the following actions: showing (demonstration) a geometric figure, examination using specific practical (outlined) actions; comparison of figures of different colors and sizes; comparison of geometric shapes with objects of similar shape; consolidation of the features of a geometric figure during drawing, sculpting, and appliqué.

In organizing work to become familiar with the shape of an object, a significant place is occupied by the display (demonstration) of the figure itself, as well as methods of examining it. The teacher teaches children to hold it in their left hand with their index finger when examining an object. right hand trace it along the contour. In order for children to better highlight the features of geometric shapes, the models should be compared in pairs: a ball and a cube, a circle and a square, a cube and a square. It is imperative to take figures that are different in size and color, so that it is easier to perceive them by touch, find them according to the pattern, and, in conclusion, correctly name their distinctive features (Fig. 18).

in a bag similar to the one on the table, and shows it. If the child cannot complete the task, the teacher once again reminds him of the methods for examining the figure: with his right hand he slowly traces along the edge (contour). You can also help with your left hand. When the game is repeated, the number of geometric shapes increases.

In the games “Find an object of the same shape”, “What is in the bag?”, “Geometric Lotto”, children practice composing the shape of objects using geometric patterns. Such tasks are difficult, but generally accessible to them. They develop in children the ability to analyze the environment and abstract themselves when designating the shape of objects. The child, perceiving the print that hangs on the wall in front of him, is distracted from the plot of the picture, and only highlights the shape of the frame (square).

Geometric shapes such as circle and square are used as handouts in mathematics classes.

Children of this age, when appropriate targeted work is carried out with them, can analyze complex forms. So, they create an ornament from colored geometric shapes. At the same time, they analyze the drawing, draw out individual geometric shapes in it, examine them along the contour, name them, and then display this drawing.

In their free time from classes, children in this age group are very fond of playing with cut-out pictures, mosaics, and building materials.

Self-test exercises

To develop preschoolers’ skills in examining the shape of an object and accumulating relevant ideas, various didactic games and exercises are organized. So, in order to learn the name and clarify the main features of individual geometric figures, the teacher organizes games: “Name the geometric figure”, “Magic bag”, “Dominoes of figures”, etc.

In the game “Magic Bag,” the teacher teaches children to select shapes by touch and find according to a pattern. Geometric shapes familiar to them are placed on the table, and the same ones are placed in a bag. First, attention is drawn to the geometric shapes placed on the table. The children call them. Then, as directed by the teacher, the child finds

Children of the fourth year of life develop certain knowledge about the shape of objects and... figures as... forms. Children learn to distinguish between a ball and a cube,..., a square and

The main thing in learning is to receive... these figures... and in a visual way. A significant place in this process is occupied by... (demonstration) of... itself, as well as showing... its examination.

To develop children's skills in examining... objects and accumulating relevant... different games and exercises.

geometric standards circle triangle examination tactile-motor display of figure methods

presentation forms

Topic 1. SIGNS AND PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS

Absolutely all objects around us have signs and properties. What is a sign of an object?

The attribute of an object is distinctive property subject. For example: green car: a car is an object, and green is a feature, a property that distinguishes it from other similar objects (for example, from a red car).

Objects differ in color, shape, size, purpose, smell, material from which they are made and other characteristics. To determine the attribute of an object, you can ask the question: what is it?

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And the first thing we need to repeat is the colors of the rainbow.

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Now name as many objects as possible:

a) red;

b) green;

c) black;

d) blue.

Look carefully at the picture and say which vegetables and fruits are colored incorrectly. How would you color them?

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What shapes are objects? Round, square, what else?

Name as many items as possible:

a) round in shape;

b) oval shape;

c) square;

d) rectangular.

Look carefully at the table. Which of the fruits and vegetables lying on it are of the shape shown in the diagram: and of this color: ?

The next important feature of an object is its size. We will denote the size as follows:

Now correctly name big and small https://pandia.ru/text/78/074/images/image016_25.gif" width="366" height="274">

Now try using the notation https://pandia.ru/text/78/074/images/image019_9.jpg" width="71" height="101 src="> to identify the signs of such objects: a blue cube, a big red ball , a tall yellow house can be designated, for example, like this:

- red apple.

There are still many signs of objects. We have presented them for you in a table. Using this table you can identify the features of many objects.

TABLE OF DESIGNATIONS FOR OBJECT SIGNS

Show in the picture objects that have a smell. Try to identify them using a table.

We looked at such important characteristics of objects as color, shape, size, got acquainted with the table of designations for the characteristics of objects, and tried to apply these designations. And now let's try to complete the CONTROL WORK. With its help, we will check how you have mastered the material.

Task 1. Look carefully at the picture and complete the task. And the adults helping you answer the test questions will write down your answers on a special answer form.

Task 2. Guess the riddles about what Nyusha bought at the market?

1 riddle https://pandia.ru/text/78/074/images/image032_3.jpg" width="141" height="95 src=">

Riddle 3 https://pandia.ru/text/78/074/images/image034_2.jpg" width="133" height="86">

Task 3.

Task 4.

Task 5.

Task 6.

Find the desired picture in each box.

You already know that the main task of drawing is to learn to see objects in three-dimensional forms, so that practical work be able to convey volume using certain expressive means - line, stroke, tone. If you have correctly and expressively drawn an object, this means that the pencil image has correctly constructed its internal basis - the structure - and has expressively conveyed the material properties (surface texture). All this, it would seem, looks simple, but you have to work long and persistently to learn how to make such drawings. You should never rely solely on certain artistic abilities. A lot of painstaking work is needed, because knowledge, skills and abilities do not come by themselves, but are the result of enormous and intense efforts.

There are no shapeless bodies in nature. If it were possible to imagine such a thing, then except for some kind of abstract (abstract) emptiness, nothing else appeared in consciousness. Therefore, one should believe in form as an organization of certain parts, constructed expediently and in strict accordance. An object in the usual sense of the word is any product created by man, necessary for people and performing a specific function. When studying drawing, you should be guided by form in your work. The famous artist-teacher Dmitry Nikolaevich Kardovsky wrote in his book “Drawing Manual” published in Moscow in 1938: “What is form? This is a mass that has one character or another, like geometric bodies: a cube, a ball, a cylinder, etc. The living form of living natures, of course, is not a correct geometric form, but in the diagram it also approaches these geometric forms and thus repeats the same laws of the arrangement of light along perspectively receding planes that exist for geometric bodies.

The student’s task is precisely to combine and coordinate the understanding of form with techniques for depicting (constructing) on ​​a plane with light... surfaces that limit the form in space. When they draw a ball, they know what techniques should be used to depict the transitions of its surfaces in shadow and light, just as the techniques are known when depicting a cube, pyramid, cylinder or some more complex figure, etc. ...What characterizes, for example, the shape of a person’s torso? This is a cylindrical shape. If the body were a regular cylinder, then its image would be very simple, but there are bulges, depressions and other deviations in it that violate the simplicity of the cylinder. At the same time, these bulges and depressions are located along a large cylinder shape, either on the side receiving direct rays of light, or on the side that does not receive them, or in transitional places. When drawing, these deviations must be maintained accordingly in tone: 1) light, 2) shadow and 3) penumbra. The sense of form, the ability to see and convey it must be developed by the student so that it from consciousness, as they say, “passes to the ends of the fingers,” i.e. when depicting a form on a plane, the painter must feel it in the same way as a sculptor who sculpts a form from clay or carves it from stone” (Kardovsky D.N. Drawing Manual. M., 1938. P. 9).

People use the word "form" very often. Everyone correctly understands the meaning of this concept. Yes, indeed, the term “form” (from the Latin forma) is translated as a concept that allows a person to comprehend the external outline, external view, contours of a particular object. In any image, they always show first of all the shape of the object being drawn, i.e. true outlines of it. When artists say that the three-dimensional form is well conveyed in this drawing, they thereby emphasize the veracity of the image. In fact, the concept of “volumetric form” essentially points to two words that are close in meaning, because the volume of an object also contains mass and configuration, which are also inherent in form. The volume itself should be regarded primarily as one of the quantitative characteristics of geometric bodies - capacity, which is expressed by the number cubic units. Workers of fine arts and architecture understand by this word appearance space limited by planes.

Thus, under the volumetric form of objects, one should consider the laws of structure, i.e. features of their design.

To depict a three-dimensional form, you need: the ability of the drawer to see and understand the design (structure) features of objects and the transfer of three-dimensionality - length (or width), height and depth - the shape of these same objects on the two-dimensional plane of a sheet of paper.

Consequently, the depiction of a form in any drawing from life should be based on its construction, and not on copying appearance subject. Such a construction presupposes that the draftsman has a clear, constructive approach to the surrounding objects. Since you have a two-dimensional plane in front of you, and you need to draw three-dimensional volumes, imagine a sheet of paper as a certain (conditional) space and try, based on your existing knowledge about methods of perspective drawing, to place the depicted form in it. Remember what examples from the world of geometric bodies can be used to use their combinations visible in nature to solve the problem of placing a form in paper space.

Tone drawing

When drawing an object from life, you simultaneously solve several problems, one of which is the transmission of light and shade in the image.

To see the object being drawn, it must be illuminated naturally (daylight) or artificially (electric light). Physical phenomenon The distribution of light, thanks to which our vision distinguishes the surrounding reality, is called chiaroscuro in visual practice.

Perception various forms becomes possible because reflected light rays enter the eye. Such emitted light allows you to visually perceive any object.

Illuminated objects located in space are distinguished by us as volumetric. The volumetric shape of an object in accordance with its structural structure is determined by the play of light and shadow. The peculiarity here is that the shape of the object is made up of differently located surfaces located at different angles to the rays of light, which is why the illumination of this object is uneven: the light reaches areas that are perpendicular to the rays completely, while others are distributed Weaker depending on depending on their position at a certain angle, it “slides”, as it were, but does not hit others at all.

For the draftsman, the degree of illumination of the surface of the object is also important, which depends on the strength of the source and the distance to it. The perception of illumination of the object being drawn is also influenced by the distance between it and the person drawing. This is due to the light-air environment that forms a “haze” (from tiny particles dust, droplets of moisture and other suspended substances), which dissolves the sharp outlines of the boundaries of light and shadow, darkens the illuminated areas and brightens deep shadows.

So, the emission of light will give a luminous flux that propagates in one direction, reaches the object and reveals the lightness of its surface. Depending on the brightness of the light rays, the lightness of the object becomes contrasting. The word “lightness” should be understood as the light reflective ability of the surface of an object. You know; that everything we see and distinguish is related to the physical nature of light, which is capable of producing due to reflectivity material bodies certain signals to our eye, which reacts to them with a remarkable property - color perception. It goes without saying that lightness is determined primarily by the characteristics of the surface of an object in the reflection of light. White, yellow, and blue colors reflect more light than black, blue, and brown.

Therefore, we should talk in more detail about chiaroscuro. Best of all, perhaps detailed characteristics All gradations of light and shade are possible using the example of a spherical surface.

The shape of the ball is remarkable in that it is uniform on all sides, is not distorted due to the peculiarities of perspective changes in the object, and gives complete concept about the laws of light and shade. While in space, the ball in any position is equally illuminated by one light source and shaded from the opposite side. This means that rays of light fall on this geometric body, differently illuminating exactly half of its spherical surface. Why is it different? - you may ask. After all, if half is illuminated, it follows that the illumination is the same everywhere. That's the point, it's not the same. Only an incompetent draftsman can imagine an illuminated surface of the same tone, and even if he sees that this is not so, he will nevertheless retain his belief. Is this why in the drawings of the ball by people unfamiliar with the concept of chiaroscuro, half of the image is left untouched with a pencil, and the second is shaded evenly.

Let's look at the pattern of light distribution on the surface of the ball. Let the plaster model of the ball be placed on a light gray plane at a distance of one size from a white matte wall and illuminated by artificial light pouring from the left side from above at an angle of 45°. It will not be difficult to think correctly that the model is illuminated at this angle and that the brightest light on the surface of the geometric body will concentrate on the area that is perpendicular to the direction of the rays from the source. As you can see, we are talking about the direct impact of light rays on the surface and, therefore, right angle surface and the beam falling on it. Part of the light rays hits the surface of the ball due to its structure at increasingly acute angles, and the more sharper angle, the less light hits the sphere. It turns out that the curved surface should gradually go into shadow as the light decreases.

Finally, in the distribution of rays over the sphere, there comes a moment when the curved surface goes beyond the reach of light and plunges into shadow.

The most brightly illuminated spot on the surface of the ball is called a flare, which is very visible on any shiny surface, such as glass. A light penumbra is visible around the highlight, proving the rules of light distribution over the spherical surface. Artists call it halftone. The halftone of the first strip around the highlight imperceptibly along its outer edge passes into the next one, which also imperceptibly merges with the now third, etc. All these transitions, invisible to the eye, merge with each other thanks to the spherical surface of the body, until the last of them just as smoothly disappears with its edge into the shadow. Each new halftone is slightly darker than the previous one.

A shadow is a part of an object that gets its name due to the absence of light, being outside its distribution. But everything that is in the shadow also obeys its own laws, being influenced environment. You remember that a condition was set according to which the ball must be separated from the white wall at a distance of one of its sizes. The word “white” is used in relation to the wall, and this is not without reason. You begin to guess that the wall is illuminated by the same source, and therefore, by reflecting the light, it must now make its own correction to the light-and-shadow relationships within the spatial environment. The light reflected from the wall at an angle of 45°, but now from the right side, falls on the shadow, and although it is much weaker than direct light, nevertheless its effect significantly affects the smooth lightening of the shadow. On the surface of the ball, which is in the shadow, due to the light reflected from the wall, a phenomenon called a reflex is formed. In that part of the ball that is connected to the surface of the table, a reflex from this surface is visible.

The shadow on the ball is called its own shadow. Another shadow, called a falling shadow, lay on the table from the ball, in strict accordance with the direction of the light flux from the source.

Every artist should know the patterns of light distribution on the surface and around a visible object.

A person perceives the surrounding reality with all its phenomena, forms and volumes visually. IN visual perception main role plays his ability to see the world in color. If our primitive ancestor had not had this innate ability, who knows if humanity as such would exist. Distinguishing shades of color helped the people of those distant centuries to literally survive in the fight against the harsh and merciless forces of nature. Would they be able to survive if the world around them was absolutely colorless, what is called gray or black and white?

But why then, you may rightfully ask, are black-and-white literate drawings so truthful and attractive? We’ll wait a little while answering this question, but here we’ll come close to the concept with which we will have to associate the execution of images, taking into account the requirements of truthfulness and tone.

Before defining this concept, let us turn to the surrounding reality and name some examples related to visual activity.

Wonderful Russian landscape painters Alexey Kondratyevich Savrasov, Ivan Ivanovich Shishkin and Fyodor Aleksandrovich Vasiliev created many completed pencil drawings of nature in their work. Each drawing not only amazes with its excellent craftsmanship, but also has a number of advantages, which include correctly taken light-and-shadow relationships. In fact, how can you achieve differences in the tone of the crown of a tree and grass, foreground and background, bushes and weeds? The masters achieved such distinction with brilliance, and the black and white pencil in their hands gave such tonal effects that can be compared with paintings.

With a simple graphite pencil you can convey the shine of water and glass, velvet and satin fabric, tree bark and the most delicate shape of a rose petal. And the point here is in the tone, and only in it.

The word “tone” (from the Greek tonos - tension) means the general light-and-shadow structure of the image (in painting, this concept corresponds to the color structure of the work).

So, tone is the light and shadow structure of an image. Consequently, the artist who performs a long-term creative drawing of a landscape or everyday scene is faced with the task of conveying in his work the tonal relationships between all the elements of the image, so that the drawing impresses the viewer not only with deep life content, but also with the expressiveness of the form.

You already know that the whitest paper is much darker than the true highlight on a glossy surface, and the softest drawing material, not to mention a graphite pencil, gives the most black spot on paper, it is still many times lighter than natural black space. Therefore, you must always remember that truthfulness in a light-tonal (tone) drawing can only be achieved by achieving light-and-shadow relationships that are proportional to nature.

For a preliminary acquaintance with the solution of tone pattern problems, let us turn to the analysis of a still life, composed in our imagination of three objects. Let it be a glass jar with cherry jam, a light yellow apple and a white tablecloth. All these objects come to mind in your memory, both as a whole and individually. A shiny jar filled with dark jam with an abundance of berries looks damp black, and the apple looks darker than the tablecloth, despite its light hue.

The still life is illuminated by daylight, and all its contrasting features are clearly visible. All the reflexes are clearly visible on the jar, and the apple, located in front of the vessel with jam, even in the shadows, sharply contrasts with part of the dark silhouette. The snow-white tablecloth beautifully emphasizes the voluminous shapes of the fruit and jar. Of course, such a still life rightfully claims to be a picturesque solution, since its color qualities are obvious.

Is it possible to paint this still life, preserving the first impression of this freshness in the image and managing to subordinate the sharp contrasts between all objects to the general tonal state of nature? Of course, you can draw such a still life if you have the necessary knowledge and skills in visual arts based on a holistic vision of nature.

In progress graphic image It is completely pointless to try to convey the absolute relationships of the lightness of nature. You already know why this is impossible. You just need to adhere to proportional brightness ratios.

All the various tonal relationships can be conveyed by the modest means of drawing.

Where to start? By establishing the so-called tonal scale - the relationship between plain white paper and the thickest layer of graphite substance applied to its surface. Between these two extremes all other gradations of tone are in corresponding proportions from light to dark.

So, in the presented still life, all the illuminated and shadowed places of objects are different great variety different tones, which are revealed with a simple graphite pencil. Therefore, when working on any educational assignment, be sure to set the tonal scale. It can be depicted as a strip of several (according to the number of main spots of light and shadow observed in nature) rectangles, shaded to convey the entire range of shades in the correct subordination. This will be very helpful in your work, will provide an excellent opportunity to “feel” the gradations and will give you confidence.

It is very important to practice developing the ability to subtly distinguish gradations of lightness in full-scale productions. After some time, you will begin to pick up even small tonal differences in nature.

But let's return to the imaginary still life. You have set the tonal scale and it turns out that nine main spots of light and shadow are visible on location. These are highlights on a glass jar and an apple, common spots on the tablecloth and background, as well as on an apple, two shadow spots of shadows from a jar and an apple, a common spot on a jar with its contents in the light, and a common spot in the vessel’s own shadow.

In modeling the image with tone, you would need to observe proportional dependence between the aperture of some spots in nature and their corresponding places in the drawing. At the same time, in no case should you get carried away with working on any particular part of the image, but only work in relationships all the time, constantly comparing the drawing with nature. Working on a separate place in a drawing without connection with others is fraught with complications associated with violating the integrity of the image. By doing this kind of elaboration, you begin to compare a separate piece with the same one in real life and, naturally, move away from consciously reducing the brightness or density of the shadow in the drawing.

All details in kind should never be conveyed in a drawing. This is impossible. In nature, all the details are connected with the general, subordinate to it, but in a drawing it is hardly possible to link all this with the general. Thus, tone drawing requires a developed sense of form, design, skillful study of form with chiaroscuro and final generalization so that the image looks collected and complete, and, most importantly, it must convey relationships in tone that are proportional to nature.

Cube drawing

One of the outstanding artists of France, Ingres, once said well about drawing: “Drawing does not mean simply making outlines; the drawing does not consist only of lines. Drawing is also expressiveness, internal form, plan, modeling” (Ingres on art. Collection. M., 1962. P. 56).

When drawing plaster models of geometric bodies from life, you need to depict each body, modeling it by conveying light-and-shadow relationships. You learned about tone drawing from the previous paragraph.

Essentially, this is your first rather lengthy drawing, in which there will be some difficult work associated with the pencil drawing technique. You are faced with a choice of technique - to draw in tone using shading or shading. Hatching is recommended, as it greatly disciplines and teaches one to approach the drawing carefully and with concentration. The peculiarity of this technique is that the strokes must be laid according to the shape of the model, and if this requirement is not adhered to, very soon you can see that the strokes covering the surface of the paper are applied at random, i.e. thoughtlessly, destroy the drawing, do not reveal the three-dimensional form.

The cube model should be illuminated with artificial light, the source of which should be located at the top left. In this case, both the entire volume of the body and the light and shadow gradations are clearly visible from the point of view you choose. The cube is placed at an angle to the person drawing, slightly below eye level, so that the top edge is visible. The background should be light, and the model should be placed on a gray drapery, spread without folds on a stand for life.

To get started, you need to remember the previous exercises on drawing frames of geometric bodies from life. You still have to solve similar problems now. True, now the cube appears before you in the form in which it is truly perceived as volumetric. The frame allowed us to see right through the cube, with all its faces and edges. Now some of them are not visible, but you need to be able to “see” them with the eye, so that when constructing them taking into account future abbreviations, you must certainly show them. Only then do we speak about the constructive structure of the shape of a geometric body.

However, it is impossible to draw on paper without first placing an image. Only a few virtuosos of academic drawing could start depicting a particular statue from one point and, without lifting the pencil from the paper, draw a very precise outline of the ancient sculpture on the sheet. You need to act much more simply and take the pencil away from the paper many times in order to look at the full-scale setting and at your sheet and draw on it the general shape of the cube, thus placing the drawing, and then refine it by comparing it with nature. The general shape of the cube is drawn on paper so that the outline is not very large, but not small either. It is most appropriate to imagine a sheet of paper as a conditional space in which the cube model takes its rightful place. Of course, at first such an idea is difficult, but in each new exercise it is necessary to include this unique “mechanism” in order to eventually bring it to automatism.

The outlined outline of the cube has taken its place on the paper, and you can step back a little to see the layout of the drawing from a distance and once again check whether the image is positioned correctly or incorrectly in this case in the format. Of course, further work largely depends on how you first placed the drawing.

Begin clarifying values ​​by visual comparison. Having chosen a certain height of the front vertical edge of the cube, subordinate the rest to it, but taking into account future changes in nature. First, determine the location of this edge closest to you in the intended silhouette of the image. Then mark the height of this edge, draw a vertical segment, and at its lowest point draw a strictly horizontal line, which will become auxiliary in construction. A little later you will need to imagine a horizontal line perpendicular to the base of the edge in real life, so that, together with the one drawn on paper, you can show the angle formed by the horizontal edge of the right side. For comparison, place a pencil or ruler at the base of the plaster model of the cube to see the angle in real life.

Further work on drawing a plaster model of the cube is carried out as a gradual identification of the constructive basis of the object. Using landmarks, construct the bottom edge, trying to “see” its outline from all sides, i.e. show the invisible edges, as was done when constructing the frame of the cube. At the same time, mark all the other vertical edges, constantly comparing their size with the edge closest to you.

Knowing the rules of perspective, associate visible changes in the shape of the cube with the construction. The two vanishing points of the conditional continuations of the edges, located at an angle to you, remain guidelines for constructing all the remaining four upper ones.

After you have built the “skeleton” of the cube, compare the drawing with nature and think about what catches your eye first of all - the entire cube or the details of the shape. In this case, any inaccuracies will become visible. For now, they are easy to eliminate, because when constructing the shape of a geometric body, we hope you did not overdo it in drawing pencil marks on paper. Remember, when constructing the shape of the depicted object, all lines should be drawn easily and confidently.

Why did you see inaccuracies in the drawing? Our vision, as it became known thanks to experimental data from psychologists, first grasps the general shape of an object, then short time as if fixing it.

Having eliminated construction errors, check the image again with nature and make sure that the design of the drawn cube matches the visible model. Since the image of a cube on paper is drawn relatively quickly, if constructed correctly, you should not outline the three-dimensional shape of the geometric body light shading, thereby showing the shadow side of the object, because it suggested itself - it is known that we draw a likeness of an object, and what our eye sees in nature, it “wants” to see in the drawing.

Light and shadow relationships in the drawing must also be built. We use different words when applied to visual activity, for example, “scale of construction”, “tone scale”. In the first expression, you need to keep in mind the definition in the drawing of the sizes and ratios of the parts of the object in comparison with nature.

When drawing from life, you quite rightfully try to convey the image as you perceive the object. By shading or shading, you simulate the volume of an object, showing in the image the illuminated, transitional from light to shadow, and shaded areas observed in nature. Finish this work only after making sure that the light and shadow relationships are correctly conveyed in the drawing. By doing this, you have maintained the tonal scale in the image, i.e. managed to find proportional relationships between the darkest and lightest tones.

Tone patterns are created by the skillful distribution of light, penumbra and shadow using line art.

When modeling the shape of a cube with tone, do not rush to immediately lay out the shadow face of the geometric body. Firstly, this will not work, and secondly, just as they don’t draw, they don’t apply the tone in parts. The point here is the difference between natural light and the whiteness of the paper, the materiality of a natural object and the surface of a sheet of paper shaded with a pencil, etc.

It is possible to achieve the correct (and not exact) tone by intelligently constructed relationships in the drawing that are proportional to nature.

Therefore, we recommend this approach to conveying light-and-shadow relationships: select the darkest shade of shading that you use in a certain place in the drawing and do not repeat it anywhere else, and all other gradations will vary from this dark to the tone of the paper itself.

Monitor the overall illumination of nature and convey this in the drawing.

Diversify your pencil technique, do not cover the area of ​​the drawing with thoughtless, monotonous “hand-friendly” shading. The texture of the plaster itself tells the thoughtful draftsman how to cover the paper with a layer of pencil.

At the end of the work, summarize the image, i.e. achieve the elimination of contrasts that hurt the eyes or the mechanical set of individual tones, and bring the drawing into the general subordination of all tones (Fig. 18). Learn to convey the correct tonal relationships that express the form and material in the drawing.

Rice. 18

Cylinder drawing

The principle of lighting the next model for drawing from life remains the same. This time you will be doing a tone drawing of a cylinder - a geometric body formed by rotating a rectangular plane around a single axis.

The shape of the cylinder is peculiar. Unlike a cube, light is distributed over a cylindrical surface in a much more complex manner. The bases of the cylinder are round planes, and if they are at any angle (from a perspective), they already look like ellipses.

You drew a wire model of this body and practically studied its structural basis.

To build a vertical cylinder, start by laying out the overall shape of the body. In order not to make a mistake in placing the general shape (white silhouette) of a cylinder in the vertical format of a sheet of paper, draw a light vertical line in the middle and visually determine the height of the body being depicted, and then its width.

Next, the construction of the cylinder shape turns out to be effective means development of knowledge and practical skills in drawing, as it helps to well understand the rules of perspective and the constructive structure of objects. When performing this work, you must act confidently and hold your pencil freely.

Having built the frame of the cylinder, in which both bases are correctly depicted in perspective (the lower one is a little wider, as it looked in nature), compare the image with nature and proceed to modeling the shape in tone. If in the tonal pattern of the cube there was a certain complexity caused by the transfer of proportional natures of light and shadow relationships, then in the tonal characteristics of the cylinder additional efforts are needed to understand the degree of distribution of gradations of light and shadow over its specific surface.

Be sure to understand the gradations, since instead of conveying a three-dimensional shape, the drawn image may look as if it is wrinkled or flattened. To prevent this from happening, be extremely careful in modeling the surface of the cylinder built on paper.

The light and shade solution of the cylinder shape is subject to the knowledge of the painter. Everyone sees how the light spreading over the rounded surface of the cylinder clearly builds the shape of a geometric body. A small area on a cylindrical surface looks most striking. This is a glare, and its phenomenon is caused by the fact that light rays hit this part of the volume strictly perpendicularly. Next, the light begins to slide, as it were, along the curved surface and, of course, weakens the illumination of the object until its effect is interrupted by the area extending beyond the border between it and the shadow, becoming the darkest spot. Therefore, the cylindrical surface gives a clear visual representation sequential distribution of light and shadow gradations approximately in the following alternation: halftone, light, highlight, light, halftone, shadow, reflex. Of course, the transitions between them are completely indistinguishable, and this is one of the difficulties in conveying the three-dimensional shape of a cylinder in a drawing. This means that you need not to achieve absolute similarity of the drawn cylinder with nature, but to ensure the correct transmission of the proportional relationships of tone gradations (Fig. 19).

The background in a tone pattern serves as an integral part of the spatial image. In addition, it affects the general state of illumination, being either neutral or actively influencing the perception of the object.

Rice. 19

Ball drawing

The construction of such a geometric body as a ball is not particularly difficult, if we exclude the impeccable accuracy of drawing a curved line. However, it is needed only during construction, and in the completed tone drawing it will disappear as if it does not exist at all. It has already been said that lines are not the boundaries of form.

Rice. 20

A plaster model of a ball, intended for drawing from life, is placed in front of the person drawing at a distance that does not necessarily correspond to the triple height of the nature. The well-lit nature on the left and above is visible from a slightly greater distance.

You can build a circle with a vertical line, intersecting it with a horizontal line and two inclined ones at an angle of 45°. Having laid out equal radii everywhere from the center, easily draw a closed curve that will become the boundary of the mass of the ball.

After the circle is outlined, clarify its boundaries, remove auxiliary constructions and begin to identify the spherical shape of the ball.

The sculptural term “sculpting” is quite appropriate here. Indeed, it is possible to achieve the impression of a spherical shape (spherical volume) in a drawing only by correctly determining the tonal relationships - as if “sculpting” the shape.

The gradual change in illumination of the ball is also expressed in the same gradations as that of the cylinder, differing only in the characters of the surface. In the cylinder, all the invisible transitions that lighten towards the highlight and gradually fade away when approaching the shadow are distributed along a straight vertical line. The ball has its own spherical surface, and the light and shadow goes along it as if in a circle.

Light rays falling perpendicularly onto the spherical surface form a highlight on the ball, around which an imperceptible darkening begins, spreading more and more along gradually increasing arcs, until finally it turns into a moon-shaped shadow with invisible outlines, not reaching the rounded edge of the body, because it interferes with the reflex, which itself gradually brightens when approaching a falling shadow.

It is very difficult for an inexperienced draftsman to convey such a distribution of light-and-shadow transitions. This requires diligence and a culture of drawing, understanding of the task, thoughtfulness of each stage of the work.

Please note that following the rules for modeling shapes in tone with a variety of shading techniques within reasonable limits gives inevitably positive results.

Correctly taken light-and-shadow transitions in the image convey the illusion of the materiality of plaster (Fig. 20).

Security questions. Practical tasks

1. Define the concept of chiaroscuro.

2. Explain the patterns of light distribution according to shape.

3. What is tone?

4. How to explain tonal relationships?

5. What are the main patterns of tonal relationships?

6. Perform several exercises aimed at mastering a variety of pencil techniques.

7. Do an exercise to gradually increase the tone.

8. Draw any spherical object in tone from life.