The closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet in the system, only 0.055% of the size of Earth. 80% of its mass is the core. The surface is rocky, cut with craters and funnels. The atmosphere is very rarefied and consists of carbon dioxide. The temperature on the sunny side is +500°C, reverse side-120оС. Gravitational and magnetic field not on Mercury.

Venus

Venus has a very dense atmosphere made of carbon dioxide. The surface temperature reaches 450°C, which is explained by the constant greenhouse effect, the pressure is about 90 Atm. The size of Venus is 0.815 the size of Earth. The planet's core is made of iron. There is a small amount of water on the surface, as well as many methane seas. Venus has no satellites.

Planet Earth

The only planet in the Universe on which life exists. Almost 70% of the surface is covered with water. The atmosphere consists of a complex mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and inert gases. The planet's gravity is ideal. If it were smaller, oxygen would be in, if larger, hydrogen would accumulate on the surface, and life could not exist.

If you increase the distance from the Earth to the Sun by 1%, the oceans will freeze; if you decrease it by 5%, they will boil.

Mars

Due to the high content of iron oxide in the soil, Mars has a bright red color. Its size is 10 times smaller than that of Earth. The atmosphere consists of carbon dioxide. The surface is covered with craters and extinct volcanoes, the highest of which is Mount Olympus, its height is 21.2 km.

Jupiter

The largest of the planets in the solar system. 318 times larger than Earth. Consists of a mixture of helium and hydrogen. The interior of Jupiter is hot, and therefore vortex structures predominate in its atmosphere. Has 65 known satellites.

Saturn

The structure of the planet is similar to Jupiter, but above all, Saturn is known for its ring system. Saturn is 95 times larger than Earth, but its density is the lowest in the solar system. Its density is equal to the density of water. Has 62 known satellites.

Uranus

Uranus is 14 times larger than Earth. Unique for its sideways rotation. The inclination of its rotation axis is 98°. The core of Uranus is very cold because it releases all its heat into space. Has 27 satellites.

Neptune

17 times larger than Earth. Emits a large amount of heat. It exhibits low geological activity; on its surface there are geysers from. Has 13 satellites. The planet is accompanied by the so-called “Neptune Trojans,” which are bodies of an asteroid nature.

Neptune's atmosphere contains large amounts of methane, which gives it its characteristic blue.

Features of the planets of the solar system

A distinctive feature of the solar planets is the fact that they rotate not only around the Sun, but also along their own axis. Also, all planets are warm to a greater or lesser extent.

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• Planets of the Solar System

The solar system is a collection of cosmic bodies, the interaction between which is explained by the laws of gravity. The Sun is the central object of the Solar System. Being at different distances from the Sun, the planets rotate in almost the same plane, in the same direction along elliptical orbits. 4.57 billion years ago, the birth of the Solar System occurred as a result of the powerful compression of a cloud of gas and dust.

The Sun is a huge, hot star made primarily of helium and hydrogen. Only 8 planets, 166 moons, and 3 dwarf planets revolve in elliptical orbits around the Sun. And also billions of comets, small planets, small meteoroids, cosmic dust.

Polish scientist and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus described the general characteristics and structure of the solar system in the mid-16th century. He changed the prevailing opinion at that time that the Earth was the center of the Universe. Proved that the center is the Sun. The rest of the planets move around it along certain trajectories. The laws explaining the motion of planets were formulated by Johannes Kepler in the 17th century. Isaac Newton, physicist and experimenter, substantiated the law of universal attraction. However, they were able to study in detail the basic properties and characteristics of the planets and objects of the solar system only in 1609. The great Galileo invented the telescope. This invention made it possible to observe with one’s own eyes the nature of planets and objects. Galileo was able to prove that the Sun rotates on its axis by observing the movement of sunspots.

Basic characteristics of planets

The weight of the Sun exceeds the mass of others by almost 750 times. The gravitational force of the Sun allows it to hold 8 planets around it. Their names: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. They all revolve around the Sun along a certain trajectory. Each of the planets has its own system of satellites. Previously, another planet orbiting the Sun was Pluto. But modern scientists, based on new facts, have deprived Pluto of its planetary status.

Of the 8 planets, Jupiter is the largest. Its diameter is approximately 142,800 km. This is 11 times the diameter of the Earth. The planets closest to the Sun are considered terrestrial, or inner, planets. These include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They, like the Earth, consist of hard metals and silicates. This allows them to differ significantly from other planets located in the solar system.

The second type of planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus. They are called the outer or Jovian planets. These planets are giant planets. They consist primarily of molten hydrogen and helium.

Almost all the planets in the solar system have satellites orbiting them. About 90% of the satellites are concentrated mainly in orbits around the Jovian planets. Planets move around the Sun along certain trajectories. Additionally, they also rotate around their own axis.

Small objects of the solar system

The most numerous and smallest bodies in the Solar System are asteroids. The entire asteroid belt is located between Mars and Jupiter and consists of objects with a diameter of more than 1 km. Clusters of asteroids are also called the “asteroid belt.” The flight path of some asteroids passes very close to Earth. The number of asteroids in the belt is up to several million. The largest body is the dwarf planet Ceres. This is an irregularly shaped block with a diameter of 0.5-1 km.

A unique group of small bodies includes comets, consisting mainly of ice fragments. They differ from large planets and their satellites in their low weight. The diameter of the largest comets is only a few kilometers. But all comets have huge “tails”, larger in volume than the Sun. When comets come close to the Sun, the ice evaporates and, as a result of sublimation processes, a cloud of dust forms around the comet. The released dust particles begin to glow under the pressure of the solar wind.

Another cosmic body is a meteor. When it enters the Earth's orbit, it burns up, leaving a luminous trail in the sky. A type of meteor is meteorite. These are larger meteors. Their trajectory sometimes passes close to the Earth's atmosphere. Due to the instability of the trajectory of movement, meteors can fall onto the surface of our planet, forming craters.

Another object of the solar system are centaurs. They are comet-like bodies consisting of large diameter ice fragments. According to their characteristics, structure and nature of movement, they are considered both comets and asteroids.

According to the latest scientific research data, the solar system was formed as a result of gravitational collapse. As a result of powerful compression, a cloud formed. Under the influence of gravitational forces, planets were formed from particles of dust and gas. The solar system belongs to the Milky Way Galaxy and is approximately 25-35 thousand light years away from its center. Throughout the Universe, systems of planets similar to the Solar System are born every second. And it is very possible that they also contain intelligent beings like us.

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Those who continue to believe that the solar system includes nine planets are deeply mistaken. The thing is that in 2006, Pluto was expelled from the Big Nine and is now classified as a dwarf planet. There are only eight ordinary ones left, although the Illinois authorities have legally secured Pluto’s former status in their state.

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After 2006, Mercury began to hold the title of smallest planet. It is of interest to scientists both because of its unusual topography in the form of jagged slopes that cover the entire surface, and the period of rotation around its axis. It turns out that it is only a third less than the time of a full revolution around the Sun. This is due to the strong tidal influence of the star, which slowed down the natural rotation of Mercury.

The second furthest from the center of gravity, Venus is famous for its “hotness” - the temperature of its atmosphere is even higher than that of the previous object. The effect is due to the greenhouse system present on it, which arose due to the increased density and predominance of carbon dioxide.

The third planet, Earth, is where people live, and so far it is the only one where the presence of life has been accurately recorded. It has something that the previous two do not have - a satellite called the Moon, which joined it shortly after its formation, and this significant event occurred about 4.5 billion years ago.

The most warlike sphere of the solar system can be called Mars: its color is red due to high percentage in the soil of iron oxide, geological activity ended only 2 million years ago, and the two satellites were violently attracted from among the asteroids.

The fifth most distant from the Sun, but the first in size, Jupiter has an unusual history. It is believed that it had all the makings of becoming a brown dwarf - a small star, because the smallest of this category is only 30% larger than it in diameter. Jupiter will no longer get larger dimensions than it already is: if its mass were to increase, this would lead, under the influence of gravity, to an increase in density.

Saturn is the only one among all the others that has a noticeable disk - the Cassini belt, consisting of small objects and debris surrounding it. Like Jupiter, it belongs to the class of gas giants, but is significantly inferior in density not only to it, but also to terrestrial water. Despite its “gaseous” nature, Saturn has real northern lights at one of its poles, and its atmosphere is raging with hurricanes and storms.

Next on the list, Uranus, like its neighbor Neptune, belongs to the category of ice giants: its depths contain the so-called “hot ice”, which differs from ordinary ice in high temperature, but does not turn into steam due to strong compression. In addition to the “cold” component, Uranus also has a number of rocks, as well as the complex structure of clouds.

Neptune closes the list, very open in an unusual way. Unlike other planets discovered by visual observation, that is, more complex optical devices, Neptune was not noticed immediately, but only due to the strange behavior of Uranus. Later, through complex calculations, the location of the mysterious object influencing him was discovered.

Tip 4: Which planets of the solar system have an atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is very different from the atmospheres of other planets in the solar system. Having a nitrogen-oxygen base, the earth's atmosphere creates conditions for life, which, due to certain circumstances, cannot exist on other planets.

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Venus is the closest planet that has an atmosphere, and such a high density that Mikhail Lomonosov claimed its existence in 1761. The presence of an atmosphere on Venus is such an obvious fact that until the twentieth century, humanity was under the influence of the illusion that the Earth and Venus were twin planets and that life was also possible on Venus.

Space research has shown that everything is not so rosy. The atmosphere of Venus is ninety-five percent carbon dioxide, and does not release heat from the Sun, creating greenhouse effect. Because of this, the temperature on the surface of Venus is 500 degrees Celsius, and the likelihood of life existing on it is negligible.

Mars has an atmosphere similar in composition to Venus, also consisting mainly of carbon dioxide, but with admixtures of nitrogen, argon, oxygen and water vapor, although in very small quantities. Despite the acceptable surface temperature of Mars in certain time days, it is impossible to breathe in such an atmosphere.

In defense of supporters of ideas about life on other planets, it is worth noting that planetary scientists, having studied the chemical composition of the rocks of Mars, stated in 2013 that 4 billion years ago there was

Uranus, like the other giant planets, has an atmosphere consisting of hydrogen and helium. During research carried out using the Voyager spacecraft, it was discovered interesting feature of this planet: the atmosphere of Uranus is not heated by any internal sources planets, and receives all its energy only from the Sun. This is why Uranus has the coldest atmosphere in the entire solar system.

Neptune has a gaseous atmosphere, but its blue color suggests that it contains an as yet unknown substance that gives the atmosphere of hydrogen and helium its hue. Theories about the absorption of the red color of the atmosphere by methane have not yet received their full confirmation.

Tip 5: Which planet in the solar system has the most satellites

Start at scientific research Jupiter's satellites were discovered back in the 17th century by the famous astronomer Galileo Galilei. He discovered the first four satellites. Thanks to the development of the space industry and the launch of interplanetary research stations, the discovery of small satellites of Jupiter became possible. Currently, based on information from the NASA space laboratory, we can confidently talk about 67 satellites with confirmed orbits.

It is believed that the satellites of Jupiter can be grouped into external and internal. External objects include objects located at a considerable distance from the planet. The orbits of the inner ones are located much closer.

Satellites with internal orbits, or as they are also called, Jovian moons, are quite large bodies. Scientists have noticed that the arrangement of these moons is similar to the Solar System, only in miniature. In this case, Jupiter acts as if in the role of the Sun. The outer satellites differ from the inner ones in their small size.

Among the most famous large satellites of Jupiter are those that belong to the so-called Galilean satellites. These are Ganymede (dimensions in km – 5262.4), Europa (3121.6 km), Io. as well as Calisto (4820, 6 km).

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What regions are distinguished in the solar system?

What are the features of the Solar System?

Give the main characteristics of the Solar System.

Describe the structure of the Sun.

What are the theories of the origin of the solar system?

What is the generally accepted hypothesis for the origin of the solar system?

Define a planet.

What are the main attributes and parameters of the planet?

What are the general characteristics of the terrestrial planets?

Give the characteristics of Mercury.

Describe Venus.

Describe the Earth's satellite.

Give characteristics of Mars.

Describe the moons of Mars.

Describe the planets small group– asteroids.

Describe the dwarf planet Ceres.

How do meteorites form and how are they characterized?

Give a general description of the giant planets in comparison with the terrestrial planets.

Give characteristics of Jupiter.

Describe the main moons of Jupiter.

Give characteristics of Saturn.

Describe the main moons of Saturn.

Give characteristics of Uranus.

Describe the main moons of Uranus.

Describe Neptune.

Describe Neptune's main moons.

What are comets?

What are centaurs?

What about trans-Neptunian objects?

Describe the Kuiper Belt.

Which planets are classified as dwarfs?

Describe Pluto.

Describe the dwarf planets: Haumea, Makemake, Eris.

What is special about a scattered disk?

What is special about the distant regions of the solar system?

What is special about the border regions of the solar system?

Chapter 5 Geological Evolution

5.1. Earth is like a planet

Its differences from other terrestrial planets

Earth is the third planet from the Sun. The average distance from the Sun of 149.6 million km is taken as 1 astronomical unit. The average orbital speed is 29.765 km/s. The period of revolution around the Sun is 365.24 days. The inclination of the earth's axis to the ecliptic plane is 66 0. The period of rotation around the axis is 23 hours 56 minutes. The shape of the earth is geoid. Due to rotation, its shape is close to an ellipsoid, flattened at the poles and stretched in the equatorial zone. The average radius of the Earth is 6371.032 km. The Earth has a magnetic field that is dipole in nature. Magnetic poles do not coincide with geographic poles.

The available information allows for a comparative study of the outer shells of the Earth and other planets of the Solar System. On this basis, a new scientific direction arose, called comparative planetology. Other planets are surprisingly unlike Earth, although they are subject to the same physical laws.

Earth is the largest planet in its group. But, as estimates show, even such dimensions and mass are minimal for retaining their gas atmosphere. The Earth is rapidly losing hydrogen and some other light gases, which is confirmed by observations of its so-called plume.

The Earth's atmosphere is fundamentally different from the atmospheres of other planets: it has a low content of carbon dioxide, a high content of molecular oxygen and a relatively large amount of water vapor. Two reasons create the isolation of the Earth’s atmosphere: the water of the oceans and seas absorbs carbon dioxide well, and the biosphere saturates the atmosphere with molecular oxygen formed during the process of plant photosynthesis. Calculations show that if we release all the carbon dioxide absorbed and bound in the oceans, simultaneously removing from the atmosphere all the oxygen accumulated as a result of the life of plants, then the composition of the earth’s atmosphere in its main features would become similar to the composition of the atmospheres of Venus and Mars.

In the Earth's atmosphere, saturated water vapor creates a cloud layer that covers a large part of the planet. Clouds are an important element in the water cycle that occurs on our planet in the hydrosphere - atmosphere - land system.

The planets closest to the Sun - Mercury and Venus - rotate very slowly around their axis, with a period of tens to hundreds of Earth days. The slow rotation of these planets appears to be due to their resonant interactions with the Sun and each other. The Earth and Mars rotate with almost identical periods - about 24 hours.

Only the Earth in its group has a strong magnetic field of its own, which is more than two orders of magnitude greater than the magnetic fields of other planets.

None of the terrestrial planets has a developed system of satellites, which is typical for giant planets. The planet-like satellite of the Earth, the Moon, is close in size to Mercury. There is still no clear idea about the origin of the Moon.

The relief of the earth's surface as a whole is characterized by a global asymmetry of two hemispheres (northern and southern): one of them is a gigantic space filled with water. These are oceans, occupying more than 70% of the entire surface. In the other hemisphere, the crustal uplifts that form the continents are concentrated. Oceanic and continental varieties of crust differ both in age and in chemical and geological composition. It is clear that the topography of the ocean floor is different from the continental topography. Systematic studies of the sea and ocean floor have become possible only recently. They have already led to a new understanding of the global nature of tectonic processes occurring on Earth. The average depth of the world's oceans is close to 4 km, individual depressions reach 10 km or more, and individual cones rise significantly above the surface of the water. The main attraction of the oceanic relief is the global system of median ridges, stretching for tens of thousands of kilometers (72 thousand km). Chains of mountain ranges encircle the globe. The Alps, Caucasus, Pamirs, Himalayas, even taken together, are incomparable with the discovered strip of the middle ridges of the World Ocean. Along their central parts there are faults, the so-called rift zones, through which fresh masses of matter emerge from the mantle to the surface. They push apart the oceanic crust, shaping it through a process of continuous renewal. The age of the oceanic crust does not exceed 150 million years. Another characteristic feature of the process is the existence subduction zones, where the oceanic crust plunges under one of the island arcs (for example, under the Kuril, Mariana, etc.) or under the edge of the continent. These zones are characterized by increased seismic and volcanic activity. Thus, only on earth there is a powerful hydrosphere that was formed simultaneously with the planet.

The relief of the continental part of the planet is more diverse: plains, hills, plateaus, mountain ranges and huge mountain systems. Certain areas of land lie below ocean level (for example, the Dead Sea region), and some mountain ranges are raised above its level by 8-9 km. According to modern views, the continental crust, together with the underlying layers of the mantle, forms a system of lithospheric continental plates. Unlike the lithosphere of the oceans, continental plates have a very ancient origin, their age is estimated at 2.5-3.8 billion years. The thickness of the central part of some of them reaches 250 km.

At the boundaries of lithospheric plates, called geosynclines, either compression or stretching of the crust occurs, which depends on the direction of the local horizontal displacement of the plates.

In the modern era, only the Earth remains a “living” planet, the geological development of which continues and manifests itself, in particular, in active tectonic activity. Mars and Venus went through periods of intense seismic and volcanic activity in the past, but this ceased on Mars several hundred million years ago and on Venus more than a billion years ago. Both of these planets are most likely completing or have already completed the cycle of their evolutionary development.

Numerous signs indicate that processes in the bowels of the Earth have proceeded and continue to proceed differently from those of Venus and Mars. This is indicated by such facts as the existence of a continental crust with granite rocks, clearly defined lithospheric plates with their movements under the influence of deep processes, and the presence of a relatively powerful magnetic field near the Earth.

Advances in science and technology have made direct study of the planets of the solar system accessible, opening up fundamentally new opportunities for comparative knowledge of our own planet. Thus, a new page has been opened in understanding the world around us, but so far only the first lines have been written on it. A particularly exciting question still remains unresolved: what distinguished the Earth from the families of planets of the same type so that it could become an abode of life? The question remains open about the possible existence of some forms of life on Mars in the distant past.

Methods for studying the structure of the Earth

Most of the special sciences about the Earth are the sciences about its surface, including the atmosphere. Until man penetrated deeper into the Earth further than 12-15 km (Kola superdeep well). From depths of approximately 200 km, subsurface matter is carried out in different ways and becomes available for research. Information about deeper layers is obtained by indirect methods: by recording the nature of the passage of seismic waves different types through the earth's interior, by studying meteorites as relict remains of the past, reflecting the composition and structure of the matter of the protoplanetary cloud in the zone of formation of the terrestrial planets. On this basis, conclusions are drawn about the coincidence of the substance of meteorites of a certain type with the substance of certain layers of the earth’s depths. Conclusions about the composition of the earth's interior, based on data on the chemical and mineralogical composition of meteorites falling on the earth, are not considered reliable, since there is no generally accepted model of the formation and development of the Solar system.

Structure of the Earth

Probing of the earth's interior with seismic waves made it possible to establish their shell structure and differentiated chemical composition.

There are 3 main concentrically located regions: core, mantle, crust. The core and mantle, in turn, are divided into additional shells that differ in physical and chemical properties (Fig. 50).

The core occupies the central region of the earth's geoid and is divided into 2 parts. Inner core is in a solid state, it is surrounded outer core staying in the liquid phase. There is no clear boundary between the inner and outer cores; they are distinguished by transition zone. The composition of the core is believed to be identical to that of iron meteorites. The inner core consists of iron (80%) and nickel (20%). The corresponding alloy at the pressure of the earth's interior has a melting point of the order of 4500 0 C. The outer core contains iron (52%) and eutectic (liquid mixture of solids) formed by iron and sulfur (48%). A small admixture of nickel cannot be ruled out. The melting point of such a mixture is estimated at 3200 0 C. In order for the inner core to remain solid and the outer core liquid, the temperature in the center of the Earth should not exceed 4500 0 C, but also not be lower than 3200 0 C. Ideas about the nature of terrestrial magnetism are associated with the liquid state of the outer core .

Rice. 50. Structure of the Earth

Paleomagnetic studies of the nature of the planet’s magnetic field in the distant past, based on measurements of the remanent magnetization of earth rocks, showed that over 80 million years there was not only the presence of magnetic field strength, but also multiple systematic magnetization reversals, as a result of which the north and south magnetic poles of the Earth swapped places. During periods of polarity change, moments of complete disappearance of the magnetic field occurred. Consequently, terrestrial magnetism cannot be created by a permanent magnet due to the stationary magnetization of the core or some part of it. It is believed that the magnetic field is created by a process called the self-excited dynamo effect. The role of the rotor (moving element) of the dynamo can be played by the mass of the liquid core, moving as the Earth rotates around its axis, and the excitation system is formed by currents that create closed loops inside the sphere of the core.

The density and chemical composition of the mantle, according to seismic waves, differ sharply from the corresponding characteristics of the core. The mantle is formed by various silicates (compounds based on silicon). It is assumed that the composition of the lower mantle is similar to that of stony meteorites (chondrites).

The upper mantle is directly connected to the outermost layer - the crust. It is considered a “kitchen” where many of the rocks that make up the bark or their semi-finished products are prepared. The upper mantle is believed to consist of olivine (60%), pyroxene (30%) and feldspar (10%). In certain zones of this layer, partial melting of minerals occurs and alkaline basalts are formed - the basis of the oceanic crust. Through rift faults of the mid-ocean ridges, basalts come from the mantle to the Earth's surface. But this is not the only interaction between the crust and mantle. The fragile crust, which has a high degree of rigidity, together with part of the underlying mantle, forms a special layer about 100 km thick, called lithosphere. This layer rests on the upper mantle, whose density is noticeably higher. The upper mantle has a feature that determines the nature of its interaction with the lithosphere: in relation to short-term loads it behaves as a rigid material, and in relation to long-term loads - as a plastic one. The lithosphere creates a constant load on the upper mantle and, under its pressure, the underlying layer, called asthenosphere, exhibits plastic properties. The lithosphere “floats” in it. This effect is called isostasy.

The asthenosphere, in turn, rests on the deeper layers of the mantle, the density and viscosity of which increase with depth. The reason for this is the compression of rocks, causing a structural restructuring of some chemical compounds. For example, crystalline silicon in its normal state has a density of 2.53 g/cm 3 , under the influence of increased pressures and temperatures it transforms into one of its modifications, called stishovite, the density of which reaches 4.25 g/cm 3 . Silicates composed of this modification of silicon have a very compact structure. In general, the lithosphere, asthenosphere and the rest of the mantle can be considered as a three-layer system, each part of which is mobile relative to the other components. The light lithosphere, resting on a not too viscous and plastic asthenosphere, is particularly mobile.

The Earth's crust, which forms the upper part of the lithosphere, is mainly composed of eight chemical elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Half of the total mass of the bark is oxygen, which is contained in it in bound states, mainly in the form of metal oxides. The geological features of the crust are determined by the combined effects of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere on it - these three outer shells of the planet. The composition of the bark and outer shells is continuously renewed. Thanks to weathering and demolition, the material of the continental surface is completely renewed in 80-100 million years. The loss of continental substances is compensated by secular uplifts of their crust. The vital activity of bacteria, plants and animals is accompanied by a complete change of carbon dioxide contained in the atmosphere in 6-7 years, oxygen - in 4,000 years. The entire mass of the hydrosphere (1.4 · 10 18 t) is completely renewed in 10 million years. An even more fundamental circulation of matter on the surface of the planet occurs in processes that connect all the internal shells into a single system.

There are stationary vertical flows called mantle jets; they rise from the lower mantle to the upper mantle and deliver flammable material there. Phenomena of the same nature include intraplate “hot fields”, which, in particular, are associated with the largest anomalies in the shape of the Earth’s geoid. Thus, the way of life in the interior of the earth is extremely complex. Deviations from mobilist positions do not undermine the idea of ​​tectonic plates and their horizontal movements. But it is possible that in the near future a more general theory of the planet will appear, taking into account horizontal plate movements and open vertical transfers of combustible matter in the mantle.

The uppermost shells of the Earth - the hydrosphere and atmosphere - are noticeably different from other shells that form solid planets. By mass, this is a very small part of the globe, no more than 0.025% of its total mass. But the significance of these shells in the life of the planet is enormous. The hydrosphere and atmosphere arose at an early stage of the formation of the planet, and perhaps simultaneously with its formation. There is no doubt that the ocean and atmosphere existed 3.8 billion years ago.

The formation of the earth followed a single process that caused the chemical differentiation of the interior and the emergence of the precursors of the modern atmosphere and hydrosphere. First, the Earth's proto-core formed from grains of heavy non-volatile substances, then it very quickly attached the substance that later became the mantle. And when the Earth reached approximately the size of Mars, the period of its bombardment began planetesimalia. The impacts were accompanied by strong local heating and melting of the earth's rocks and planetesimalia. At the same time, gases and water vapor contained in the rocks were released. And since the average surface temperature of the planet remained low, water vapor condensed, forming a growing hydrosphere. In these collisions, the Earth lost hydrogen and helium, but retained heavier gases. The content of isotopes of noble gases in the modern atmosphere allows us to judge the source that generated them. This isotopic composition is consistent with the hypothesis about the impact origin of gases and water, but contradicts the hypothesis about the process of gradual degassing of the earth's interior as a source of formation of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. The ocean and atmosphere certainly existed not only throughout the history of the Earth as a formed planet, but also during the main accretion phase, when the proto-Earth was the size of Mars.

The idea of ​​impact degassing, considered as the main mechanism for the formation of the hydrosphere and atmosphere, is gaining increasing recognition. Laboratory experiments confirmed the ability of impact processes to release noticeable amounts of gases, including molecular oxygen, from earth rocks. This means that some amount of oxygen was present in the earth’s atmosphere even before the biosphere arose on it. Ideas about the abiogenic origin of some of the atmospheric oxygen have been put forward by other scientists.

Both outer shells - the atmosphere and the hydrosphere - interact tightly with each other and with the rest of the Earth's shells, especially with the lithosphere. They are directly influenced by the Sun and Space. Each of these shells is an open system, endowed with a certain autonomy and its own internal laws of development. Everyone who studies the air and water oceans is convinced that the objects of study display an amazing subtlety of organization and the ability to self-regulate. But at the same time, none of the earth’s systems falls out of the general ensemble, and their joint existence demonstrates not just the sum of its parts, but a new quality.

Among the community of the Earth's shells, the biosphere occupies a special place. It covers the upper layer of the lithosphere, almost the entire hydrosphere and lower layers of the atmosphere. The term “biosphere” was introduced into science in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess (1831-1914). The biosphere was understood as the totality of living matter inhabiting the surface of the planet along with its habitat. A new meaning was given to this concept by V.I. Vernadsky, who considered the biosphere as a systemic formation. The significance of this system goes beyond the purely earthly world, which represents a link on a cosmic scale.

Age of the Earth

In 1896, the phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered, which led to the development of radiometric dating methods. Its essence is as follows. The atoms of some elements (uranium, radium, thorium, etc.) do not remain constant. The original, called mother element, spontaneously disintegrates, turning into a stable daughter. For example, uranium-238, when decaying, turns into lead-206, and potassium-40 into argon-40. By measuring the number of parent and daughter elements in a mineral, it is possible to calculate the time that has passed since its formation: the higher the percentage of daughter elements, the older the mineral.

According to radiometric dating, the oldest minerals on Earth are 3.96 billion years old, and the oldest single crystals are 4.3 billion years old. Scientists believe that the Earth itself is older, because radiometric counting is carried out from the moment of crystallization of minerals, and the planet existed in a molten state. These data, coupled with the results of studies of lead isotopes in meteorites, lead to the conclusion that the entire solar system was formed approximately 4.55 billion years ago.

Origin of continents.

Evolution of the Earth's crust: tectonics of lithospheric plates

In 1915, the German geophysicist A. Wegener (1880-1930) suggested, based on the outlines of the continents, that during the geological period there was a single land mass, which he called Pangea(Greek: “all the earth”). Pangea split into Laurasia and Gondwana. 135 million years ago Africa separated from South America, and 85 million years ago North America - from Europe; 40 million years ago, the Indian continent collided with Asia and Tibet and the Himalayas appeared.

The decisive argument in favor of the adoption of this concept was the empirical discovery in the 50s of the 20th century of the expansion of the ocean floor, which served as the starting point for the creation of lithospheric plate tectonics. It is currently believed that the continents are moving apart under the influence of deep convective currents directed upward and laterally, pulling the plates on which the continents float. This theory is also confirmed by biological data on the distribution of animals on our planet. The theory of continental drift, based on plate tectonics, is now generally accepted in geology.

Also supporting this theory is that the coastline of eastern South America strikingly coincides with the coastline of western Africa, and the coastline of eastern North America with the coastline of western Europe.

One of the modern theories explaining the dynamics of processes in the earth's crust is called theory of neomobilism. Its origins date back to the late 60s of the 20th century. and was caused by the sensational discovery at the bottom of the ocean of a chain of mountain ranges entwining the globe. There is nothing like it on land. The Alps, Caucasus, Pamirs, Himalayas, even taken together, are incomparable with the discovered strip of the middle ridges of the World Ocean. Its length exceeds 72 thousand km.

Humanity seemed to have discovered a previously unknown planet. The presence of narrow depressions and large basins, deep gorges stretching almost continuously along the axis of the median ridges, thousands of mountains, underwater earthquakes, active volcanoes, strong magnetic, gravitational and thermal anomalies, hot deep-sea springs, colossal accumulations of ferromanganese nodules - all this was discovered in a short period time at the bottom of the ocean.

As it turned out, the oceanic crust is characterized by constant renewal. It originates at the bottom of the rift, cutting the median ridges along the axis. The ridges themselves are from the same font and are also young. Oceanic crust “dies” at fracture sites – where it moves under neighboring plates. Sinking deep into the planet, into the mantle and melting, it manages to give up part of itself, along with the sediments accumulated on it, for the construction of the continental crust. The density stratification of the Earth's interior gives rise to a kind of flow in the mantle. These currents provide material for the growth of the ocean floor. They also cause global plates with continents protruding from the World Ocean to drift. The drift of large plates of the lithosphere with land rising on them is called neomobilism.

The movement of continents has now been confirmed by observations from spacecraft. Researchers saw the birth of the ocean crust with their own eyes, approaching the bottom of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, and the Red Sea. Using modern deep-sea diving techniques, aquanauts discovered the formation of cracks in the stretched bottom and young volcanoes rising from such “cracks.”

2. Difference between the Earth and other terrestrial planets

The terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are similar in size and chemical composition. The average density of their substance is from 5.52 to 3.97 g/cm3. Characteristic feature of all terrestrial planets - the presence of a solid lithosphere. The relief of their surface was formed as a result of the action of external (impacts of bodies falling on planets at enormous speeds) and internal ( tectonic movements and volcanic phenomena) factors. Also, all terrestrial planets except Mercury have an atmosphere. Earth is different from other terrestrial planets high degree chemical differentiation of matter and widespread granites in the crust, as well as the presence of an atmosphere suitable for life.

The atmospheres of Mars and Venus are very similar in composition to each other, but at the same time they differ significantly from the earth's. To explain the reasons for this difference, we have to turn to the consideration of evolutionary changes that occur over long periods of years. It is believed that the atmosphere of Mars and Venus has largely retained the composition that Earth once had. Over millions of years, the Earth's atmosphere has significantly reduced the content of carbon dioxide and enriched itself with oxygen due to the dissolution of carbon dioxide in the waters of the World Ocean, which apparently never froze, and due to the release of oxygen by vegetation that appeared on Earth. On Venus and Mars, these processes could not occur due to simple reasons- lack of hydrosphere and vegetation. Modern studies of the carbon dioxide cycle on our planet show that only the presence of the hydrosphere can ensure the conservation temperature regime within the limits necessary for the existence of living organisms.

MERCURY is a planet, the average distance from the Sun is 0.387 astronomical units (58 million km), the orbital period is 88 days, the rotation period is 58.6 days, the average diameter is 4878 km, the mass is 3.3 1023 kg, the extremely rarefied atmosphere includes: Ar, Ne, He. Surface of Mercury appearance similar to the moon.

VENUS is a planet, the average distance from the Sun is 0.72 a. e., orbital period 224.7 days, rotation 243 days, average radius 6050 km, mass 4.9. 10 24 kg. Atmosphere: CO 2 (97%), N 2 (approx. 3%), H 2 O (0.05%), impurities CO, SO 2, HCl, HF. Surface temperature approx. 750 K, pressure approx. 10 7 Pa, or 100 at. Mountains, craters, and rocks have been discovered on the surface of Venus. The surface rocks of Venus are similar in composition to terrestrial sedimentary rocks.

EARTH is the third major planet in the solar system from the sun. Thanks to its unique, perhaps unique in the Universe natural conditions, became the place where it arose and developed organic life.

MARS is a planet, the average distance from the Sun is 228 million km, the orbital period is 687 days, the rotation period is 24.5 hours, the average diameter is 6780 km, the mass is 6.4 * 1023 kg; 2 natural satellites - Phobos and Deimos. Atmospheric composition: CO2 (>95%), N2 (2.5%), Ar (1.5-2%), CO (0.06%), H2O (up to 0.1%); surface pressure 5-7 hPa. Areas of the surface of Mars covered with craters are similar to the lunar continent. Significant scientific material about Mars has been obtained with the help of spacecraft"Mariner", "Mars", "Spirit", "Opportunity".

3. Methods for determining the internal structure and age of the Earth

Methods for studying the internal structure and composition of the Earth can be divided into two main groups: geological methods and geophysical methods. Geological methods are based on the results of direct study of rock strata in outcrops, mine workings (mines, adits, etc.) and wells. At the same time, researchers have at their disposal the entire arsenal of methods for studying structure and composition, which determines the high degree of detail of the results obtained. At the same time, the capabilities of these methods in studying the depths of the planet are very limited - the deepest well in the world has a depth of only -12262 m (Kola Superdeep in Russia), even smaller depths are achieved when drilling the ocean floor (about -1500 m, drilling from the board of the American research vessel Glomar Challenger). Thus, depths not exceeding 0.19% of the radius of the planet are available for direct study.

Information about the deep structure is based on the analysis of indirect data obtained geologically by physical methods, mainly the patterns of changes with depth in various physical parameters (electrical conductivity, mechanical quality factor, etc.) measured during geophysical research. The development of models of the internal structure of the Earth is based primarily on the results of seismic research, based on data on the patterns of propagation of seismic waves. At the source of earthquakes and powerful explosions, seismic waves—elastic vibrations—emerge. These waves are divided into volume waves - propagating in the bowels of the planet and “transparent” them like x-rays, and surface - spreading parallel to the surface and “probing” the upper layers of the planet to a depth of tens - hundreds of kilometers.

Methods for determining the internal age of the Earth

After the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity at the end of the 19th century by the French physicist Henri Becquerel and the establishment of laws radioactive decay Another way to determine the absolute age of geological objects has appeared. Radioisotope methods soon, if not replaced, then significantly replaced other dating methods. Firstly, they seem to provide an opportunity absolute definition age, and, secondly, they gave a very large age of rocks of the order of billions of years, which suited the evolutionists.

Let us consider the essence of the radioisotope dating method. Radioactive decay is like an hourglass: by the ratio of the number of atoms of the element resulting from the decay to the number of atoms of the decaying element, it is possible to determine the duration of the decay process. It is believed that the rate of decomposition is a constant value and does not depend on temperature, pressure, chemical reactions and other external influences. The most commonly used methods are those based on reactions of transformation of atomic nuclei. The decay process occurs in several stages, from uranium to lead, there are 14 of them and leads to the formation of the stable isotope Pb206. It is clear that the greater the ratio of the number of Pb206 atoms to the number of U238 atoms, the older the sample should be, but one must take into account the possibility of Pb206 contamination of the original rock with lead.

Or “episodes”). At first, the “excursions” were considered simply errors in paleomagnetic data, but as relevant information accumulated, it turned out that this was a real phenomenon that occurred many times in the history of the Earth. “Excursions” are very short changes in the magnetic field on a geological time scale - shorter than 10 thousand years. In this case, a sharp, almost instantaneous change occurs...

Terms ancient earth and is considered by Oparin as a natural result of the chemical evolution of carbon compounds in the Universe. According to Oparin, the process that led to the emergence of life on Earth can be divided into three stages: 1. Emergence organic matter. 2. Formation of biopolymers (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.) from simpler organic substances. 3. ...

Which is associated with the formation and evolution of planets, with the possibility of life on them. When studying planets, the main attention is paid to the search for water on the surface of planets, since it is believed that it is in water that life begins. As can be seen from the above materials, the search for extraterrestrial life does not occupy a particularly important place in modern astronomy. Without receiving any results, the SETI project ...

The textbook “Natural Science”, grade 5, edited by T.S., became such a unifying idea. Sukhova, V.N. Stroganov. The concept of the textbook: Formation in students of concepts and ideas about the integrity and systematicity of the material world is one of the most complex tasks science education. Main problem- how to reveal the most complex foundations of natural science, which have...

Earth is like a planet. Its difference from other planets

Earth (lat. Terra) is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, the largest in diameter, mass and density among the terrestrial planets.

Most often referred to as Earth, planet Earth, World. The only thing known to man on at the moment the body of the Solar System in particular and the Universe in general, inhabited by living beings.

Scientific evidence indicates that the Earth formed from the Solar Nebula about 4.54 billion years ago, and acquired its only natural satellite- The moon. Life appeared on Earth about 3.5 billion years ago. Since then, the Earth's biosphere has significantly changed the atmosphere and other abiotic factors, causing a quantitative increase in aerobic organisms, as well as the formation of the ozone layer, which, together with the Earth's magnetic field, weakens harmful solar radiation, thereby maintaining conditions for life on Earth. The Earth's crust is divided into several segments, or tectonic plates, that gradually migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. Approximately 70.8% of the planet's surface is occupied by the World Ocean, the rest of the surface is occupied by continents and islands. Liquid water, essential for all known life forms, does not exist on the surface of any known planets or planetoids in the Solar System. The Earth's interior is quite active and consists of a thick, relatively solid layer called the mantle, which covers a liquid outer core (which is the source of the Earth's magnetic field) and an inner solid iron core.

The Earth interacts (is pulled by gravitational forces) with other objects in space, including the Sun and Moon. The Earth revolves around the Sun and makes circles around it full turn in approximately 365.26 days. This period of time is a sidereal year, which is equal to 365.26 solar days. The Earth's rotation axis is tilted 23.4° relative to its orbital plane, which causes seasonal changes on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). The Moon began its orbit around the Earth approximately 4.53 billion years ago, which stabilized the planet's axial tilt and is responsible for the tides that slow the Earth's rotation. Some theories suggest that asteroid impacts caused significant changes V environment and the Earth's surface, in particular mass extinctions various types living beings.

Earth is more than 14 times less massive than the least massive gas planet, Uranus, but is about 400 times more massive than the largest known Kuiper Belt object.

Terrestrial planets consist mainly of oxygen, silicon, iron, magnesium, aluminum and other heavy elements.

All terrestrial planets have the following structure:

In the center is a core of iron mixed with nickel.

The mantle consists of silicates.

Crust formed as a result of partial melting of the mantle and also consisting of silicate rocks, but enriched in incompatible elements. Of the terrestrial planets, Mercury does not have a crust, which is explained by its destruction as a result of meteorite bombardment. The Earth differs from other terrestrial planets in the high degree of chemical differentiation of matter and the wide distribution of granites in the crust.

The two outermost terrestrial planets (Earth and Mars) have satellites and (unlike all giant planets) neither of them has rings.

Internal structure of the Earth (inner and outer core, mantle, crust) following methods (seismic exploration)

The Earth, like other terrestrial planets, has a layered internal structure. It consists of hard silicate shells (crust, extremely viscous mantle), and a metallic core. The outer part of the core is liquid (much less viscous than the mantle), and the inner part is solid. Geological layers of the Earth in depth from the surface:

The planet's internal heat is most likely provided by the radioactive decay of the isotopes potassium-40, uranium-238 and thorium-232. All three elements have half-lives of more than a billion years. At the planet's center, temperatures may rise to 7,000 K and pressures may reach 360 GPa (3.6 million atm). Part of the thermal energy of the core is transferred to the earth's crust through plumes. Plumes lead to the appearance of hot spots and traps.

Earth's crust

The earth's crust is upper part solid ground. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities - the Mohorovicic boundary. There are two types of crust - continental and oceanic. The thickness of the crust ranges from 6 km under the ocean to 30-50 km on the continents. In the structure of the continental crust, three geological layers are distinguished: sedimentary cover, granite and basalt. The oceanic crust is composed predominantly of basic rocks, plus sedimentary cover. The earth's crust is divided into lithospheric plates of different sizes, moving relative to each other. The kinematics of these movements is described by plate tectonics.

Mantle- this is the silicate shell of the Earth, composed mainly of peridotites - rocks consisting of silicates of magnesium, iron, calcium, etc. Partial melting of mantle rocks gives rise to basaltic and similar melts, which form when rising to the surface earth's crust.

The mantle makes up 67% of the Earth's total mass and about 83% of the Earth's total volume. It extends from depths of 5-70 kilometers below the boundary with the earth's crust, to the boundary with the core at a depth of 2900 km. The mantle is located in a huge range of depths, and with increasing pressure in the substance, phase transitions occur, during which minerals acquire an increasingly dense structure. The most significant transformation occurs at a depth of 660 kilometers. The thermodynamics of this phase transition are such that mantle matter below this boundary cannot penetrate through it, and vice versa. Above the boundary of 660 kilometers is the upper mantle, and below, accordingly, the lower mantle. These two parts of the mantle have different compositions and physical properties. Although information about the composition of the lower mantle is limited, and the number of direct data is very small, it can be confidently stated that its composition has changed significantly less since the formation of the Earth than the upper mantle, which gave rise to the earth's crust.

Heat transfer in the mantle occurs by slow convection, through plastic deformation of minerals. The speed of movement of matter during mantle convection is on the order of several centimeters per year. This convection sets the lithospheric plates in motion (see plate tectonics). Convection in the upper mantle occurs separately. There are models that assume an even more complex structure of convection.

Earth's core

The core is the central, deepest part of the Earth, the geosphere, located under the mantle and, presumably, consisting of an iron-nickel alloy with an admixture of other siderophile elements. Depth of occurrence - 2900 km. The average radius of the sphere is 3.5 thousand km. It is divided into a solid inner core with a radius of about 1300 km and a liquid outer core with a radius of about 2200 km, between which a transition zone is sometimes distinguished. The temperature in the center of the Earth's core reaches 5000 C, density is about 12.5 t/m³, pressure up to 361 GPa. Core mass - 1.932×1024 kg.

Seismic exploration- a geophysical method of studying the structure and composition of the earth's crust using artificially excited elastic waves. The main characteristic of an elastic wave is its speed - a value determined by density, porosity, fracturing, depth and mineral composition rocks. The difference in elastic properties between geological layers determines the presence of boundaries in the section that reflect and refract elastic waves. Secondary waves formed at the interfaces reach the observation surface, where they are recorded and converted for ease of interpretation.

Methods for determining the age of the earth and the Universe

Studying the past of our earth and the universe through the centuries using physical methods, some scientists estimate its age at billions of years, although there is huge amount facts that refute this statement. Let's take a closer look at this issue.

After the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity by the French physicist Henri Becquerel at the end of the 19th century and the establishment of the laws of radioactive decay, another way to determine the absolute age of geological objects appeared. Radioisotope methods soon, if not replaced, then significantly replaced other dating methods. Firstly, they seemed to provide the possibility of an absolute determination of age, and, secondly, they gave a very large age of rocks of the order of billions of years, which suited evolutionists.

Let us consider the essence of the radioisotope dating method. Radioactive decay is like an hourglass: by the ratio of the number of atoms of the element resulting from the decay to the number of atoms of the decaying element, it is possible to determine the duration of the decay process. It is believed that the rate of decomposition is a constant value and does not depend on temperature, pressure, chemical reactions and other external influences. The most commonly used methods are based on argon®Pb), potassium ®lead (U®on the reactions of transformation of atomic nuclei: uranium Sr) and the radiocarbon dating method.® strontium (Rb®Ar), rubidium ®(K

Pb) is used to determine® lead (U ®Radioisotope method uranium 4.51 ~ the age of decay of nuclei of the uranium isotope U238 with a half-life of billions of years. The decay process occurs in several stages, from uranium to lead there are 14 of them:

® a Rn222 + ® a Ra226 + ® a Th230 + ® b U234 + ® b Pr234 + ® a Th234 + ®U238 Po210® b Bi210 + ® a Pb210 + ® b Po214 + ® b Bi214 + ® a Pb 214 + ® aPo218 +. and leads to the formation of the stable isotope Pb206. It is clear thata Pb206 + ® b+ the greater the ratio of the number of Pb206 atoms to the number of U238 atoms, the older the sample should be, but one must take into account the possibility of lead contamination of the original rock with Pb206.

For radioisotope dating, rocks like granites, which were formed by crystallization of a liquid, are selected. Such a rock can be dated and may be useful in determining the age of associated sedimentary rock or fossils within it. For example, during crystallization of zircon (ZrSiO4), atoms of the uranium isotope U238 can crystal lattice replace zirconium atoms. Then the U238 atoms decay, eventually turning into lead Pb206. It is clear that for correct dating it is necessary to know the initial content of the lead isotope Pb206 in the rock. It can be taken into account by assuming that the ratio of the concentrations of the isotopes Pb206 and Pb204 in zircon and the surrounding rocks that do not contain uranium is the same. Then, by the excess of the lead isotope Pb206 in zircon relative to the surrounding rock (only this lead isotope is obtained from uranium), one can determine its proportion obtained from uranium. Further, the assumption is made that there was no contamination of the samples with lead, for example, from groundwater or car exhaust, nor was there any leaching of uranium, and the age of the zircon crystals is determined from the ratio of the concentrations of the Pb206 and U238 isotopes. The above example shows how scrupulous the chemical analysis of rocks must be, what assumptions are made, and we will leave it to the reader to judge the reality of their implementation.

Ar) is important because uranium®-containing argon (K ®Radioisotope method potassium minerals are rare, but potassium-containing minerals are common. The method is based on the fact that Ar40, turning into nuclei®-decay K40bthat nuclei of the potassium isotope K40 experience argon (half-life is 1.31 billion years). The main disadvantage of this method is the penetration of argon into the rocks from the atmosphere (and it is about 1% in the atmosphere), which they try to take into account by the ratio of the concentrations of the atoms of the two argon isotopes Ar40 / Ar36 present in the atmosphere. However, argon gives plausible ones. ®not always dating using the potassium method results: when analyzing lava from the Hawaiian Islands, the age of which was known Ar, an age of 22 million years was obtained?!®and was 200 years old, according to the K method (apparently due to excess pressure underwater lavas contain more argon). error sources taken into account. Note that the potassium-argon dating method assumes a constant ratio of concentrations of argon isotopes Ar40/Ar36 in the atmosphere over billions of years, which is unlikely, because The isotope Ar36 is formed in the atmosphere under the influence of cosmic radiation.

A common feature of the radioisotope dating methods listed above is the close values ​​of the half-lives of the isotopes used, several billion years, and the age of geological rocks corresponding to these periods. In many ways, the methods themselves determine the age obtained with their help, since these methods cannot give another age, for example, about thousands of years, just as it is impossible to determine the weight on scales for weighing carriages and cars wedding ring or use them for pharmacological needs.

One should not particularly trust the consistency of the results obtained by various radioisotope methods: they are all based on the same assumptions, many of which have long been proven to be untenable. The main assumptions are:

1. The origin of the Earth in accordance with Laplace's nebular hypothesis. Laplace's hypothesis has not stood the test of time. However, for geology, the Laplace model has not been canceled today.

2. Pyrogenic (solidification of liquid) or metamorphic (crystallization of sedimentary rock) formation of crystals.

3. Closedness of the crystal after its formation.

4. Assumptions about half-lives and constancy percentage between isotopes at all times.

The last assumption is extrapolation on a gigantic time scale, since the decay of nuclei is observed for only about a hundred years, and conclusions about the constancy of characteristics are generalized over billions of years, i.e. for a period of time 107 times longer. For some reason, most people are indifferent to such procedures; apparently, they have the illusion that we know our past well, but we cannot agree with this when we're talking about about geological times. Many simply do not realize what a billion is (after all, there are apparently no billionaires among the readers), and how it differs from a million. To make it easier to understand what times go by speech, comparable to the age of the Earth at 5.6 billion years one week. Then the Trojan War, one of the first events recorded in writing in Homer's poems, took place less than a second ago.

In addition, the independence of the half-life from external conditions does not cover everything possible cases- after all, when irradiated, for example by neutrons, the rate of decay of nuclei can become arbitrarily high, which is realized in an atomic bomb and atomic reactors. Therefore, in many ways, the assumption of a constant decay rate is an act of faith, which most of the scientific community does not want to admit, convincing the few initiated, including with such terms as “decay constant,” so that there is no longer any doubt about the method. Thus, of the four assumptions, two are questionable, as is the uniformitarian concept itself, which has other weaknesses.

The radiocarbon dating method operates over significantly shorter periods of time, corresponding to the handwritten history of mankind (about 4000 years). The carbon method was developed and applied by Willard Libby, who later received a Nobel Prize. There are two isotopes of carbon, stable and unstable, with a half-life of 5700 years. The balance of carbon isotope concentrations is ensured by the cosmic neutron flux in + p. The idea of ​​the method as a result of the n + nuclear reaction occurring in the atmosphere is to compare the concentrations of these two isotopes (for one C14 atom there are 765,000,000,000 C12 atoms). The method is based on the assumption that this ratio has not changed over the past 50,000 years and the concentration of isotopes is the same throughout the atmosphere. After formation, the C14 isotope is almost immediately oxidized to CO2 and is included in the carbon cycle of life: plant leaves, etc. The ratio of C14/C12 isotopes does not change during the life of a plant or animal, and after death the concentration drops in accordance with the law of radioactive decay. Half-life is the time during which the number of atoms of a radioactive isotope decreases by half. Then in two periods it will decrease by four times, in three - by eight, etc. Similar reasoning leads to the general formula: over n half-lives, the number of atoms decreases by a factor of 2n. This formula sets the upper limit of applicability of the radiocarbon method at 50,000 years. Since the development of radiocarbon dating, many fossils have been dated, and none have been found that do not contain the C14 isotope. Those. All fossils were within 50,000 years old, rather than millions or billions of years old as previously thought. However, subsequently the results of carbon dating were censored and facts objectionable to evolutionists were simply hushed up.

Based on a comparison of the production and decay rates of the C14 isotope within the same uniformitarian model, the age of the atmosphere, estimated from today's concentration of the C14 isotope, is limited to approximately 20,000 years.

The relevance of alternative interpretations of the history of the Earth is determined by the presence of many other undeniable scientific facts, which talk about the “young” (not sufficient for evolutionary theory) age of the Earth:

1. Thermonuclear reactions responsible for the generation of solar energy should be accompanied by the release of neutrinos, but in the experiment the intensity of the neutrino background does not agree with the theoretically predicted one. Because of these difficulties, there was renewed interest in the theory of solar compression put forward by Hermann Helmholtz, according to which the age of the Earth cannot be more than 10 million years (compression has been experimentally discovered to be about 0.1% per hundred years). The ideas of cyclic changes in the size of the Sun (as well as cyclic changes in the Earth's magnetic field) do not explain anything and only lead to an open-ended past.

Developing Helmholtz's idea, we will come to the conclusion that the Sun is younger than the Earth. This conclusion is consistent with the Holy Scriptures, but does not suit evolutionists, who insist on the idea of ​​​​the formation of the solar system as a single complex of bodies as a result of the successive transformations of protostars into stars and “isolated” due to random reasons clumps of matter into planets. Moreover, why do some rotate in one direction, and others in the opposite direction (Venus, Uranus), as well as a whole series of “whys” with the same answer - due to random reasons. (Or in violation of physical laws.)

2. It is believed that the slowdown of the Earth's rotation is 0.005 seconds per year, contrary to which, starting from 1980, 1 second per year has been added - an amount 200 times greater. But at such a rate of deceleration of the Earth’s rotation, its possible age should also decrease proportionally.

3. Iron meteorites are extremely rare in sedimentary rocks, which is surprising given their supposed slow formation over millions of years, and it is understandable if they formed in short time local or global flood.

4. From 5 to 14 million tons of meteorite dust settles on the Earth per year, which corresponds to the geological age of the Earth at 4.6 billion. years gives a layer of Fe-Co-Ni powder of 15 m. The question is, where is it? It is not on the Moon either (as the American astronauts were convinced of), where wind and rain could not wash it into the sea.

5. The distance between the Earth and the Moon increases by 4 cm per year, which gives its maximum age 1 billion. years. At the same time, the question of the origin of the Moon hangs in the air, because The age of the Earth is 4.6 billion. years is not subject to correction in the faith of evolutionists.

Truly, if not for the requirements of evolutionary biology and geology, astronomy, freed from its shackles, could develop without regard to the age of the Earth and the objects of the Universe.

6. The weakening of the Earth's magnetic field (the nature of which is not fully known) is 5% per year, which corresponds to a half-attenuation time of 1400 years. Since the Earth's magnetic field must be generated by currents, their circulation is associated with Joule heat, which made life impossible 8,000 - 10,000 years ago. Based on the existence of rocks with reversed magnetization, it is assumed that the Earth’s magnetic field could also assimilate in time. But let us emphasize once again that any assumptions about periodicity similar processes lead to an open-ended past and this is, first of all, an attempt to avoid answering the essence.

7. The Laplace model (cooling of the Earth from a melt state) allowed Lord Kelvin to estimate the upper age of the Earth from heat flows at no more than 400 million years. New calculations using the Kelvin method give an upper age of 20 million years, and taking into account possible nuclear reactions - 45 million years - 100 times less than the age of the Earth accepted by evolutionists.

8. The geological age of the Earth does not agree with the amount of helium in the atmosphere by at least 10 times.

9. Based on the deposits of the Nile silt, it can be concluded that their age is no more than 30,000 years.

10. Estimates of the age of the World Ocean based on the concentration of salts and ions give results with a wide scatter from several thousand to hundreds of million years. For example, based on the amount of salt NaCl in the World Ocean (assuming that it was originally fresh), its age is limited to 100 million years.

11. The Earth's population, estimated at 2.2 children per family per million years, would be 102,070 people (for reference: the number of electrons in the Universe is approximately 1090); they would not fit in the entire Universe, let alone on Earth. The current population of the Earth almost exactly corresponds to the number of offspring from the 4 couples (Noah's family) who survived after Flood which happened 5000 years ago. According to the formula describing the demographic explosion, the population should be: (in “materials for publication)

Where n is the number of generations, x is the number of simultaneously living generations, c is the number of children in the family. The calculation shows that with c = 2.46, x = 3, the number of generations since the flood n = 100, the population at the beginning of the 21st century would have been 4.8 billion. people – which is in perfect agreement with the actual population of the Earth. In addition, over a million years of human existence, a gigantic amount of fossilized remains should have accumulated, but they did not. Thus, the history of mankind of millions and hundreds of thousands of years is not plausible from the point of view of the number of inhabitants of the Earth.

The above numerous facts testify in favor of young lands therefore do not contradict Holy Scripture, but are in agreement with it.

Tectonic platforms

According to plate tectonic theory, the outer part of the Earth consists of two layers: the lithosphere, which includes the Earth's crust, and the solidified upper part of the mantle. Below the Lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which makes up the inner part of the mantle. The asthenosphere behaves like a superheated and extremely viscous liquid.

The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates, and seems to float on the asthenosphere. The plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other. There are three types of their mutual movement: convergence, divergence, and strike-slip movements along transform faults. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and the formation of ocean basins can occur on faults between tectonic plates.

A list of the largest tectonic plates with sizes is given in the table on the right. Smaller plates include the Hindustan, Arabian, Caribbean, Nazca and Scotia plates. The Australian plate actually merged with the Hindustan plate between 50 and 55 million years ago. Ocean plates move the fastest; Thus, the Cocos plate moves at a speed of 75 mm per year, and the Pacific plate moves at a speed of 52-69 mm per year. The lowest speed of the Eurasian plate is 21 mm per year.

Evolution of the earth's crust

The rocks that form the Earth's crust, as we remember, are igneous - primary, formed during the cooling and solidification of magma, and sedimentary - secondary, formed as a result of erosion and accumulation of sediments at the bottom of reservoirs. Sedimentary rocks almost completely cover the land surface, forming - among other things - a significant part of the highest mountain systems. This means that the rock that now makes up the peaks of the Alps or Himalayas was once formed under water, below sea level. Any geologist considers this circumstance completely trivial, but the first awareness of this fact usually amazes a person.

Evolution of the earth

According to modern cosmogonic concepts, the Earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago by gravitational condensation from cold gas and dust matter scattered in the circumsolar space, containing all the chemical elements known in nature.

The fall of large clumps of matter caused the heating of the proto-Earth and its stratification. Heavy iron-containing rocks sank deeper, forming a core over several hundred million years, while light rocky rocks formed the crust. Gravitational compression and radioactive decay further heated the interior of our planet.

Due to the decrease in temperature from the center of the Earth to the surface, pockets of tension arose at the boundary with the crust. Their results to this day are earthquakes and continental drift.

The atmosphere and hydrosphere emerged from the depths of our planet, since water and gases were part of the earth's rocks. Oxygen appeared in the atmosphere from water as a result of photodissociation, and subsequently due to photosynthesis.

In 1912, by comparing the coastlines of Africa and South America, German scientist Alfred Wegener put forward the hypothesis of continental drift. It was confirmed by studies of the ocean floor and the magnetic properties of lava flows on the surface. There have also been 16 recorded magnetic pole reversals from north to south and back again over the past ten million years.

In 1960, American geologist Harry Hess proposed that hot mantle rises beneath mid-ocean ridges and spreads away from them, tearing and pushing lithospheric plates apart. The mantle material fills the resulting cracks - rifts. The “destruction” of areas of the Earth’s surface most likely occurs near ocean trenches.

It is now believed that 300–200 million years ago there was a single supercontinent called Pangea. Then it broke up into parts that formed the current continents.

Further cooling of the Earth will lead to the cessation of tectonic activity. Erosion will erase the mountains, and the surface of the Earth will become flat and covered by the ocean. Due to the increase in luminosity of the Sun, in the distant future the ocean will evaporate, revealing a flat, lifeless desert.

Earth is like a planet. Its difference from other planets

Earth (lat. Terra) is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, the largest in diameter, mass and density among the terrestrial planets.

Most often referred to as Earth, planet Earth, World. The only body currently known to man, the Solar System in particular and the Universe in general, inhabited by living beings.

Scientific evidence indicates that the Earth formed from the Solar Nebula about 4.54 billion years ago, and shortly thereafter acquired its only natural satellite, the Moon. Life appeared on Earth about 3.5 billion years ago. Since then, the Earth's biosphere has significantly changed the atmosphere and other abiotic factors, causing the quantitative growth of aerobic organisms, as well as the formation of the ozone layer, which, together with the Earth's magnetic field, weakens harmful solar radiation, thereby maintaining conditions for life on Earth. The Earth's crust is divided into several segments, or tectonic plates, that gradually migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. Approximately 70.8% of the planet's surface is occupied by the World Ocean, the rest of the surface is occupied by continents and islands. Liquid water, essential for all known life forms, does not exist on the surface of any known planets or planetoids in the Solar System. The Earth's interior is quite active and consists of a thick, relatively solid layer called the mantle, which covers a liquid outer core (which is the source of the Earth's magnetic field) and an inner solid iron core.

The Earth interacts (is pulled by gravitational forces) with other objects in space, including the Sun and Moon. The Earth orbits the Sun and makes a complete revolution around it in approximately 365.26 days. This period of time is a sidereal year, which is equal to 365.26 solar days. The Earth's rotation axis is tilted 23.4° relative to its orbital plane, which causes seasonal changes on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). The Moon began its orbit around the Earth approximately 4.53 billion years ago, which stabilized the planet's axial tilt and is responsible for the tides that slow the Earth's rotation. Some theories suggest that asteroid impacts led to significant changes in the environment and the surface of the Earth, in particular, mass extinctions of various species of living beings.

Earth is more than 14 times less massive than the least massive gas planet, Uranus, but is about 400 times more massive than the largest known Kuiper Belt object.

Terrestrial planets consist mainly of oxygen, silicon, iron, magnesium, aluminum and other heavy elements.

All terrestrial planets have the following structure:

in the center is a core of iron mixed with nickel.

the mantle consists of silicates.

crust formed as a result of partial melting of the mantle and also consisting of silicate rocks, but enriched in incompatible elements. Of the terrestrial planets, Mercury does not have a crust, which is explained by its destruction as a result of meteorite bombardment. The Earth differs from other terrestrial planets in the high degree of chemical differentiation of matter and the wide distribution of granites in the crust.

The two outermost terrestrial planets (Earth and Mars) have satellites and (unlike all giant planets) neither of them has rings.

Internal structure of the Earth (inner and outer core, mantle, crust) following methods (seismic exploration)

The Earth, like other terrestrial planets, has a layered internal structure. It consists of hard silicate shells (crust, extremely viscous mantle), and a metallic core. The outer part of the core is liquid (much less viscous than the mantle), and the inner part is solid. Geological layers of the Earth in depth from the surface:

The planet's internal heat is most likely provided by the radioactive decay of the isotopes potassium-40, uranium-238 and thorium-232. All three elements have half-lives of more than a billion years. At the planet's center, temperatures may rise to 7,000 K and pressures may reach 360 GPa (3.6 million atm). Part of the thermal energy of the core is transferred to the earth's crust through plumes. Plumes lead to the appearance of hot spots and traps.

Earth's crust

The earth's crust is the upper part of solid earth. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities - the Mohorovicic boundary. There are two types of crust - continental and oceanic. The thickness of the crust ranges from 6 km under the ocean to 30-50 km on the continents. In the structure of the continental crust, three geological layers are distinguished: sedimentary cover, granite and basalt. The oceanic crust is composed predominantly of basic rocks, plus sedimentary cover. The earth's crust is divided into lithospheric plates of different sizes, moving relative to each other. The kinematics of these movements is described by plate tectonics.

Mantle- this is the silicate shell of the Earth, composed mainly of peridotites - rocks consisting of silicates of magnesium, iron, calcium, etc. Partial melting of mantle rocks gives rise to basalt and similar melts, which form the earth’s crust when rising to the surface.

The mantle makes up 67% of the Earth's total mass and about 83% of the Earth's total volume. It extends from depths of 5-70 kilometers below the boundary with the earth's crust, to the boundary with the core at a depth of 2900 km. The mantle is located in a huge range of depths, and with increasing pressure in the substance, phase transitions occur, during which minerals acquire an increasingly dense structure. The most significant transformation occurs at a depth of 660 kilometers. The thermodynamics of this phase transition are such that mantle matter below this boundary cannot penetrate through it, and vice versa. Above the boundary of 660 kilometers is the upper mantle, and below, accordingly, the lower mantle. These two parts of the mantle have different compositions and physical properties. Although information about the composition of the lower mantle is limited, and the number of direct data is very small, it can be confidently stated that its composition has changed significantly less since the formation of the Earth than the upper mantle, which gave rise to the earth's crust.

Heat transfer in the mantle occurs by slow convection, through plastic deformation of minerals. The speed of movement of matter during mantle convection is on the order of several centimeters per year. This convection sets the lithospheric plates in motion (see plate tectonics). Convection in the upper mantle occurs separately. There are models that assume an even more complex structure of convection.

Earth's core

The core is the central, deepest part of the Earth, the geosphere, located under the mantle and, presumably, consisting of an iron-nickel alloy with an admixture of other siderophile elements. Depth of occurrence - 2900 km. The average radius of the sphere is 3.5 thousand km. It is divided into a solid inner core with a radius of about 1300 km and a liquid outer core with a radius of about 2200 km, between which a transition zone is sometimes distinguished. The temperature in the center of the Earth's core reaches 5000 C, the density is about 12.5 t/m³, and the pressure is up to 361 GPa. Core mass - 1.932×1024 kg.

Seismic exploration- a geophysical method of studying the structure and composition of the earth's crust using artificially excited elastic waves. The main characteristic of an elastic wave is its speed - a value determined by the density, porosity, fracturing, depth and mineral composition of rocks. The difference in elastic properties between geological layers determines the presence of boundaries in the section that reflect and refract elastic waves. Secondary waves formed at the interfaces reach the observation surface, where they are recorded and converted for ease of interpretation.

Methods for determining the age of the earth and the Universe

Studying the past of our earth and the universe through the centuries using physical methods, some scientists estimate its age at billions of years, although there are a huge number of facts that refute this statement. Let's take a closer look at this issue.

After the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity by the French physicist Henri Becquerel at the end of the 19th century and the establishment of the laws of radioactive decay, another way to determine the absolute age of geological objects appeared. Radioisotope methods soon, if not replaced, then significantly replaced other dating methods. Firstly, they seemed to provide the possibility of an absolute determination of age, and, secondly, they gave a very large age of rocks of the order of billions of years, which suited evolutionists.

Let us consider the essence of the radioisotope dating method. Radioactive decay is like an hourglass: by the ratio of the number of atoms of the element resulting from the decay to the number of atoms of the decaying element, it is possible to determine the duration of the decay process. It is believed that the rate of decomposition is a constant value and does not depend on temperature, pressure, chemical reactions and other external influences. The most commonly used methods are those based on argon®Pb), potassium ®lead (U®on the reactions of transformation of atomic nuclei: uranium Sr) and the radiocarbon dating method.® strontium (Rb®Ar), rubidium ®(K

Pb) is used to determine® lead (U ®Radioisotope method uranium 4.51 ~ the age of decay of nuclei of the uranium isotope U238 with a half-life of billions of years. The decay process occurs in several stages, from uranium to lead there are 14 of them:

® a Rn222 + ® a Ra226 + ® a TH330 + ® b U234 + ® b Pr234 + ® a TH334 + ®U238 Po210® b Bi210 + ® a Pb210 + ® b Po214 + ® b Bi214 + ® a Pb 214 + ® aPo218 + . and leads to the formation of the stable isotope Pb206. It is clear thata Pb206 + ® b+ the greater the ratio of the number of Pb206 atoms to the number of U238 atoms, the older the sample should be, but one must take into account the possibility of lead contamination of the original rock by Pb206.

For radioisotope dating, rocks like granites, which were formed by crystallization of a liquid, are selected. Such a rock can be dated and may be useful in determining the age of associated sedimentary rock or fossils within it. For example, during crystallization of zircon (ZrSiO4), atoms of the uranium isotope U238 can replace zirconium atoms in the crystal lattice. Then the U238 atoms decay, eventually turning into lead Pb206. It is clear that for correct dating it is necessary to know the initial content of the lead isotope Pb206 in the rock. It can be taken into account by assuming that the ratio of the concentrations of the isotopes Pb206 and Pb204 in zircon and the surrounding rocks that do not contain uranium is the same. Then, by the excess of the lead isotope Pb206 in zircon relative to the surrounding rock (only this lead isotope is obtained from uranium), one can determine its proportion obtained from uranium. Further, the assumption is made that there was no contamination of the samples with lead, for example, from groundwater or car exhaust, nor was there any leaching of uranium, and the age of the zircon crystals is determined from the ratio of the concentrations of the Pb206 and U238 isotopes. The above example shows how scrupulous the chemical analysis of rocks must be, what assumptions are made, and we will leave it to the reader to judge the reality of their implementation.

Ar) is important because uranium®-containing argon (K ®Radioisotope method potassium minerals are rare, but potassium-containing minerals are common. The method is based on the fact that Ar40, turning into nuclei®-decay K40bthat nuclei of the potassium isotope K40 experience argon (half-life is 1.31 billion years). The main disadvantage of this method is the penetration of argon into the rocks from the atmosphere (and it is about 1% in the atmosphere), which they try to take into account by the ratio of the concentrations of the atoms of the two argon isotopes Ar40 / Ar36 present in the atmosphere. However, argon gives plausible ones. ®not always dating using the potassium method results: when analyzing lava from the Hawaiian Islands, the age of which was known Ar, an age of 22 million years was obtained?!®and was 200 years old, according to the K method (apparently due to excess pressure underwater lavas contain more argon). error sources taken into account. Note that the potassium-argon dating method assumes a constant ratio of concentrations of argon isotopes Ar40/Ar36 in the atmosphere over billions of years, which is unlikely, because The isotope Ar36 is formed in the atmosphere under the influence of cosmic radiation.

A common feature of the radioisotope dating methods listed above is the close values ​​of the half-lives of the isotopes used, several billion years, and the age of geological rocks corresponding to these periods. In many ways, the methods themselves determine the age obtained with their help, since these methods cannot give another age, for example, about thousands of years, just as on scales for weighing carriages and cars, it is impossible to determine the weight of a wedding ring or use them for needs pharmacology.

One should not particularly trust the consistency of the results obtained by various radioisotope methods: they are all based on the same assumptions, many of which have long been proven to be untenable. The main assumptions are:

1. The origin of the Earth in accordance with Laplace's nebular hypothesis. Laplace's hypothesis has not stood the test of time. However, for geology, the Laplace model has not been canceled today.

2. Pyrogenic (solidification of liquid) or metamorphic (crystallization of sedimentary rock) formation of crystals.

3. Closedness of the crystal after its formation.

4. Assumptions about the invariance of half-lives and the constancy of the percentage ratio between isotopes at all times.

The last assumption is extrapolation on a gigantic time scale, since the decay of nuclei is observed for only about a hundred years, and conclusions about the constancy of characteristics are generalized over billions of years, i.e. for a period of time 107 times longer. For some reason, most people are indifferent to such procedures; apparently, they have the illusion that we know our past well, but we cannot agree with this when it comes to geological times. Many simply do not realize what a billion is (after all, there are apparently no billionaires among the readers), and how it differs from a million. To make it easier to understand what times we are talking about, let’s compare the age of the Earth at 5.6 billion years to one week. Then the Trojan War, one of the first events recorded in writing in Homer's poems, took place less than a second ago.

In addition, the independence of the half-life from external conditions does not cover all possible cases - after all, when irradiated, for example by neutrons, the decay rate of nuclei can become arbitrarily high, which is realized in an atomic bomb and nuclear reactors. Therefore, in many ways, the assumption of a constant decay rate is an act of faith, which most of the scientific community does not want to admit, convincing the few initiated, including with such terms as “decay constant,” so that there is no longer any doubt about the method. Thus, of the four assumptions, two are questionable, as is the uniformitarian concept itself, which has other weaknesses.

The radiocarbon dating method operates over significantly shorter periods of time, corresponding to the handwritten history of mankind (about 4000 years). The carbon method was developed and applied by Willard Libby, who later received the Nobel Prize for this. There are two isotopes of carbon, stable and unstable, with a half-life of 5700 years. The balance of carbon isotope concentrations is ensured by the cosmic neutron flux in + p. The idea of ​​the method as a result of the n + nuclear reaction occurring in the atmosphere is to compare the concentrations of these two isotopes (for one C14 atom there are 765,000,000,000 C12 atoms). The method is based on the assumption that this ratio has not changed over the past 50,000 years and the concentration of isotopes is the same throughout the atmosphere. After formation, the C14 isotope is almost immediately oxidized to CO2 and is included in the carbon cycle of life: plant leaves, etc. The ratio of C14/C12 isotopes does not change during the life of a plant or animal, and after death the concentration drops in accordance with the law of radioactive decay. Half-life is the time during which the number of atoms of a radioactive isotope decreases by half. Then in two periods it will decrease by four times, in three - by eight, etc. Similar reasoning leads to the general formula: over n half-lives, the number of atoms decreases by a factor of 2n. This formula sets the upper limit of applicability of the radiocarbon method at 50,000 years. Since the development of radiocarbon dating, many fossils have been dated, and none have been found that do not contain the C14 isotope. Those. All fossils were within 50,000 years old, rather than millions or billions of years old as previously thought. However, subsequently the results of carbon dating were censored and facts objectionable to evolutionists were simply hushed up.

Based on a comparison of the production and decay rates of the C14 isotope within the same uniformitarian model, the age of the atmosphere, estimated from today's concentration of the C14 isotope, is limited to approximately 20,000 years.

The relevance of alternative interpretations of the history of the Earth is determined by the presence of many other indisputable scientific facts that speak of the “young” (not sufficient for evolutionary theory) age of the Earth:

1. Thermonuclear reactions responsible for the generation of solar energy should be accompanied by the release of neutrinos, but in the experiment the intensity of the neutrino background does not agree with the theoretically predicted one. Because of these difficulties, there was renewed interest in the theory of solar compression put forward by Hermann Helmholtz, according to which the age of the Earth cannot be more than 10 million years (compression has been experimentally discovered to be about 0.1% per hundred years). The ideas of cyclic changes in the size of the Sun (as well as cyclic changes in the Earth's magnetic field) do not explain anything and only lead to an open-ended past.

Developing Helmholtz's idea, we will come to the conclusion that the Sun is younger than the Earth. This conclusion is consistent with the Holy Scriptures, but does not suit evolutionists, who insist on the idea of ​​​​the formation of the solar system as a single complex of bodies as a result of successive transformations of protostars into stars and clumps of matter that “separated” due to random reasons into planets. Moreover, why do some rotate in one direction, and others in the opposite direction (Venus, Uranus), as well as a whole series of “whys” with the same answer - due to random reasons. (Or in violation of physical laws.)

2. It is believed that the slowdown of the Earth's rotation is 0.005 seconds per year, contrary to which, starting from 1980, 1 second per year has been added - an amount 200 times greater. But at such a rate of deceleration of the Earth’s rotation, its possible age should also decrease proportionally.

3. Iron meteorites are extremely rare in sedimentary rocks, which is surprising given their supposed slow formation over millions of years, and it is understandable if they formed during a short time of a local or global flood.

4. From 5 to 14 million tons of meteorite dust settles on the Earth per year, which corresponds to the geological age of the Earth at 4.6 billion. years gives a layer of Fe-Co-Ni powder of 15 m. The question is, where is it? It is not on the Moon either (as the American astronauts were convinced of), where wind and rain could not wash it into the sea.

5. The distance between the Earth and the Moon increases by 4 cm per year, which gives its maximum age 1 billion. years. At the same time, the question of the origin of the Moon hangs in the air, because The age of the Earth is 4.6 billion. years is not subject to correction in the faith of evolutionists.

Truly, if not for the requirements of evolutionary biology and geology, astronomy, freed from its shackles, could develop without regard to the age of the Earth and the objects of the Universe.

6. The weakening of the Earth's magnetic field (the nature of which is not fully known) is 5% per year, which corresponds to a half-attenuation time of 1400 years. Since the Earth's magnetic field must be generated by currents, their circulation is associated with Joule heat, which made life impossible 8,000 - 10,000 years ago. Based on the existence of rocks with reversed magnetization, it is assumed that the Earth’s magnetic field could also assimilate in time. But let us emphasize once again that any assumptions about the periodicity of such processes lead to an open-ended past and this is, first of all, an attempt to avoid answering the essence.

7. The Laplace model (cooling of the Earth from a melt state) allowed Lord Kelvin to estimate the upper age of the Earth from heat flows at no more than 400 million years. New calculations using the Kelvin method give an upper age of 20 million years, and taking into account possible nuclear reactions - 45 million years - 100 times less than the age of the Earth accepted by evolutionists.

8. The geological age of the Earth does not agree with the amount of helium in the atmosphere by at least 10 times.

9. Based on the deposits of the Nile silt, it can be concluded that their age is no more than 30,000 years.

10. Estimates of the age of the World Ocean based on the concentration of salts and ions give results with a wide scatter from several thousand to hundreds of million years. For example, based on the amount of salt NaCl in the World Ocean (assuming that it was originally fresh), its age is limited to 100 million years.

11. The Earth's population, estimated at 2.2 children per family per million years, would be 102,070 people (for reference: the number of electrons in the Universe is approximately 1090); they would not fit in the entire Universe, let alone on Earth. The current population of the Earth almost exactly corresponds to the number of offspring of the 4 couples (Noah's family) who survived the Great Flood that occurred 5,000 years ago. According to the formula describing the demographic explosion, the population should be: (in the “materials for publication)

where n is the number of generations, x is the number of simultaneously living generations, c is the number of children in the family. The calculation shows that with c = 2.46, x = 3, the number of generations since the flood n = 100, the population at the beginning of the 21st century would have been 4.8 billion. people – which is in perfect agreement with the actual population of the Earth. In addition, over a million years of human existence, a gigantic amount of fossilized remains should have accumulated, but they did not. Thus, the history of mankind of millions and hundreds of thousands of years is not plausible from the point of view of the number of inhabitants of the Earth.

The numerous facts cited above, which testify in favor of the young age of the earth, thus do not contradict the Holy Scriptures, but are in agreement with it.

Tectonic platforms

According to plate tectonic theory, the outer part of the Earth consists of two layers: the lithosphere, which includes the Earth's crust, and the solidified upper part of the mantle. Below the Lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which makes up the inner part of the mantle. The asthenosphere behaves like a superheated and extremely viscous liquid.

The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates, and seems to float on the asthenosphere. The plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other. There are three types of their mutual movement: convergence, divergence, and strike-slip movements along transform faults. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and the formation of ocean basins can occur on faults between tectonic plates.

A list of the largest tectonic plates with sizes is given in the table on the right. Smaller plates include the Hindustan, Arabian, Caribbean, Nazca and Scotia plates. The Australian plate actually merged with the Hindustan plate between 50 and 55 million years ago. Ocean plates move the fastest; Thus, the Cocos plate moves at a speed of 75 mm per year, and the Pacific plate moves at a speed of 52-69 mm per year. The lowest speed of the Eurasian plate is 21 mm per year.

Evolution of the earth's crust

The rocks that form the Earth's crust, as we remember, are igneous - primary, formed during the cooling and solidification of magma, and sedimentary - secondary, formed as a result of erosion and accumulation of sediments at the bottom of reservoirs. Sedimentary rocks almost completely cover the land surface, forming - among other things - a significant part of the highest mountain systems. This means that the rock that now makes up the peaks of the Alps or Himalayas was once formed under water, below sea level. Any geologist considers this circumstance completely trivial, but the first awareness of this fact usually amazes a person.

Evolution of the earth

According to modern cosmogonic concepts, the Earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago by gravitational condensation from cold gas and dust matter scattered in the circumsolar space, containing all the chemical elements known in nature.

The fall of large clumps of matter caused the heating of the proto-Earth and its stratification. Heavy iron-containing rocks sank deeper, forming a core over several hundred million years, while light rocky rocks formed the crust. Gravitational compression and radioactive decay further heated the interior of our planet.

Due to the decrease in temperature from the center of the Earth to the surface, pockets of tension arose at the boundary with the crust. Their results to this day are earthquakes and continental drift.

The atmosphere and hydrosphere emerged from the depths of our planet, since water and gases were part of the earth's rocks. Oxygen appeared in the atmosphere from water as a result of photodissociation, and subsequently due to photosynthesis.

In 1912, by comparing the coastlines of Africa and South America, German scientist Alfred Wegener put forward the hypothesis of continental drift. It was confirmed by studies of the ocean floor and the magnetic properties of lava flows on the surface. There have also been 16 recorded magnetic pole reversals from north to south and back again over the past ten million years.

In 1960, American geologist Harry Hess proposed that hot mantle rises beneath mid-ocean ridges and spreads away from them, tearing and pushing lithospheric plates apart. The mantle material fills the resulting cracks - rifts. The “destruction” of areas of the Earth’s surface most likely occurs near ocean trenches.

It is now believed that 300–200 million years ago there was a single supercontinent called Pangea. Then it broke up into parts that formed the current continents.

Further cooling of the Earth will lead to the cessation of tectonic activity. Erosion will erase the mountains, and the surface of the Earth will become flat and covered by the ocean. Due to the increase in luminosity of the Sun, in the distant future the ocean will evaporate, revealing a flat, lifeless desert.