Secrets of a special substance. Cosmic dust
Space exploration (meteor)dust on the surface of the Earth:problem overview
A.P.Boyarkina, L.M. Gindilis
Cosmic dust as an astronomical factor
Cosmic dust refers to particles of solid matter ranging in size from fractions of a micron to several microns. Dust matter is one of the important components outer space. It fills interstellar, interplanetary and near-Earth space, penetrates the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere and falls on the Earth's surface in the form of so-called meteor dust, being one of the forms of material (material and energy) exchange in the Space-Earth system. At the same time, it influences a whole series processes occurring on Earth.
Dust matter in interstellar space
The interstellar medium consists of gas and dust mixed in a ratio of 100:1 (by mass), i.e. the mass of dust is 1% of the mass of the gas. The average gas density is 1 hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter or 10 -24 g/cm 3 . The density of dust is correspondingly 100 times less. Despite such an insignificant density, dust matter has a significant impact on the processes occurring in Space. First of all, interstellar dust absorbs light, which is why distant objects located near the galactic plane (where the dust concentration is greatest) are not visible in the optical region. For example, the center of our Galaxy is observed only in the infrared, radio and X-rays. And other galaxies can be observed in the optical range if they are located far from the galactic plane, at high galactic latitudes. The absorption of light by dust leads to distortion of distances to stars determined photometrically. Taking absorption into account is one of the most important problems in observational astronomy. When interacting with dust, the spectral composition and polarization of light changes.
Gas and dust in the galactic disk are distributed unevenly, forming separate gas and dust clouds; the concentration of dust in them is approximately 100 times higher than in the intercloud medium. Dense gas and dust clouds do not transmit the light of the stars behind them. Therefore, they appear as dark areas in the sky, which are called dark nebulae. An example is the Coalsack region in the Milky Way or the Horsehead Nebula in the constellation Orion. If there are bright stars near a gas and dust cloud, then due to the scattering of light on dust particles, such clouds glow; they are called reflection nebulae. An example is the reflection nebula in the Pleiades cluster. The most dense are clouds of molecular hydrogen H 2, their density is 10 4 -10 5 times higher than in clouds of atomic hydrogen. Accordingly, the density of dust is just as many times higher. In addition to hydrogen, molecular clouds contain dozens of other molecules. Dust particles are nuclei of condensation of molecules; on their surface, chemical reactions with the formation of new, more complex molecules. Molecular clouds are regions of intense star formation.
In composition, interstellar particles consist of a refractory core (silicates, graphite, silicon carbide, iron) and a shell of volatile elements (H, H 2, O, OH, H 2 O). There are also very small silicate and graphite particles (without a shell) of the order of hundredths of a micron in size. According to the hypothesis of F. Hoyle and C. Wickramasing, a significant proportion of interstellar dust, up to 80%, consists of bacteria.
The interstellar medium is continuously replenished due to the influx of matter during the shedding of stellar shells in the later stages of their evolution (especially during supernova explosions). On the other hand, it itself is the source of the formation of stars and planetary systems.
Dust matter in interplanetary and near-Earth space
Interplanetary dust is formed mainly during the decay of periodic comets, as well as during the crushing of asteroids. Dust formation occurs continuously, and the process of dust grains falling onto the Sun under the influence of radiation braking also continues continuously. As a result, a constantly renewed dust environment is formed, filling interplanetary space and being in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Its density, although higher than in interstellar space, is still very small: 10 -23 -10 -21 g/cm 3 . However, it noticeably scatters sunlight. When it is scattered on particles of interplanetary dust, such optical phenomena, as zodiacal light, Fraunhofer component of the solar corona, zodiacal stripe, counterradiance. The zodiacal component of the glow of the night sky is also determined by the scattering of dust particles.
Dust matter in the Solar System is highly concentrated towards the ecliptic. In the ecliptic plane, its density decreases approximately in proportion to the distance from the Sun. Near the Earth, as well as near other large planets, the concentration of dust increases under the influence of their gravity. Interplanetary dust particles move around the Sun in contracting (due to radiation braking) elliptical orbits. Their speed of movement is several tens of kilometers per second. When colliding with solids, including with spacecraft, they cause noticeable surface erosion.
Colliding with the Earth and burning up in its atmosphere at an altitude of about 100 km, cosmic particles cause the well-known phenomenon of meteors (or “shooting stars”). On this basis, they are called meteoric particles, and the entire complex of interplanetary dust is often called meteoric matter or meteor dust. Most meteor particles are loose bodies of cometary origin. Among them, two groups of particles are distinguished: porous particles with a density of 0.1 to 1 g/cm 3 and so-called dust lumps or fluffy flakes, reminiscent of snowflakes with a density of less than 0.1 g/cm 3 . In addition, denser asteroid-type particles with a density of more than 1 g/cm 3 are less common. At high altitudes, loose meteors predominate; at altitudes below 70 km, asteroid particles with an average density of 3.5 g/cm 3 prevail.
As a result of the fragmentation of loose meteoroids of cometary origin at altitudes of 100-400 km from the Earth's surface, a fairly dense dust shell is formed, the dust concentration in which is tens of thousands of times higher than in interplanetary space. Scattering sunlight in this shell it causes the twilight glow of the sky when the sun dips below the horizon below 100º.
The largest and smallest meteoroids of the asteroid type reach the Earth's surface. The first (meteorites) reach the surface due to the fact that they do not have time to completely collapse and burn when flying through the atmosphere; the latter - due to the fact that their interaction with the atmosphere, due to their insignificant mass (at a sufficiently high density), occurs without noticeable destruction.
The fall of cosmic dust onto the Earth's surface
If meteorites have long been in the field of view of science, then cosmic dust for a long time did not attract the attention of scientists.
The concept of cosmic (meteor) dust was introduced into science in the second half of XIX century, when the famous Dutch polar explorer A.E. Nordenskjöld discovered dust on the surface of the ice, presumably cosmic origin. Around the same time, in the mid-1970s, Murray (I. Murray) described rounded magnetite particles found in deep-sea sediments of the Pacific Ocean, the origin of which was also associated with cosmic dust. However, these assumptions were not confirmed for a long time, remaining within the framework of the hypothesis. At the same time scientific study cosmic dust moved extremely slowly, as pointed out by Academician V.I. Vernadsky in 1941.
He first drew attention to the problem of cosmic dust in 1908 and then returned to it in 1932 and 1941. In the work “On the Study of Cosmic Dust” V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “... The earth is connected with cosmic bodies and with outer space not only through the exchange of different forms of energy. She is closely connected with them materially... Among material bodies, falling on our planet from outer space, mainly meteorites and cosmic dust, which is usually included in them, are available to our direct study... Meteorites - and at least to some extent the fireballs associated with them - are always unexpected for us in their manifestation... It’s a different matter - cosmic dust: everything indicates that it falls continuously, and perhaps this continuity of fall exists at every point in the biosphere, distributed evenly over the entire planet. It is surprising that this phenomenon, one might say, has not been studied at all and completely disappears from scientific records.» .
Considering the largest known meteorites in this article, V.I. Vernadsky special attention pays attention to the Tunguska meteorite, the search for which was carried out by L.A. under his direct supervision. Sandpiper. Large fragments of the meteorite were not found, and in connection with this V.I. Vernadsky makes the assumption that he “... is a new phenomenon in the annals of science - the penetration into the region of earth's gravity not of a meteorite, but of a huge cloud or clouds of cosmic dust moving at cosmic speed» .
To the same topic V.I. Vernadsky returns in February 1941 in his report “On the need to organize scientific work on cosmic dust" at a meeting of the Committee on Meteorites of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In this document, along with theoretical reflections on the origin and role of cosmic dust in geology and especially in the geochemistry of the Earth, he substantiates in detail the program for searching and collecting material from cosmic dust that has fallen on the surface of the Earth, with the help of which, he believes, a number of problems can be solved scientific cosmogony about quality composition and “the dominant importance of cosmic dust in the structure of the Universe.” It is necessary to study cosmic dust and take it into account as a source of cosmic energy, continuously brought to us from the surrounding space. The mass of cosmic dust, noted V.I. Vernadsky, has atomic and other nuclear energy, which is not indifferent in its existence in Space and in its manifestation on our planet. To understand the role of cosmic dust, he emphasized, it is necessary to have sufficient material for its study. Organization of cosmic dust collection and scientific research collected material- is the first task facing scientists. Promising for this purpose are V.I. Vernadsky considers snow and glacial natural plates of high-mountain and arctic regions remote from human industrial activity.
The Great Patriotic War and the death of V.I. Vernadsky, prevented the implementation of this program. However, it became relevant in the second half of the twentieth century and contributed to the intensification of research into meteoric dust in our country.
In 1946, on the initiative of Academician V.G. Fesenkov organized an expedition to the mountains of the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau (Northern Tien Shan), the task of which was to study solid particles with magnetic properties in snow deposits. The snow sampling site was chosen on the left side moraine of the Tuyuk-Su glacier (altitude 3500 m); most of the ridges surrounding the moraine were covered with snow, which reduced the possibility of contamination by earthly dust. It was also removed from sources of dust associated with human activity, and was surrounded on all sides by mountains.
The method for collecting cosmic dust in the snow cover was as follows. From a strip 0.5 m wide to a depth of 0.75 m, snow was collected with a wooden shovel, transferred and melted in an aluminum container, poured into a glass container, where the solid fraction precipitated within 5 hours. Then the upper part of the water was drained, a new batch of melted snow was added, etc. As a result, 85 buckets of snow were melted with a total area of 1.5 m2 and a volume of 1.1 m3. The resulting sediment was transferred to the laboratory of the Institute of Astronomy and Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, where the water was evaporated and subjected to further analysis. However, since these studies did not give a definite result, N.B. Divari concluded that to take snow samples in in this case It is better to use either very old compacted firns or open glaciers.
Significant progress in the study of cosmic meteor dust came in the middle of the twentieth century, when, in connection with the launches of artificial Earth satellites, direct methods for studying meteor particles were developed - their direct registration by the number of collisions with a spacecraft or various types traps (installed on satellites and geophysical rockets launched to an altitude of several hundred kilometers). Analysis of the obtained materials made it possible, in particular, to detect the presence of a dust shell around the Earth at altitudes from 100 to 300 km above the surface (as discussed above).
Along with the study of dust using spacecraft, particles were studied in the lower atmosphere and various natural reservoirs: in high-mountain snow, in the Antarctic ice sheet, in the polar ice of the Arctic, in peat deposits and deep-sea silt. The latter are observed mainly in the form of so-called “magnetic balls,” that is, dense spherical particles with magnetic properties. The size of these particles is from 1 to 300 microns, weight from 10 -11 to 10 -6 g.
Another direction is related to the study of astrophysical and geophysical phenomena associated with cosmic dust; this includes various optical phenomena: the glow of the night sky, noctilucent clouds, zodiacal light, counter-radiance, etc. Their study also allows us to obtain important data about cosmic dust. Meteor studies were included in the program of the International Geophysical Year 1957-1959 and 1964-1965.
As a result of these works, estimates of the total influx of cosmic dust onto the Earth's surface were refined. According to T.N. Nazarova, I.S. Astapovich and V.V. Fedynsky, the total influx of cosmic dust to Earth reaches up to 10 7 tons/year. According to A.N. Simonenko and B.Yu. Levin (according to data for 1972), the influx of cosmic dust to the surface of the Earth is 10 2 -10 9 t/year, according to other, more recent studies - 10 7 -10 8 t/year.
Research into meteor dust collection continued. At the suggestion of Academician A.P. Vinogradov, during the 14th Antarctic expedition (1968-1969), work was carried out to identify patterns of spatiotemporal distributions of extraterrestrial matter deposition in the Antarctic ice sheet. The surface layer of snow cover was studied in the areas of Molodezhnaya, Mirny, Vostok stations and in a section of about 1400 km between Mirny and Vostok stations. Snow sampling was carried out from pits 2-5 m deep at points remote from polar stations. The samples were packed in plastic bags or special plastic containers. Under stationary conditions, samples were melted in glass or aluminum containers. The resulting water was filtered using a collapsible funnel through membrane filters (pore size 0.7 μm). The filters were moistened with glycerol and the number of microparticles was determined in transmitted light at a magnification of 350X.
We also studied polar ice, bottom sediments of the Pacific Ocean, sedimentary rocks, salt deposits. At the same time, the search for melted microscopic spherical particles, which are quite easily identified among other dust fractions, has proven to be a promising direction.
In 1962, the Commission on Meteorites and Cosmic Dust was created at the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, headed by Academician V.S. Sobolev, which existed until 1990 and whose creation was initiated by the problem of the Tunguska meteorite. Work on the study of cosmic dust was carried out under the leadership of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences N.V. Vasilyeva.
When assessing cosmic dust fallout, along with other natural tablets, we used peat composed of brown sphagnum moss according to the method of Tomsk scientist Yu.A. Lvov. This moss is quite widespread in the middle zone of the globe; it receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere and has the ability to preserve it in the layer that was the surface when dust hit it. Layer-by-layer stratification and dating of peat allows a retrospective assessment of its loss. Both spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns and the microelement composition of the peat substrate were studied - a function of the dust it contained.
The method for isolating cosmic dust from peat is as follows. In an area of raised sphagnum bog, a site with a flat surface and a peat deposit composed of brown sphagnum moss (Sphagnum fuscum Klingr) is selected. Shrubs are cut from its surface at the level of the moss turf. A pit is laid to a depth of 60 cm, an area of the required size is marked at its side (for example, 10x10 cm), then a column of peat is exposed on two or three sides, cut into layers of 3 cm each, which are packed in plastic bags. The upper 6 layers (feather) are considered together and can serve to determine age characteristics according to the method of E.Ya. Muldiyarov and E.D. Lapshina. Each layer is washed under laboratory conditions through a sieve with a mesh diameter of 250 microns for at least 5 minutes. The humus with mineral particles that has passed through the sieve is allowed to settle until the sediment completely falls out, then the sediment is poured into a Petri dish, where it is dried. Packed in tracing paper, the dry sample is convenient for transportation and for further study. Under appropriate conditions, the sample is ashed in a crucible and muffle furnace for an hour at a temperature of 500-600 degrees. The ash residue is weighed and subjected to either inspection under a binocular microscope at 56 times magnification to identify spherical particles measuring 7-100 microns or more, or subjected to other types of analysis. Because This moss receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere, then its ash component may be a function of the cosmic dust included in its composition.
Thus, studies in the area of the fall of the Tunguska meteorite, many hundreds of kilometers away from sources of technogenic pollution, made it possible to estimate the influx of spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns or more onto the Earth’s surface. The upper layers of peat provided an opportunity to estimate global aerosol deposition during the study period; layers dating back to 1908 - substances of the Tunguska meteorite; lower (pre-industrial) layers - cosmic dust. The influx of cosmic microspherules onto the Earth's surface is estimated at (2-4)·10 3 t/year, and in general of cosmic dust - 1.5·10 9 t/year. Were used analytical methods analysis, in particular neutron activation, to determine the microelement composition of cosmic dust. According to these data, the following falls annually onto the Earth's surface from outer space (t/year): iron (2·10 6), cobalt (150), scandium (250).
Of great interest in terms of the above studies are the works of E.M. Kolesnikova and her co-authors, who discovered isotope anomalies in the peat of the area where the Tunguska meteorite fell, dating back to 1908 and speaking, on the one hand, in favor of the comet hypothesis of this phenomenon, on the other hand, shedding light on the cometary substance that fell on the surface of the Earth.
Most full review problems of the Tunguska meteorite, including its substance, for 2000 the monograph by V.A. Bronshten. The latest data on the substance of the Tunguska meteorite were reported and discussed at the International Conference “100 Years of the Tunguska Phenomenon”, Moscow, June 26-28, 2008. Despite the progress made in the study of cosmic dust, a number of problems still remain unresolved.
Sources of metascientific knowledge about cosmic dust
Along with the data obtained by modern research methods, of great interest is the information contained in non-scientific sources: “Letters of the Mahatmas”, the Teaching of Living Ethics, letters and works of E.I. Roerich (in particular, in her work “Study of Human Properties,” which provides an extensive program of scientific research for many years to come).
So in a letter from Koot Hoomi in 1882 to the editor of the influential English-language newspaper “Pioneer” A.P. Sinnett (the original letter is kept in the British Museum) provides the following data on cosmic dust:
- “High above our earth's surface the air is saturated and space is filled with magnetic and meteoric dust, which does not even belong to our solar system”;
- “Snow, especially in our northern regions, is full of meteoric iron and magnetic particles, deposits of the latter are found even at the bottom of the oceans.” “Millions of such meteors and the finest particles reach us every year and every day”;
- “every atmospheric change on Earth and all perturbations occur from the combined magnetism” of two large “mass” - the Earth and meteoric dust;
There is "terrestrial magnetic attraction of meteor dust and direct impact last on sudden changes temperature, especially in relation to heat and cold”;
Because “our earth with all the other planets is rushing through space, it receives more of the cosmic dust on its northern hemisphere than on the southern”; “...this explains the quantitative predominance of continents in the northern hemisphere and the greater abundance of snow and dampness”;
- “The heat that the earth receives from the rays of the sun is, to the greatest extent, only a third, if not less, of the amount it receives directly from meteors”;
- “Powerful accumulations of meteoric matter” in interstellar space lead to a distortion of the observed intensity of starlight and, consequently, to a distortion of the distances to stars obtained by photometry.
A number of these provisions were ahead of the science of that time and were confirmed by subsequent research. Thus, studies of twilight atmospheric glow carried out in the 30-50s. XX century, showed that if at altitudes less than 100 km the glow is determined by the scattering of sunlight in a gaseous (air) medium, then at altitudes of more than 100 km the predominant role is played by scattering on dust particles. The first observations made with the help of artificial satellites led to the discovery of the dust shell of the Earth at altitudes of several hundred kilometers, as indicated in the mentioned letter from Kut Hoomi. Of particular interest are data on distortions of distances to stars obtained photometrically. Essentially, this was an indication of the presence of interstellar absorption, discovered in 1930 by Trempler, which is rightfully considered one of the most important astronomical discoveries of the 20th century. Taking into account interstellar absorption led to a reestimation of the astronomical distance scale and, as a consequence, to a change in the scale of the visible Universe.
Some provisions of this letter - about the influence of cosmic dust on processes in the atmosphere, in particular on the weather - have not yet found scientific confirmation. Further study is needed here.
Let us turn to another source of metascientific knowledge - the Teaching of Living Ethics, created by E.I. Roerich and N.K. Roerich in collaboration with the Himalayan Teachers - Mahatmas in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. The books of Living Ethics, originally published in Russian, have now been translated and published in many languages of the world. They pay great attention scientific problems. In this case, we will be interested in everything related to cosmic dust.
The Teaching of Living Ethics pays quite a lot of attention to the problem of cosmic dust, in particular its influx to the surface of the Earth.
“Pay attention to high places exposed to winds from snowy peaks. At the level of twenty-four thousand feet special deposits of meteoric dust can be observed" (1927-1929). “Aerolites are not studied enough, and even less attention is paid to cosmic dust on eternal snow and glaciers. Meanwhile Space Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks" (1930-1931). “Meteor dust is inaccessible to the eye, but produces very significant precipitation” (1932-1933). “In the purest place, the purest snow is saturated with earthly and cosmic dust - this is how space is filled even with rough observation” (1936).
Much attention is paid to issues of cosmic dust in the “Cosmological Records” of E.I. Roerich (1940). It should be borne in mind that E.I. Roerich closely followed the development of astronomy and was aware of its latest achievements; she critically assessed some theories of that time (20-30 years of the last century), for example in the field of cosmology, and her ideas have been confirmed in our time. The Teaching of Living Ethics and Cosmological Records of E.I. Roerich contain a number of provisions about those processes that are associated with the fall of cosmic dust on the surface of the Earth and which can be summarized as follows:
In addition to meteorites, material particles of cosmic dust constantly fall onto the Earth, which bring in cosmic matter that carries information about the Distant Worlds of outer space;
Cosmic dust changes the composition of soils, snow, natural waters and plants;
This especially applies to the locations of natural ores, which not only act as unique magnets that attract cosmic dust, but we should also expect some differentiation depending on the type of ore: “So iron and other metals attract meteors, especially when the ores are in their natural state and are not devoid of cosmic magnetism”;
Much attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics is paid to mountain peaks, which, according to E.I. Roerich “...are the greatest magnetic stations.” “...The Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks”;
The study of cosmic dust can lead to the discovery of new minerals that have not yet been discovered by modern science, in particular, a metal that has properties that help store vibrations with the distant worlds of outer space;
By studying cosmic dust, new types of microbes and bacteria may be discovered;
But what is especially important is that the Teaching of Living Ethics opens a new page of scientific knowledge - the impact of cosmic dust on living organisms, including humans and their energy. It can have various effects on the human body and some processes on the physical and, especially, subtle planes.
This information is beginning to be confirmed in modern scientific research. Thus, in recent years, complex organic compounds have been discovered on cosmic dust particles, and some scientists have started talking about cosmic microbes. In this regard, the work on bacterial paleontology carried out at the Institute of Paleontology of the Russian Academy of Sciences is of particular interest. In these works, in addition to terrestrial rocks, meteorites were studied. It has been shown that microfossils found in meteorites represent traces of the vital activity of microorganisms, some of which are similar to cyanobacteria. In a number of studies, it was possible to experimentally demonstrate the positive effect of cosmic matter on plant growth and substantiate the possibility of its influence on the human body.
The authors of the Teachings of Living Ethics strongly recommend organizing constant monitoring of cosmic dust fallout. And as its natural reservoir, use glacial and snow deposits in the mountains at an altitude of over 7 thousand m. The Roerichs, living for many years in the Himalayas, they dream of creating a scientific station there. In a letter dated October 13, 1930, E.I. Roerich writes: “The station must develop into a City of Knowledge. We wish in this City to give a synthesis of achievements, therefore all areas of science should subsequently be represented in it... The study of new cosmic rays, giving humanity new, most valuable energies, only possible at altitudes, for all the subtlest and most valuable and powerful lies in the purer layers of the atmosphere. Also, aren’t all the meteoric precipitation deposited on the snowy peaks and carried into the valleys by mountain streams worthy of attention?” .
Conclusion
The study of cosmic dust has now become an independent field of modern astrophysics and geophysics. This problem is especially relevant since meteoric dust is a source of cosmic matter and energy that is continuously brought to Earth from outer space and actively influences geochemical and geophysical processes, as well as having a unique effect on biological objects, including humans. These processes have not yet been studied much. In the study of cosmic dust, a number of provisions contained in the sources of metascientific knowledge have not been properly applied. Meteor dust manifests itself in terrestrial conditions not only as a phenomenon of the physical world, but also as matter that carries the energy of outer space, including worlds of other dimensions and other states of matter. Taking these provisions into account requires the development of completely new technique studying meteor dust. But the most important task remains the collection and analysis of cosmic dust in various natural reservoirs.
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COSMIC DUST, solid particles with characteristic sizes from about 0.001 μm to about 1 μm (and possibly up to 100 μm or more in the interplanetary medium and protoplanetary disks), found in almost all astronomical objects: from solar system to very distant galaxies and quasars. Dust characteristics (particle concentration, chemical composition, particle size, etc.) vary significantly from one object to another, even for objects of the same type. Cosmic dust scatters and absorbs incident radiation. Scattered radiation with the same wavelength as the incident radiation propagates in all directions. The radiation absorbed by the dust particle is transformed into thermal energy, and the particle usually emits in a longer wavelength region of the spectrum compared to the incident radiation. Both processes contribute to extinction - the weakening of the radiation of celestial bodies by dust located on the line of sight between the object and the observer.
Dust objects are studied in almost the entire range of electromagnetic waves - from X-rays to millimeter waves. Electrical dipole radiation from rapidly rotating ultrafine particles appears to make some contribution to microwave emission at frequencies of 10-60 GHz. Important role laboratory experiments are performed in which they measure refractive indices, as well as absorption spectra and scattering matrices of particles - analogues of cosmic dust grains, simulate the processes of formation and growth of refractory dust grains in the atmospheres of stars and protoplanetary disks, study the formation of molecules and the evolution of volatile dust components in conditions similar to existing in dark interstellar clouds.
Cosmic dust located in various physical conditions, are directly studied in the composition of meteorites that fell on the Earth’s surface, in the upper layers of the Earth’s atmosphere (interplanetary dust and the remains of small comets), during spacecraft flights to planets, asteroids and comets (circumplanetary and cometary dust) and beyond the heliosphere (interstellar dust). Ground-based and space-based remote observations of cosmic dust cover the Solar System (interplanetary, circumplanetary and cometary dust, dust near the Sun), the interstellar medium of our Galaxy (interstellar, circumstellar and nebular dust) and other galaxies (extragalactic dust), as well as very distant objects (cosmological dust).
Cosmic dust particles mainly consist of carbonaceous substances (amorphous carbon, graphite) and magnesium-iron silicates (olivines, pyroxenes). They condense and grow in the atmospheres of stars of late spectral classes and in protoplanetary nebulae, and are then ejected into the interstellar medium by radiation pressure. In interstellar clouds, especially dense ones, refractory particles continue to grow as a result of the accretion of gas atoms, as well as when particles collide and stick together (coagulation). This leads to the appearance of shells of volatile substances (mainly ice) and to the formation of porous aggregate particles. The destruction of dust grains occurs as a result of sputtering in shock waves arising after supernova explosions, or evaporation during the process of star formation that began in the cloud. The remaining dust continues to evolve near the formed star and later manifests itself in the form of an interplanetary dust cloud or cometary nuclei. Paradoxically, around evolved (old) stars the dust is “fresh” (recently formed in their atmosphere), and around young stars the dust is old (evolved as part of the interstellar medium). It is believed that cosmological dust, possibly existing in distant galaxies, was condensed in the ejections of material from the explosions of massive supernovae.
Lit. look at Art. Interstellar dust.
Where does cosmic dust come from? Our planet is surrounded by a dense air shell - the atmosphere. The composition of the atmosphere, in addition to the gases known to everyone, also includes solid particles - dust.
It mainly consists of soil particles that rise upward under the influence of the wind. During volcanic eruptions, powerful dust clouds are often observed. Entire “dust caps” hang over large cities, reaching a height of 2-3 km. The number of dust particles in one cubic meter. cm of air in cities reaches 100 thousand pieces, while in clean mountain air there are only a few hundred of them. However, dust of terrestrial origin rises to relatively low altitudes - up to 10 km. Volcanic dust can reach a height of 40-50 km.
Origin of cosmic dust
The presence of dust clouds has been established at altitudes significantly exceeding 100 km. These are the so-called “noctilucent clouds”, consisting of cosmic dust.
The origin of cosmic dust is extremely diverse: it includes the remains of disintegrated comets and particles of matter ejected by the Sun and brought to us by the force of light pressure.
Naturally, under the influence of gravity, a significant part of these cosmic dust particles slowly settles to the ground. The presence of such cosmic dust was discovered on high snowy peaks.
Meteorites
In addition to this slowly settling cosmic dust, hundreds of millions of meteors burst into our atmosphere every day - what we call “falling stars”. Flying at cosmic speeds of hundreds of kilometers per second, they burn out from friction with air particles before they reach the surface of the earth. The products of their combustion also settle on the ground.
However, among the meteors there are also exceptionally large specimens that reach the surface of the earth. Thus, the fall of the large Tunguska meteorite at 5 o’clock in the morning on June 30, 1908 is known, accompanied by a number of seismic phenomena noted even in Washington (9 thousand km from the place of fall) and indicating the power of the explosion when the meteorite fell. Professor Kulik, who with exceptional courage examined the site of the meteorite fall, found a thicket of windfall surrounding the site of the fall within a radius of hundreds of kilometers. Unfortunately, he was unable to find the meteorite. An employee of the British Museum, Kirkpatrick, made a special trip to the USSR in 1932, but did not even get to the site of the meteorite fall. However, he confirmed the assumption of Professor Kulik, who estimated the mass of the fallen meteorite at 100-120 tons.
Cloud of cosmic dust
An interesting hypothesis is that of Academician V.I. Vernadsky, who considered it possible that it was not a meteorite that would fall, but a huge cloud of cosmic dust moving at colossal speed.
Academician Vernadsky confirmed his hypothesis with the appearance these days of a large number of luminous clouds moving at high altitudes at a speed of 300-350 km per hour. This hypothesis could also explain the fact that the trees surrounding the meteorite crater remained standing, while those located further were knocked down by the blast wave.
In addition to the Tunguska meteorite, a number of craters of meteorite origin are also known. The first of these craters to be surveyed can be called the Arizona crater in Devil's Canyon. It is interesting that not only fragments of an iron meteorite were found near it, but also small diamonds formed from carbon from high temperature and pressure during the fall and explosion of the meteorite.
In addition to the indicated craters, indicating the fall of huge meteorites weighing tens of tons, there are also smaller craters: in Australia, on the island of Ezel and a number of others.
In addition to large meteorites, quite a lot of smaller ones fall out every year - weighing from 10-12 grams to 2-3 kilograms.
If the Earth were not protected by a thick atmosphere, we would be bombarded every second by tiny cosmic particles traveling at speeds faster than bullets.
Cosmic X-ray background
Oscillations and waves: Characteristics of various oscillatory systems (oscillators).
Rupture of the Universe
Dust circumplanetary complexes: fig4
Properties of cosmic dust
| S. V. Bozhokin St. Petersburg State Technical University | Content |
Introduction
Many people admire with delight the beautiful spectacle of the starry sky, one of nature's greatest creations. In a clear autumn sky, it is clearly visible how a faintly luminous strip, called the Milky Way, runs across the entire sky, having irregular outlines with different widths and brightness. If we examine the Milky Way, which forms our Galaxy, through a telescope, it will turn out that this bright strip breaks up into many faintly luminous stars, which for the naked eye merge into a continuous glow. It is now established that the Milky Way consists not only of stars and star clusters, but also of gas and dust clouds.
Huge interstellar clouds of luminous rarefied gases got the name gaseous diffuse nebulae. One of the most famous is the nebula in Orion constellation, which is visible even to the naked eye near the middle of the three stars that form the “sword” of Orion. The gases that form it glow with cold light, re-emitting the light of neighboring hot stars. The composition of gaseous diffuse nebulae consists mainly of hydrogen, oxygen, helium and nitrogen. Such gaseous or diffuse nebulae serve as a cradle for young stars, which are born in the same way as ours was once born. solar system. The process of star formation is continuous, and stars continue to form today.
IN interstellar space Diffuse dust nebulae are also observed. These clouds are made up of tiny solid grains of dust. If there is a dust nebula near bright star, then its light is scattered by this nebula and the dust nebula becomes directly observable(Fig. 1). Gas and dust nebulae can generally absorb the light of the stars behind them, so in sky photographs they are often visible as black, gaping holes against the background of the Milky Way. Such nebulae are called dark nebulae. There is one very large dark nebula in the sky of the southern hemisphere, which navigators nicknamed the Coal Sack. There is no clear boundary between gas and dust nebulae, so they are often observed together as gas and dust nebulae.
Diffuse nebulae are only densities in that extremely rarefied interstellar matter, which was named interstellar gas. Interstellar gas is detected only when observing the spectra of distant stars, causing additional gas in them. Indeed, over a long distance, even such rarefied gas can absorb the radiation of stars. Emergence and rapid development radio astronomy made it possible to detect this invisible gas by the radio waves it emits. The huge, dark clouds of interstellar gas are composed mainly of hydrogen, which, even at low temperatures, emits radio waves at a length of 21 cm. These radio waves travel unimpeded through gas and dust. It was radio astronomy that helped us study the shape Milky Way. Today we know that gas and dust mixed with large clusters of stars form a spiral, the branches of which, emerging from the center of the Galaxy, wrap around its middle, creating something similar to a cuttlefish with long tentacles caught in a whirlpool.
Currently huge amount matter in our Galaxy is in the form of gas and dust nebulae. Interstellar diffuse matter is concentrated in a relatively thin layer in equatorial plane our star system. Clouds of interstellar gas and dust block the center of the Galaxy from us. Due to clouds of cosmic dust, tens of thousands of open star clusters remain invisible to us. Fine cosmic dust not only weakens the light of stars, but also distorts them spectral composition. The fact is that when light radiation passes through cosmic dust, it not only weakens, but also changes color. The absorption of light by cosmic dust depends on the wavelength, so of all optical spectrum of a star Blue rays are absorbed more strongly and photons corresponding to red are absorbed more weakly. This effect leads to the phenomenon of reddening of the light of stars passing through the interstellar medium.
For astrophysicists, it is of great importance to study the properties of cosmic dust and determine the influence that this dust has when studying physical characteristics of astrophysical objects. Interstellar absorption and interstellar polarization of light, infrared radiation of neutral hydrogen regions, deficiency chemical elements in the interstellar medium, issues of the formation of molecules and the birth of stars - in all these problems, a huge role belongs to cosmic dust, the properties of which are discussed in this article.
Origin of cosmic dust
Cosmic dust grains arise mainly in the slowly expiring atmospheres of stars - red dwarfs, as well as during explosive processes on stars and violent ejections of gas from the cores of galaxies. Other sources of cosmic dust formation are planetary and protostellar nebulae , stellar atmospheres and interstellar clouds. In all processes of the formation of cosmic dust grains, the gas temperature drops as the gas moves outward and at some point passes through the dew point, at which condensation of vapors of substances, forming the nuclei of dust grains. The centers of formation of a new phase are usually clusters. Clusters are small groups of atoms or molecules that form a stable quasi-molecule. When colliding with an already formed dust grain nucleus, atoms and molecules can join it, either entering into chemical reactions with the dust grain atoms (chemisorption) or completing the formation of the emerging cluster. In the densest regions of the interstellar medium, the concentration of particles in which is cm -3, the growth of dust grains can be associated with coagulation processes, in which dust grains can stick together without being destroyed. Coagulation processes, depending on the surface properties of dust grains and their temperatures, occur only when collisions between dust grains occur at low relative collision velocities.
In Fig. Figure 2 shows the process of growth of cosmic dust clusters using the addition of monomers. The resulting amorphous cosmic dust particle may be a cluster of atoms with fractal properties. Fractals are called geometric objects: lines, surfaces, spatial bodies that have a highly rugged shape and have the property of self-similarity. Self-similarity means the immutability of the basic geometric characteristics fractal object when changing the scale. For example, images of many fractal objects appear very similar when the resolution of a microscope increases. Fractal clusters are highly branched porous structures formed under highly nonequilibrium conditions when solid particles of similar sizes combine into one whole. Under terrestrial conditions, fractal aggregates are obtained when vapor relaxation metals in nonequilibrium conditions, during the formation of gels in solutions, during the coagulation of particles in smoke. The model of a fractal cosmic dust particle is shown in Fig. 3. Note that the processes of coagulation of dust grains occurring in protostellar clouds and gas and dust disks, are significantly enhanced by turbulent motion interstellar matter.
The nuclei of cosmic dust grains, consisting of refractory elements, hundreds of microns in size, are formed in the shells of cold stars during the smooth outflow of gas or during explosive processes. Such dust grain nuclei are resistant to many external influences.
: It shouldn’t be at cosmic speeds, but it is.
If a car is driving along the road and another one butts it in the ass, then it will only faintly click with its teeth. What if at the same speed there is oncoming traffic or to the side? There is a difference.
Now, let’s say that the same thing happens in space, the Earth rotates in one direction and the garbage of the Phaeton or something else spins along with it. Then there may be a soft descent.
I was surprised by the very large number of observations of comet appearances in the 19th century. Here are some statistics:
Clickable
Meteorite with fossilized remains of living organisms. The conclusion is that these are fragments from the planet. Phaeton?
huan_de_vsad in his article Symbols of medals of Peter the Great indicated a very interesting excerpt from the Letter of 1818, where, among other things, there is a small note about the comet of 1680:
In other words, it was this comet that a certain Wiston attributed to the body that caused the Flood described in the Bible. Those. in this theory, the global flood occurred in 2345 BC. It should be noted that datings associated with global flood quite a lot.
This comet was observed from December 1680 to February 1681 (7188). It was brightest in January.
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5elena4 : “Almost in the middle... of the sky above Prechistensky Boulevard, surrounded, sprinkled on all sides with stars, but distinguished from all by its proximity to the earth, white light and long, raised tail, stood a huge bright comet of 1812, the same comet that foreshadowed, as they said, all sorts of horrors and the end of the world.”
L. Tolstoy on behalf of Pierre Bezukhov, passing through Moscow (“War and Peace”):
Upon entering Arbat Square, a huge expanse of starry dark sky opened up to Pierre’s eyes. Almost in the middle of this sky above Prechistensky Boulevard, surrounded and sprinkled on all sides with stars, but differing from everyone else in its proximity to the earth, white light, and long, raised tail, stood a huge bright comet of 1812, the same comet that foreshadowed , as they said, all sorts of horrors and the end of the world. But in Pierre this bright star with a long radiant tail did not arouse any terrible feeling. Opposite Pierre, joyfully, eyes wet with tears, looked at this bright star, which, as if, with inexpressible speed, flying through immeasurable spaces along a parabolic line, suddenly, like an arrow pierced into the ground, stuck here in one place chosen by it, in the black sky, and stopped, energetically raising her tail up, glowing and playing with her white light between countless other twinkling stars. It seemed to Pierre that this star fully corresponded to what was in his soul, which had blossomed towards a new life, softened and encouraged.
L. N. Tolstoy. "War and Peace". Volume II. Part V. Chapter XXII
The comet hung over Eurasia for 290 days and is considered the largest comet in history.
Wiki calls it the "1811 comet" because it passed its perihelion that year. And in the next one it was very clearly visible from the Earth. Everyone especially mentions the excellent grapes and wine that year. The harvest is associated with a comet. “The current flowed from the comet” - from “Eugene Onegin”.
In the work of V. S. Pikul “To Each His Own”:
“Champagne surprised the Russians with the poverty of its inhabitants and the wealth of its wine cellars. Napoleon was still preparing a campaign against Moscow when the world was stunned by the appearance of a bright comet, under the sign of which Champagne in 1811 produced an unprecedented harvest of large, juicy grapes. Now the effervescent “vin de la comete” Russian Cossacks; They were carried out in buckets and given to exhausted horses to drink - to cheer them up: - Lak, sickness! It's not far from Paris...
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This is an engraving dated 1857, that is, the artist depicted not the impression of impending danger, but the danger itself. And it seems to me that the picture shows a cataclysm. The catastrophic events on Earth that were associated with the appearance of comets are presented. Napoleon's soldiers took the appearance of this comet as a bad sign. Moreover, it really hung in the sky for an outrageously long time. According to some reports, up to one and a half years.
It turned out that the diameter of the comet's head - the nucleus together with the diffuse foggy atmosphere surrounding it - the coma - is greater than the diameter of the Sun (to this day, comet 1811 I remains the largest of all known). The length of its tail reached 176 million kilometers. The famous English astronomer W. Herschel describes the shape of the tail as “... an inverted empty cone of a yellowish color, making a sharp contrast with the bluish-greenish tone of the head.” To some observers, the comet's color appeared reddish, especially at the end of the third week of October, when the comet was very bright and shone in the sky all night.
At the same time North America shook by a powerful earthquake in the area of the city of New Madrid. As far as I understand, this is practically the center of the continent. Experts still don’t understand what triggered that earthquake. According to one version, it occurred due to the gradual rise of the continent, which had become lighter after the melting of the glaciers (?!)
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Very interesting information in this post: The real cause of the 1824 flood in St. Petersburg. It can be assumed that such winds in 1824 were caused by the fall of a large body or bodies, asteroids, somewhere in a desert area, say, Africa.
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In A. Stepanenko ( chispa1707
) there is information that mass insanity in the Middle Ages in Europe was caused by poisonous water from dust falling from the tail of a comet onto the Earth. Can be found at this video
Or in this article
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The following facts also indirectly indicate the opacity of the atmosphere and the onset of cold weather in Europe:
The 17th century is marked as the Little Ice Age and also had temperate periods with good summers with periods of extreme heat.
However, winter receives a lot of attention in the book. In the years from 1691 to 1698, winters were harsh and hungry for Scandinavia. , Before 1800, famine was the greatest fear for the common man. The winter of 1709 was exceptionally severe. It was the beauty of a cold wave. The temperature dropped to the extreme. Fahrenheit experimented with thermometers and Crookius made all the temperature measurements in Delft. "Holland suffered greatly. But especially Germany and France were hit by cold, with temperatures down to -30 degrees and the population suffered the greatest famine since the Middle Ages.
..........
Bayusman also says that he wondered whether he would consider 1550 to be the beginning of the Little Ice Age. In the end he decided that it happened in 1430. A series of cold winters begins this year. After some temperature fluctuations, the Little Ice Age begins from the end of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century, ending around 1800.
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So could soil fall out of space and turn into clay? This information will try to answer this question:
Every day, 400 tons of cosmic dust and 10 tons of meteorite matter fall to Earth from space. This is according to the short reference book “Alpha and Omega” published in Tallinn in 1991. Considering that the Earth's surface area is 511 million sq. km., of which 361 million sq. km. - this is the surface of the oceans, we don’t notice it.
According to other data:
Until now, scientists did not know the exact amount of dust that falls to Earth. It was believed that every day from 400 kg to 100 tons of this fall on our planet space debris. In recent studies, scientists were able to calculate the amount of sodium in our atmosphere, and obtained accurate data. Since the amount of sodium in the atmosphere is equivalent to the amount of dust from space, it turned out that every day the Earth receives about 60 tons of additional pollution.
That is, this process is present, but currently the fallout occurs in minimal quantities, insufficient to cover buildings.
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The theory of panspermia, according to scientists from Cardiff, is supported by an analysis of samples of material from comet Wild-2 collected by the Stardust spacecraft. He showed the presence of a number of complex hydrocarbon molecules in them. In addition, studying the composition of comet Tempel-1 using the Deep Impact probe showed the presence of a mixture of organic compounds and clay in it. It is believed that the latter could serve as a catalyst for the formation of complex organic compounds from simple hydrocarbons.
Clay is a likely catalyst for the transformation of simple organic molecules into complex biopolymers on the early Earth. However, now Wickramasingh and his colleagues claim that the total volume of clayey environment on comets, favorable for the emergence of life, is many times higher than that of our own planet (publication in the international astrobiological journal International Journal of Astrobiology).
According to new estimates, on the early Earth the favorable environment was limited to a volume of about 10 thousand cubic kilometers, and a single comet with a diameter of 20 kilometers could provide a “cradle” for life of about one tenth of its volume. If we take into account the contents of all the comets of the Solar System (and there are billions of them), then the size of the suitable environment will be 1012 times greater than that of the Earth.
Of course, not all scientists agree with the conclusions of Vikramasingh's group. For example, American comet expert Michael Mumma from NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC, Maryland) believes that there is no way to talk about the presence of clay particles in all comets without exception (in For example, they are not present in the samples of material from comet Wild 2 delivered to Earth by the NASA Stardust probe in January 2006).
The following notes appear regularly in the press:
Thousands of drivers in the Zemplinsky region, which borders the Transcarpathian region, found their cars covered in a thin film of yellow dust in parking lots on Thursday morning. We are talking about the areas of the cities of Snina, Humennoe, Trebišov, Medzilaborce, Michalovce and Stropkov vranovski.
This dust and sand got into the clouds of eastern Slovakia, says Ivan Garčar, press secretary of the Hydrometeorological Institute of Slovakia. Strong winds in western Libya and Egypt, according to him, began on Tuesday, May 28. A large amount of dust and sand got into the air. Such air currents prevailed over Mediterranean Sea, near southern Italy and northwestern Greece.
The next day, one part penetrated deeper into the Balkans (eg Serbia) and northern Hungary, while the second part of various dust flows from Greece returned to Turkey.
Such meteorological situations of sand and dust transfer from the Sahara are very rare in Europe, so there is no need to say that this phenomenon may become an annual occurrence.
Cases of sand loss are far from uncommon:
Residents of many regions of Crimea noted today an unusual phenomenon: heavy rain was accompanied by small grains of sand of various colors - from gray to red. As it turned out, this is a consequence of dust storms in the Sahara Desert, which were brought by the southern cyclone. Rains with sand occurred, in particular, over Simferopol, Sevastopol, and the Black Sea region.
An unusual snowfall occurred in the Saratov region and the city itself: in some areas, residents noticed yellow-brown precipitation. Meteorologists' explanations: “Nothing supernatural is happening. Now the weather in our region is due to the influence of a cyclone that came from the southwest to our region. The air mass comes to us from North Africa through the Mediterranean and Black Seas, saturated with moisture. The air mass, dusty from the Sahara regions, received a portion of sand, and, enriched with moisture, is now watering not only the European territory of Russia, but also the Crimean Peninsula.”
Let us add that colored snow has already caused a stir in several Russian cities. For example, in 2007, residents of the Omsk region saw unusual orange precipitation. At their request, an examination was carried out, which showed that the snow was safe, it just had an excessive concentration of iron, which caused the unusual color. That same winter, yellowish snow was seen in the Tyumen region, and soon gray snow fell in Gorno-Altaisk. Analyzes of Altai snow revealed the presence of earth dust in the sediments. Experts explained that this is a consequence of dust storms in Kazakhstan.
Note that snow can also be pink: for example, in 2006, snow the color of a ripe watermelon fell in Colorado. Eyewitnesses claimed that it also tasted like watermelon. Similar reddish snow is found high in the mountains and in the polar regions of the Earth, and its color is due to the massive proliferation of one of the types of algae, Chlamydomonas.
Red rains
They are mentioned by ancient scientists and writers, for example, Homer, Plutarch, and medieval ones, such as Al-Ghazen. The most famous rains of this kind fell:
1803, February - in Italy;
1813, February - in Calabria;
1838, April - in Algeria;
1842, March - in Greece;
1852, March - in Lyon;
1869, March - in Sicily;
1870, February - in Rome;
1887, June - in Fontainebleau.
They are also observed outside Europe, for example, on the Cape Verde Islands, on the Cape of Good Hope, etc. Blood rains occur from an admixture of red dust, consisting of tiny red-colored organisms, to ordinary rains. The homeland of this dust is Africa, where it is blown to great heights by strong winds and transported by upper air currents to Europe. Hence its other name - “trade wind dust”.
Black rains
They appear due to the admixture of volcanic or cosmic dust to ordinary rains. On November 9, 1819, black rain fell in Montreal, Canada. Similar case also observed on August 14, 1888 at the Cape of Good Hope.
White (milky) rains
Observed in places where there are Cretaceous rocks. Chalk dust is carried upward and colors raindrops milky white.
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Everything is explained by dust storms and raised masses of sand and dust into the atmosphere. Just a question: why are places where sand falls so selective? And how is this sand transported thousands of kilometers without falling out along the way from the places where it rises? Even if a dust storm kicked up tons of sand into the sky, it should start falling out as soon as the storm or front moves.
Or maybe the fallout of sandy and dusty soils (which we see in the idea of sandy loam and clay covering the cultural layers of the 19th century) continues? But only in incomparably smaller quantities? And earlier there were moments when the fall was so large and fast that it covered the territory for meters. Then, under the rains, this dust turned into clay, sandy loam. And where there was a lot of rain, this mass turned into mudflows. Why isn't this in history? Maybe because people considered this phenomenon to be ordinary? The same dust storm. Now there is television, the Internet, many newspapers. Information becomes public quickly. Previously, this was more difficult. The publicity of phenomena and events was not on such an informational scale.
For now this is just a version, because... there is no direct evidence. But maybe one of the readers will offer some more information?
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