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Study of the operational characteristics of a child’s activity. A collection of diagnostic techniques

Operational characteristics of activity are understood as characteristics of performance and rate of mental activity.

Pieron-Ruzer technique

Target: study of attention parameters (sustainability, distribution, switchability), assessment of the characteristics of the pace of activity, manifestation of signs of fatigue and satiety.

Form of conduct: individual, group

Material: method form with images of geometric figures (4 types) located at equal distances from each other in a 10/10 square matrix.

Age of subjects: children 5-8 years old.

Procedure:

A blank form of the methodology is placed in front of the child and the psychologist, filling out the empty sample figures (in the upper left part of the form), says

Instructions:“Look, in this square I’ll put a dot, in the triangle - like this dash (vertical), I’ll leave the circle blank, I won’t draw anything in it, and in the rhombus - like this dash (horizontal). You will fill in all the other figures yourself, just as I showed you.”

The sample on the sheet remains open until the child finishes his work.

Processing the results:

After the child starts working, the psychologist turns on the stopwatch and records the number of figures on the form filled out by the child every 30 seconds or 1 minute (marked with a dot or dash directly on the form). It is advisable to record from what moment the child begins to work from memory, that is, without support by looking at the sample.

The protocol must note how the child fills out the figures: diligently, accurately or impulsively; how does this affect the pace of work; what motivation turned out to be most effective for the child.

Indicators:

Ability to hold instructions;

Parameters of attention (stability, distribution, switching);

The number of correctly filled figures in relation to their total number (correctness index);

The number of completed figures per minute (dynamics of changes in the pace of activity);

The nature of the necessary motivation for activity (motivation for achievement, play, competition)

Age standards for fulfillment

5-5.5 years – the technique can be performed in full version presentation (filling out 3 figures) with various errors, in particular omissions and fairly quickly onset of satiation (the child is “enough” for no more than 5-6 lines). The pace of activity is often uneven;

6-7 years – full implementation is available with gradual learning (by the end of the second line the child stops referring to the model) and possible isolated errors. The pace of activity either increases or, having reached a certain level, remains constant.

After 7 years, error-free implementation of the technique is available. Great value begins to gain speed of execution and the number of “returns” to the pattern. Good results of the method are considered to be: filling out 100 figures on the form on average in up to 3 minutes, without errors, or with a single error, but rather with your own correction of the error, when focusing not so much on the sample, but on your own marks on the form.

1. Diagnostics of the operational characteristics of the child’s activity
Operational characteristics of activity are understood as characteristics of performance and rate of mental activity.
Pieron-Ruzer technique
Target: study of attention parameters (sustainability, distribution, switchability), assessment of the characteristics of the pace of activity, manifestation of signs of fatigue and satiety.

Form of conduct : individual, group

Material: method form with images of geometric figures (4 types) located at equal distances from each other in a 10/10 square matrix.

Age of subjects : children 5-8 years old.

Procedure:

A blank form of the methodology is placed in front of the child and the psychologist, filling out the empty sample figures (in the upper left part of the form), says

The sample on the sheet remains open until the child finishes his work.

Processing the results:

After the child starts working, the psychologist turns on the stopwatch and records the number of figures on the form filled out by the child every 30 seconds or 1 minute (marked with a dot or line directly on the form). It is advisable to record from what moment the child begins to work from memory, that is, without support by looking at the sample.

Indicators:

Ability to hold instructions;

Parameters of attention (stability, distribution, switching);

The number of correctly filled figures in relation to their total number (correctness index);

The number of completed figures per minute (dynamics of changes in the pace of activity);

The nature of the necessary motivation for activity (motivation for achievement, play, competition)

5-5.5 years – it is possible to perform the method in its full presentation version (filling in 3 figures) with various errors, in particular omissions and fairly quickly onset of satiation (the child is “enough” for no more than 5-6 lines). The pace of activity is often uneven;

After 7 years, error-free implementation of the technique is available. The speed of execution and the number of “returns” to the sample begin to become of great importance. Good results The implementation of the technique is considered to be: filling out 100 figures of the form on average in up to 3 minutes, without errors, or with a single error, but rather with one’s own correction of the error, while focusing not so much on the sample, but on one’s own marks on the form.
2. Diagnosis of features of mnestic activity
Memorizing 10 words (according to A.R. Luria)
Target: diagnostics of the volume and speed of auditory-verbal memorization a certain amount words, volume of delayed reproduction.

Stimulus material : for memorization, 10 simple (monosyllabic) words, unrelated in meaning, are used in singular nominative case.

Age of subjects: no earlier than 7.5-8 years.

Procedure:

Instruction A: “Now we will memorize the words. Listen carefully. After I say all the words, you will repeat them to me as you remember, in any order. Try to remember as many words as possible."

The words are read slowly (at intervals of 0.5-1 seconds) and clearly. After the child repeats words for the first time, the reproduced words are marked in the protocol table. It is advisable to note the sequence in which words are reproduced. No comments are made about the child’s activities.

Instruction B:“Now I will read the same words again, and you will repeat them again, both those that you said and new ones that you will remember.”

The memorization procedure is repeated. Depending on the purposes of the study, the number of repetitions can be limited to 5, or words are repeated until complete memorization (as a rule, this requires no more than 9-10 repetitions)

During the third and subsequent repetitions of words, the instruction in expanded form is not repeated. The psychologist simply says: “One more time.”

After stable memorization of all 10 words, they move on to other diagnostic methods. After 40-50 minutes, the psychologist asks the child to remember the words.

Instruction B:“Now let’s remember the words that we memorized”

The protocol records all the words that the child remembered and the sequence in which he reproduced them. Based on the results of the study, a memorization curve can be constructed.

Indicators:

Volume of direct auditory-verbal memorization;

Duration of memorization of a given volume of words;

Delayed playback volume;

Dynamics of material memorization

The technique can be used in full, starting from 7-8 years of age. Memorization of 9+2 words is possible for healthy children. Delayed recall of 8+2 words is available to approximately 80% of children;

For children under 7 years of age, it is possible to use a smaller amount of vocabulary material (5-8 words) with appropriate standard performance.

Using a large number of healthy subjects, it was found that healthy people, both adults and school-age children, the memorization curve is as follows: 5, 7, 9, or 6,8,9 or 5,7, 10, i.e. By the third repetition, the subject reproduces 9 or 10 words and during subsequent repetitions remains on the numbers 9 or 10.

Children with organic brain damage reproduce a relatively smaller number of words. They may say unnecessary words and get stuck on this mistake. Many such “extra” words are produced by children in a state of disinhibition. The “memorization curve” may indicate a weakening of active attention and severe fatigue. For example, sometimes a child reproduces 8 or 9 words for the second time, and on subsequent trials he recalls fewer and fewer of them. Such a subject suffers from forgetfulness and absent-mindedness. The “memorization curve” can take the form of a “plateau,” i.e., children reproduce the same number of the same words every time. Such stability indicates emotional lethargy and lack of interest in remembering more.

An example of the technique
1. Analyze the protocol using the “10 words” method and draw up a “memorization curve.” To do this, repetition numbers are plotted along the horizontal axis, and the number of correctly reproduced words is plotted along the vertical axis. Draw conclusions regarding the memory characteristics of the subject.

	Forest	Bread	Window	Chair	Water	Brother	Horse	Needle	Mushroom	Honey
1	+		+		+	+
2	+		+			+			+
3	+	+			+	+			+
4	+	+				+
5	+	+			+	+			+	+
In one hour	+	+				+

Methodology for studying indirect memorization (according to A.N. Leontiev)
Target: the study of arbitrary forms of memorization, the ability to indirectly memorize, the study of the characteristics of the child’s mental activity, the possibility of using an external means for memorization tasks, the amount of material memorized indirectly.

Stimulus material: 30 pictures depicting objects (towel, chair, bicycle, watch, etc.)

Age of subjects: from 4.5 to 8 years, for children over 8-9 years old it is more logical to use the “Pictogram” method.

Procedure:

Cards are laid out in random order on the table in front of the child. At the same time, it is necessary to clarify whether all of them are familiar to him. If any image is not clear to the child, it should be explained. To work with children from 4-4.5 years to 5-5.5 years, you can use not all cards, but the ones that are most understandable to the child. Accordingly, the simplest and most specific concepts are selected for memorization, but in any case, the number of cards should be at least 3 times greater than the number of words presented for memorization.

With children of this age, you should not use more than 5-7 words to memorize (rain, fire, day, lunch, fight, gift, answer, holiday, neighbor). With children of senior preschool and primary school age, you can use 7-8 words, words such as grief, friendship, strength.

Instructions1: “Now you will remember words, but in an unusual way. I will tell you a word, and to make it easier for you to remember it, you will choose a picture that will remind you of it and help you remember this word. The words that I will tell you are not drawn anywhere here, but for any word you can find a picture that will remind you of it. Then you will look at the picture and remember the word itself.”

If the child doubts whether he can do this, it is necessary to explain to the child that there is no right or wrong decision (choice), it is only important to choose some “suitable” picture and explain how it will resemble a specific word.

Instruction 2:“You need to remember the word “morning.” Look carefully which card can remind you of the morning.”

After selecting each card, you need to ask the child an explanation of the connection: “How will this card remind you of the word...?”

The protocol records all the child’s reactions and explanations.

The cards chosen by the child are put aside face down for later presentation during delayed playback. After 20-40 minutes, the child is presented with the images he has chosen in a random order.

Instruction 3:“Look at this picture. What word did you remember when you chose her? Remember this word."

The protocol records the words reproduced by the child, recording errors in reproduction and their features.
Indicators:

Availability of mediation as a logical operation;

Adequacy of selection of the intermediary link;

Adequacy of the child’s explanation of the logical connection;

The nature of reproduction (the stimulus word, the logical connection itself, or some other word is reproduced);

Number of words correctly reproduced
Age standards for performance

Mediation as a process is available to children starting from 4.5-5 years of age with a little organizing help from an adult;

By the age of 6-7 years, a child is able to find mediating images with an adequate explanation of their choice for most specific words and individual abstract concepts (for example, “friendship”, “work”);

After 7-8 years, children have sufficient access to the mediation of abstract concepts.
An example of the technique

Examination protocol for mediated memorization of K. (8 years old)

Word	Selectable card	Explanation of connection	Playable word	Explanation
Light	Lamp	The lamp is shining	Bulb	Like the sun
Dinner	Bread	When they eat, they take bread	Eat	-
Forest	Mushroom	Mushrooms grow in the forest	Forest	-
Teaching	Notebook	When you study, you write	Write	-
Hammer	Shovel	Similar	Scoop	-
Cloth	Bed	Also made of matter	Bed	Sleep
Field	Field	It is depicted	Field	-
Game	Cat with a ball	Plays with a ball	Playing	-
Bird	Cow	Also an animal	Animal	-
Horse	Crew	Carried by a horse	horse	-
Road	Automobile	Driving down the road	Sand	Riding on the sand
Night	House	Sleeping in the house at night	-	-
Mouse	Painting	It's like there's a mouse there	Hedgehog	Hedgehog
Milk	Cup	Pour into a glass	Milk	-
Chair	Sofa	They sit on them	Chair	-

K. selected pictures for words at an average pace. For two words, when presented with a card, he cannot remember the corresponding word, but names the image on it. Such errors indicate a lack of ability to retain indirect connections in memory and the impossibility of remembering by association. Explanation of connections broken in 7 words. This means that the process of establishing indirect connections is difficult, and the connections themselves are fragile. The technique confirms that the processes of semantic memory (storage, and therefore reproduction) in the girl are disrupted.

3. Diagnostics of the perceptual-effective component cognitive activity
Methodology " Cutting pictures"(A.N. Bershtein)
Target: identification of the level of formation of constructive and spatial thinking in a visually effective way, the specificity of the formation of spatial representations (the ability to correlate parts and the whole).

Stimulus material: Color images (drawings) consisting of a different number of parts with different configurations.

Images cut into 2 equal parts;

Images cut into 3 equal parts;

Images cut into 4 equal parts;

Images cut into 4 unequal parts;

4-piece images cut "at a 90-degree diagonal";

Images cut into 8 sectors;

Images cut into 5 unequal parts

Age range: from 2.5 to 6-7 years.

Procedure:

A reference image is placed on the table in front of the child and next to it, in a random order, the details of the same image, but cut up, are laid out.

Instructions: “Put the pieces together into a picture like this one.”

The technique allows us to identify not only the current level of development of the perceptual-effective component of thinking, but also to assess the child’s ability to learn new types of activity.

The time of the examination depends on the age of the child, the tempo characteristics of his mental activity and the amount of assistance required from an adult.

Types of possible help

Stimulating assistance;

Organizing assistance;

Outlining the whole image with the child's hand;

Full training assistance with determination of the possibility of “transfer” to a similar task.

Indicators:

Not only the success of the task is analyzed, but also the child’s activity strategy. An inadequate method of action is expressed in the fact that the child chaotically places parts of the drawing next to each other, may “hang inertly” on any part, and stop manipulating the remaining parts. If a child cannot use the help of an adult even after several extensive trainings (in the absence of negativism or protest reactions), this is a sufficient differential diagnostic indicator for assessing the nature of the child’s cognitive activity.

Age standards for fulfillment:

Children 3-3.5 years old usually cope with the task of folding pictures cut in half both vertically and horizontally, but mirror versions of the “assembly” are often encountered;

Children aged 4-4.5 years usually cope with the task of folding pictures cut into three equal parts (along the picture or across it) into 4 equal rectangular parts;

Did he understand the task himself?

How much stimulating or organizing help does he need?

2. “Continue laying out as you did. Arrange all the cards into groups and give each group its own name - common to all the pictures.” It is necessary that the child give the name of each of the groups he has identified and explain his generalizations.

3.“You used to fold a card with a card. And now we need to unite group with group so that there are fewer groups. But in such a way that each such new group can be given common name, as before."

As the child combines groups, the psychologist asks clarifying questions about one or another new group.
Indicators:

Criticality and adequacy of implementation;

Job availability level;

The level of development of generalizations is the main type of generalizations;

The presence of specifics of mental activity (diversity of thinking, reliance on unimportant, latent signs, inconsistency of judgments, tendency to excessive detail);

Amount of assistance needed

OPERATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE TIME PERSPECTIVE OF PERSONALITY

HE. ARESTOV

THE PROBLEM OF STUDYING THE TIME PERSPECTIVE OF PERSONALITY

In recent decades, the prognostic, anticipatory function of the psyche, associated with the construction of a model of the desired future of a person, has increasingly attracted the attention of psychologists. Research in this direction is carried out in line with different approaches, in different contexts and using different terminology. When denoting this type of mental reality, they speak, for example, about time perspective, long-term goal setting, planning, building a model of the future, meaning-making, accepting and implementing intentions in activity, etc.

The interest of researchers in the problem of the time perspective of the individual is not only theoretical in nature, but is associated with the obvious dependence of the formation and transformation of the model of a person’s own future on the micro and macrosocial conditions of the specific historical time in which the subject lives. Time perspective is an important personal construct that reflects the temporal aspect of a person’s life and has a multidimensional structure, including certain content and a number of dynamic parameters: length, direction, coherence (consistency), emotional background and others. The susceptibility of the parameters of a person’s time perspective to the influence of the social situation of a particular subject’s life is especially aggravated during periods of social and economic crises, turning points in the life of society.

One of the psychological consequences of social crises is the disruption (or even destruction) of the individual’s time perspective, the collapse of life plans and temporary disorientation of the subject. Clinical studies show the connection between the time perspective of the individual and the presence of various types of mental disorders that have a pronounced sociogenic nature (depression, neuroses, alcoholism, suicidal tendencies). For example, pathopsychological groups of subjects are characterized by limitations in the time perspective, “meager” long-term plans containing very few future possibilities. In depressive states, there is a steady reduction in the length of the individual’s time perspective, as well as the inclusion of dominant elements from the subject’s past into the individual’s time perspective (a mixture of time perspective and retrospective). Patients are typically unable to let go of the past and move toward the future. These patients see the future as a "shapeless map" and cannot use the present as a bridge between the past and the future. The length of the actual past in such patients is higher than normal.

As a special symptom, the so-called “anticipation neurosis” is identified, associated with expectations of conflicts and early traumatic experiences. It is closely related to anxiety states, special study which, in relation to the time perspective of the individual, showed that this

the condition causes a violation of the connection or consistency of the past, present, future and the absence of a future dominant. It is noted that feelings of depersonalization and unreality are associated with the inability to see oneself in the future. A similar structure of time perspective is observed in a state of stress, when the temporal focus shifts to the present.

With alcoholism, not only the prospects for the future are disrupted, but also the structure of the present. For example, early adolescent alcoholism is characterized by the phenomenon of “disactualization of the present,” while normal schoolchildren experience the present as more relevant.

A change in the time perspective of the individual in terms of the consistency of the past, present and future was also found in the group of suicide victims. When studying the time perspective in people who attempted suicide, data were obtained that have diagnostic significance. Distortions in a person’s time perspective turned out to be closely related to suicidal ideation, and negative time attitudes significantly influenced suicidal tendencies and anxiety states, thereby serving as indicators of potential suicide.

Time perspective is connected with sociogenic mental disorders in two ways: not only painful conditions leave their mark on its structure, but also violations of time perspective themselves provoke mental disorders. The time perspective of an individual is not only subject to the influence of crisis moments in the life of society, but is also capable of actively resisting their negative impact, i.e. act as a more or less adequate defensive strategy. For the first time, this feature of the individual’s time perspective was highlighted within the framework of the psychoanalytic approach. Thus, active (albeit fantastic) planning for the future acts as one of the defense mechanisms.

The ability to be determined by the future as a condition for a person’s free attitude to the given facts of life (often difficult or even impossible) became the subject of research by V. Frankl. In his works, a person’s ability to find future meaning in actual meaning-deficient situations is considered as a condition for maintaining personal integrity and a prerequisite for personal development.

RESEARCH OF GLOBAL AND SITUATIONAL ASPECTS

TIME PERSPECTIVE OF PERSONALITY

Of particular interest to a psychologist is the process of unfolding and realizing the individual’s time perspective in the form of the subject’s life strategy. When analyzing the time perspective of an individual, its strategic aspect is highlighted - the construction of global life plans, the scale of which is individual in nature and associated with the motivational orientation of the individual; and the operational aspect - goal setting and planning by the subject of his own activities, its results and consequences in a given life situation. The specific situational components of a person’s time perspective are, for example, goals and intentions.

Research into intention and the process of its implementation in a subject’s activity has a rather long history. They originated in the context of the works of K. Lewin and his students, in which the essence of intention as a special mental reality, which has its own origin and its own laws of development, was first revealed. The psychoenergetic significance of intention in activity was shown, factors promoting and hindering its implementation were identified. Phenomena have been described (in particular,

the Zeigarnik effect, the substitution effect, etc.), which showed the functional place of intention in the process of temporary structuring of activity, targeting actions towards a future result. This function of intention is reflected in the concept of “quasi-need”. The functional similarity of intentions and needs lies, according to K. Lewin, in the fact that both stimulate and orient activity in a certain direction corresponding to the needs of the subject.

Intention is most often defined as a conscious desire to complete a certain action in accordance with an intended program aimed at achieving the intended result, i.e. as a special functional formation of the psyche that arises as a result of the act of goal setting and implies the choice of appropriate means with the help of which the subject is going to achieve the goal. Intention has its own internal dynamics, the most important parameter of which, in our opinion, is resistance to various deviating factors. So, for example, having a certain intention, a person may systematically fail to fulfill it, or may even abandon it at the very last moment. There are many examples where we do not perform the actions with the strongest motivation, but end up choosing something completely different.

Intention is a multiplication of the motivational and cognitive aspects of a person that determine behavior in a specific situation: on the one hand, it has dynamic power (motivation of needs) and is goal-oriented, on the other hand, being associated with the operational level of activity, it contains evaluative components. Intention merges the motivational attractiveness of the goal and the subjective probability (forecast of the implementation of the action program) of its achievement, which leads to the outcome of a specific target choice. Stability of intention is associated with personal dispositions various levels(rigidity/lability, level of aspirations, features of causal attribution). The nature of this connection still requires further research.

Another direction of research into the operational aspect of a person’s time perspective is associated with the analysis of the so-called processes of perspective goal setting. From this point of view, the time perspective of an individual is a dynamic sequence of goals that have varying degrees vital significance. A goal, defined as a conscious image of the future result of an action, has multiple determination. On the one hand, the formed goal is a certain rational forecast (anticipation) of the course and result of one’s own activities, based on the systematization of past experience; on the other hand, the anticipated result is a kind of objective crystallization of the motive that motivates the subject’s activity. Thus, the goal is a specific result of the interaction of the motivational-semantic and rational spheres of the subject’s activity.

Prospective goal setting is the process of forming and clarifying some hypothetical mental education, which could be called a pre-goal. The difference between a pre-goal and a goal itself lies, firstly, in the less specific, generalized nature of the formulation; secondly, greater flexibility and lability; thirdly, in a speculative, rational status preceding direct emotional anticipation. Before becoming a real goal, the pre-goal is subjected to a special kind of assessment, emotional “weighing”, after which it is either implemented in the subject’s activity, or rejected, or modified. Experiences of success/failure play a special role in the fate of the pre-goal.

situationally or persistently dominant in the subject. The basis of long-term goal setting is, on the one hand, the current motivational and need tendencies of the subject, on the other hand, cognitive forecast, anticipation possible development situations. Thus, long-term goal setting is the process of preliminary goal setting, which precedes its adoption and implementation in activities.

Such properties of the pre-goal bring its nature closer to the phenomenon of intention that we have already described and allow us to compare data on the study of various aspects of the individual’s time perspective obtained in various psychological schools. The complex determination of the phenomenon and functioning of intention, its individual nature, the dependence of the dynamics of intention on the success of the subject’s activity makes its study psychologically significant. Although the psychological significance of analyzing the global aspects of a person's time perspective is obvious, its operational characteristics and situational dynamics have not yet been sufficiently studied.

DYNAMICS OF INTENTION AS A PARAMETER OF THE PERSONALITY'S TIME PERSPECTIVE

Research method

The research method used was the computer version we developed for studying the level of aspirations, which in the original had a multi-diagnostic character. Thus, the developed methodology allows us to analyze the dominant motivation of the subject, the nature of defensive behavior in a situation of chronic failure, and the reaction to success/failure in activity. With appropriate modification, this method is applicable to study the operational aspects of the time perspective of the individual.

Research procedure

The research procedure is close to a modification of M. Yuknat’s technique and is as follows. The subject is presented with a number of tasks ranked by complexity, which he can choose and solve in any order. After the decision, it is reported whether he completed the task. When analyzing experimental data, the main importance is attached not to the process of solving the problems themselves, but to the strategy of the subject in the sequence of choosing the level of complexity of the problems depending on the results of the previous solution.

The specific procedure for psychodiagnostic research is as follows. An instruction is presented on the computer screen, which contains a description of the structure of the experimental situation and the rules of behavior of the subject in it. In order to reduce the motivating influence, the so-called closed instruction, which does not explain to the subject the true goals of the study. After the instructions, the subject is asked the question: “What problem do you want to solve?”

After typing the answer on the keyboard, the subject is presented with the problem itself to solve. After typing the solution found on the keyboard, the computer tells the subject whether he solved the problem correctly. In this case, for psychodiagnostic purposes, the so-called false assessment of success is used. The subject can finish the work at any time during the study, for which he must, instead of selecting the next task, type “0” on the keyboard.

Modification of the basic methodology for analyzing the stability of intention

To diagnose the dynamics of intention as an operational mechanism of the individual’s time perspective, some changes were made to the basic methodology. It was as follows. After answering the question about the next choice of the difficulty level of the task, the subject answered the question about

what will be his next choice in case of successful and unsuccessful solution of his chosen task. In this way, the researcher had the opportunity to analyze two “levels” of goal setting - the formation of intentions and the actual acceptance of the goal.

The difference between the pre-goal (intention) and the real goal accepted by the subject was the subject of study of the present methodology. The degree of correspondence (or discrepancy) between the intention and the real goal was assessed by us as the degree of stability of the intention. The degree of stability of intention in the sense of its implementation in the form of a specific goal and action corresponding to the goal is considered as one of the important psychological parameters of the individual’s time perspective.

Time Perspective Analysis Options

To study the stability of intention, we analyzed the relationship between the preliminary intention to choose a difficulty level in case of failure or success and the actual choice of the subject. The following parameters were used: intention discrepancy coefficient (the average difference between the difficulty levels assumed in case of success and failure of each trial); the expected magnitude of the rise in claims if successful; the expected decline in claims in case of failure; the average magnitude and direction of the discrepancy between the intention and the actual goal in case of success and failure separately; the percentage of implementation of the intention in case of success and failure separately, the number of “failures” planned by the subject.

The scheme for studying time perspective proposed in the methodology is based on the dependence of subsequent choices on the success of previous trials. It is assumed that the subject most often plans to increase his aspirations after success. The variability of the time perspective after failure is significantly higher: the subject may express an intention to increase aspirations despite failure, repeat an attempt to solve the same problem, or lower aspirations. Greater variability in behavior during failure compared to behavioral strategies after success has been known since the time of F. Hoppe. We assumed that this pattern is observed not only when forming the level of aspirations, i.e. when choosing a real goal, but also when constructing a time perspective, both in its situational and sustainable aspects.

A large number of failures planned by the test subject, i.e. messages about the desire to complete the study, after which the subject continues to work, indicates a significant intensity of the experience of success and failure, forcing the subject to continue the decision contrary to the preliminary intention, as well as an orientation towards external (social) assessment of his behavior. Comparing the number of failures planned for success and failure makes it possible to judge the relative personal significance of a particular result for the subject.

The average size of the “step” planned by the subject after success or failure informs about the nature of the subject’s goal-setting strategy - whether we are dealing with a cautious step-by-step strategy or a risky, sweeping, unstable one.

The main parameter is the degree of correspondence between the intention and the choice of the real goal, which characterizes the degree of stability of the intention. Comparing the stability of intention in the case of success or failure allows one to judge the impact of success/failure on the dynamics of the subject’s time perspective, as well as determine the reason for its dynamics (success or failure).

The proposed system of parameters represents such features of a person’s time perspective as his

dynamism, strategy features, sustainability, exposure emotional correction, and also allows us to highlight the factors of its situational dynamics.

In addition to studying the features of constructing a person’s time perspective, we analyzed the relationship of these features with the parameters of productivity in problem solving activities. At the same time, the following productivity parameters were recorded: the maximum level of complexity of a successfully solved problem, the average level of complexity of a successfully solved problem, the percentage of successful solutions in relation to the total number of problem choices.

Finally, a comparison was made of the features of time perspective with the height and adequacy of the level of aspirations formed by the subjects.

Subjects

The subjects in our study were 48 Moscow State University students of non-psychological specialties - 18 boys and 30 girls aged 1725 years.

Results

As a result of the study, the subjects were divided into three groups in accordance with the main types of construction of time perspective. There were 20 subjects in the first group, 16 in the second, and 9 in the third. Three subjects were excluded from the analysis because the parameters of their activity were individual and could not be assigned to any of the selected groups. It turned out that the parameters of time perspective that we identified as the main ones are not independent, but form unique patterns that characterize a holistic strategy for constructing a time perspective.

The subjects of the first group are characterized by the following features of constructing a time perspective. The number of planned failures is significant: they are more often planned during failure (0.7 on average for the group) than during success (0.5). Claims increase less significantly than planned in case of success (average planned step of increasing claims is 3.3; actual step is 1.9), and fall less than planned in case of failure (average planned step of lowering claims after failure is 1.1; real step after failure 0.2). The coefficient of discrepancy between intentions in case of success and failure is 2.3. The percentage of intention implementation (its stability) is significant; it is slightly higher with success (59.5%) than with failure (39.7%).

The success of problem solving activities was characterized by the following parameters: the maximum level of complexity of a successfully solved problem - 10.0; the average level of complexity of a successfully solved problem is 6.3; success rate - 37.2%.

The height of the level of aspirations of the subjects in this group is 8.9; adequacy of the level of claims - 1.5.

The subjects of the second group are characterized by the following features of constructing a time perspective. A significant number of failures are planned (on average 1.0), and equally often for both success and failure. After success, aspirations increase more than expected (the magnitude of the aspiration increase steps is 1.2 and 0.3, respectively). In case of failure, there is almost complete correspondence between the intention (0.3) and the actual reduction in aspirations (0.2). The percentage of intentions being realized is high; slightly more goals are realized after success (89.3%) than after failure (52.7%).

The success of problem solving activities had the following indicators: the maximum level of a successfully solved problem - 13.7; the average level of a successfully solved problem is 7.6; the percentage of successfully solved problems is 54.1.

The subjects of the third group are characterized by the following features of time perspective. Subjects in this group never plan to fail. After failure, aspirations fall less than expected (the ratio of real choice and intentions is as follows: 0.5 and 3.4). After success, the planned increase in claims is 4.6, the actual increase in claims is significantly less (1.2). For subjects in this group it is typical low degree feasibility of intentions (17.7% after success and 10.0% after failure).

The parameters for the success of problem solving activities are as follows: the maximum level of a successfully solved problem is 9.3; the average level of a successfully solved problem is 5.2; the percentage of successfully solved problems is 64%.

Parameters of the level of aspirations: height of the level of aspirations - 7.2; adequacy of the level of claims - 1.4.

Summary results for the three groups of subjects are shown in the table.

Summary performance indicators for three groups of subjects

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Psychological characteristics and determinants of constructing a time perspective of subjects of the first group.

One of the features of this group is the large number of planned failures. This means that the next time the subjects are asked about their future intentions, they indicate their desire to complete the experiment. However, they do not do this, but continue to work. We regard this feature as an indicator of the demonstrative behavior of the subjects and their focus on external evaluation.

The discrepancy between intention and real choice characterizes the instability of intention, its significant deformation on the part of immediate motivational-emotional experiences associated with success and failure. Let us note once again the demonstrative behavior of the subjects, the discrepancy between risky intentions and much more modest, realistic choices. We can assume a splitting of two plans of behavior of the subjects: real and demonstrative.

A rather insignificant percentage of the implementation of intentions indicates the instability of the intentions of the subjects in this group. The instability of intentions increases during the transition from success to failure, which indicates more

the strong deforming influence of failure on the time perspective compared to the influence of success.

It is interesting, however, to note that although the very fact of a shift in intention during a real choice is more often observed in the case of failure, the degree of this shift in the case of success among the subjects of this group is higher. This indicates the different nature of the influence of success and failure on the time perspective of the subjects in this group. Success causes a meaningful correction of intention towards sharp increase aspirations, and failure rather gives rise to less significant, although noticeable, fluctuations in choice towards greater stabilization of aspirations. Thus, it can be assumed that the demonstrative behavior of the subjects of this group gives rise to the following phenomena in situations of success and failure: success causes a euphoric emotional state, “inspires” the subject. Failure, on the contrary, causes greater stability in the subject’s real behavior compared to his panicked, demonstrative intentions.

The success of the subjects of this group is average for all indicators (maximum, average achievements, percentage of success).

However, at an average height of the level of aspirations, the subjects of this group show maximally inflated aspirations in comparison with other subjects. The level of aspirations is one and a half times higher than the level of achievements of the subjects.

The identified patterns of the formation of aspirations and time perspective apparently have a single determinant in the form of the motivation of the subjects. A comparison of the behavior of the subjects with behavioral strategies typical for the predominance of various motives suggests that the basis for the behavior observed in the study is the dominance of self-affirmation motivation. This type of motivation imparts to the behavior of the subjects the properties observed in the study: orientation towards external assessment, focus on success, a demonstrative decrease in tolerance for failure while maintaining this tolerance in real behavior, inspiration by success, an inflated idea of one’s own capabilities. Such properties of behavior have personal determination and are manifested in various life situations, forming a specific sustainable behavior in a situation of success/failure. Subjects in this group treat any situation (including a research situation) as a test, an examination of their own capabilities. The semantic result of this focus is consideration of the research results in connection with self-esteem, existing social status, indirectly expressing external assessment. The peculiarity of self-affirmation motivation is the significant stability and strength of the motive, as well as high degree personal significance of performance results for the subject. Subjects with the motivation of self-affirmation are distinguished by high emotionality, which in the case of chronic failure turns into an affect of inadequacy.

A situation of failure is accompanied by highly emotional behavior, demonstrative feelings, and possibly suicidal or hysterical manifestations. However, the real tolerance and adaptability of behavior in situations of failure in life among such people is significantly higher than what is demonstrated.

Psychological characteristics and determinants of the formation of time perspective and level of aspirations of subjects of the second group.

The subjects of this group showed a greater correspondence between the intention and the actual choice of goal than in the first group. This concerns both the very fact of deviation of the real goal from the preliminary intention, and the degree of this deviation. So, in case

failure, the planned and actual magnitude of the drop in claims practically coincides. The percentage of absolutely accurate fulfillment of intentions in case of failure is also high. If successful, we see almost complete (89.3%) implementation of the preliminary intention in the form of a real choice. In other cases, with success, there is a slightly larger increase in aspirations than planned, but the degree of increase is significantly less than in subjects with self-affirmation motivation. The excess of actual choice compared to intention remains significant, which indicates a high intensity of the experience of success and the subject’s orientation towards success. Subjects are also inspired by their own successes, which leads to an upward shift in the actual goal compared to the intention. In case of failure, there is a stronger tendency to fulfill the intention compared to other groups of subjects, which indicates greater stability and tolerance to failure.

A high percentage of intention implementation in case of success and failure indicates the stability of the strategy of forming the time perspective of the subjects in relation to situational-emotional factors, and the predominance of more global, supra-situational determinants of goal choice.

The success of solving problems in all indicators (maximum, average, and percentage) exceeds the achievements of subjects from the first group.

Subjects from the second group form a significantly higher and more adequate level of aspirations compared to the previous group. Since the level of aspirations of subjects from the second group is significantly higher than that of subjects from the first group, a greater coefficient of adequacy of aspirations (1.2) is achieved by increasing the level of achievements.

The strategic features of the behavior of subjects from the second group, when compared with the behavioral patterns of subjects with different motivations, show the greatest similarity with the activities of subjects with a dominance of achievement motivation. This type motivational orientation is associated with orientation towards end result a certain level. This understanding of achievement motivation is close in content to the theory of achievement motivation. The achievement motive, unlike, for example, the cognitive motive, is not procedural, but “final” (productive) in nature. A high level of results has its own motivating value.

Typical for such people is a focus on achieving social success, building a career, a clear and well-developed time perspective, the expectation of success rather than failure, relative independence from external approval or censure, stability of plans, tolerance towards failure, a combination of adaptability and stability in the formation life strategy.

Psychological characteristics and determinants of the formation of time perspective and level of aspirations of subjects of the third group.

The subjects had no planned refusals to continue the study. This indicator interpreted by us as internal constraint, a decrease in the motivating influence of intermediate results on the progress of the subject’s work. Similar to the subjects from the first group, in a situation of failure, the subjects from the third group reduce their claims less than was planned. Sometimes there is even a paradoxical increase in aspirations after failure. This effect is described in classical studies of the level of aspirations and is protective in nature. According to these studies, a paradoxical increase in aspirations serves as a way to reduce anxiety about possible failure by choosing a goal that is obviously unattainable.

The degree of discrepancy between intention and real goal among subjects from the third group is extremely high, both in case of success and in case of failure. The intention to increase aspirations in case of success also significantly exceeds actual increases in aspirations.

The subjects from the third group also differed by record low performance the feasibility of intentions in case of success (17.7%), and especially in case of failure (only 10.0%). Low percentage implementation of intention speaks of the fragility of the time perspective among the subjects of this group, its susceptibility to the deforming influence of emotional experiences associated with success/failure, as well as the predominance of external determinants of the formation of time perspective to the detriment of internal, personally stable ones.

The time strategy of subjects in this group is determined by dependence on external assessments and is in the nature of reinsurance. The fear of failure and at the same time the expectation of it manifests itself in increased emotional and personal sensitivity to failure. This leads to intense deformation of the subjects’ intentions depending on the situational results of their activities. This feature can be defined as an exaggerated dependence of time perspective on situational determinants, its lability, instability.

Analysis of the strategy of subjects from the third group from the point of view of dominant motivation shows that the most probable assumption is the presence of motivation to avoid failure. The motivation to avoid failure has traditionally been described in the context of aspiration level research. The presence of specific features of the behavioral strategy of subjects in this group confirms the legitimacy of identifying the avoidance tendency as an independent motivational line. In this sense, the motivation to avoid failure is not simply the absence or low expression of achievement motivation. It not only suppresses achievement behavior, but forms an independent specific behavioral strategy that has its own characteristic of activity. The peculiarity of the activity is its pronounced dependence on success. If successful, the strategy is cautious (reinsurance); Chronic failure leads to disorganization of activity, acquiring a chaotic, uncontrollable character. The strategy is based on underestimating the success achieved and intensely experiencing failure. With significant experience of failure, the activity of the subjects becomes impossible and they stop it against the backdrop of deep negative experiences.

Analysis of the productivity of problem solving and the formation of the level of aspirations of the subjects of this group confirms the validity of the assumption about the dominance of the motivation to avoid failure. Thus, subjects from the third group form the lowest level of aspirations in the entire sample (7.2). The average success rate is also the lowest. However, it is interesting that the motivation to avoid failure manifests itself in a high percentage of successful trials in relation to the total number of selections. This indicates that subjects with a motivation to avoid failure are oriented toward the very fact of success rather than toward the high level of success achieved. In situations of stability and moderate success, the activities of the subjects are quite stable, although they are not associated with high achievement activity. However, unstable situations that do not guarantee results have an extremely negative impact on their behavior. Disorganization of activity sets in, and an inability to formulate and solve even relatively simple problems arises. As a result, against the backdrop of emotional tension, chaotic, disorganized, and sometimes destructive forms behavior.

COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF CONSTRUCTING A TIME PERSPECTIVE DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF MOTIVATION

Thus, as a result of the study, three main ways of situational construction and functioning of the individual’s time perspective were identified. These types of time perspective differ in the parameters of temporary stability, susceptibility to emotional deformation, dependence on success/failure, and the degree of situational correction. The parameters for constructing a time perspective have revealed a correlation with the motivational characteristics of the subject, the level of his aspirations and achievements.

The data obtained showed that depending on the type of motivation of the subject, individual characteristics of the individual’s time perspective are formed. Thus, dependence on the type of motivation reveals such a parameter of the individual’s time perspective as the deformation of intention from the direct emotional experience of the result of one’s own activity. This deformation is manifested in the discrepancy between the expected and real choices. This discrepancy is most clearly observed in subjects with a motivation to avoid failure and self-affirmation, and to a somewhat lesser extent in subjects with an achievement motivation.

The degree of deformation of intention in subjects of all groups depends on what kind of decision result was achieved - positive or negative. The ratio of the values of the deformation of intention in the case of success and failure can serve as a criterion for the intensity of the emotional experience of a particular result and its personal significance for the subject. The greatest degree of deformation of intention in the event of failure is observed in subjects with a motivation to avoid failure. A similar, although less pronounced tendency is observed in subjects with other forms of motivation - self-affirmation and achievement.

Common to all groups of subjects is a decrease in the feasibility of intentions during the transition from success to failure. This is consistent with F. Hoppe’s position about greater variability in the behavior of subjects after failure compared to success and indicates a greater intensity of the experience of failure compared to success for all groups of subjects with different motivations.

The specificity of motivation determines the magnitude and direction of the “deformation” of intention in the course of adopting a real goal. The motivation of self-affirmation and avoidance of failure determines a more cautious than expected increase in aspirations after success, which is dictated by the subjects’ orientation to external evaluation. In the case of achievement motivation, external assessment loses crucial, the subjects are characterized by an intense desire for success: the experience of success leads to a greater increase in aspirations than planned.

Subjects with the motivation of avoiding failure and self-affirmation are characterized by a smaller than planned decrease in aspirations after failure. Subjects with the motive of avoiding failure demonstrate a specific defensive reaction to failure - increasing their aspirations, whereas they had the intention of reducing them. Thus, failure activates the personality’s defense mechanisms, which affects the fate of the time perspective. This phenomenon can be explained by the discrepancy between the direct emotional experience of a negative result and a more indirect rational preliminary assessment.

The feasibility of an intention characterizes the general level of structure of the individual’s time perspective and the strategy of activity as a whole. Thus, achievement motivation increases

feasibility of time perspective in real activities. Apparently, this property is based on a greater depth of time perspective and its stability in relation to emotional and situational factors. The high feasibility of intentions speaks, on the one hand, about their structuring role in the subject’s behavior, on the other hand, about the transition from the direct, emotional and situational determination of behavior to a more rational and mediated form. With motivation associated with self-esteem and self-affirmation, the direct emotional experience of the result of behavior prevails over the indirect, reflexive determinants of behavior. The consequence of this is the deformation of intention by direct emotional experiences of the result of the activity and the loss of the structuring and directing influence on the behavior of the individual by the time perspective.

The fundamental fact of a stronger degree of deformation of intention after failure compared to success, observed in all subjects, indicates a greater personal significance and intensity of experience of the unsuccessful result of the decision. The magnitude of this deformation can serve as an indicator expressing the intensity of the experience of the result of the decision, the degree of its subjective significance and impact on the time perspective of the individual. The greatest degree of deformation of intention is observed in subjects with the motive of avoiding failure. The basis for the deformation of intention is the mismatch between rational anticipations of the course of activity and the immediate emotional experiences of its real results. A possible prerequisite that prevents the deformation of intention and orients the development of activity in the temporal aspect on the basis of a rational forecast is the predominance of motivational tendencies that are not centered on self-esteem and self-protection.

CONCLUSION

The construction and situational correction of a person’s time perspective is thus an integral part of an integral overall strategy for constructing human behavior. The dynamics of the feasibility of intention in the subject’s activity speaks of its structuring function in behavior. The feasibility of an intention depends on the content of the subject’s motivation. This motivational influence is manifested through the interaction of two different determinants of goal setting - cognitive-rational and direct-emotional. Motivation focused on self-esteem and self-protection contributes to the predominance of direct emotional determinants of intention correction, which affects the depth of the time perspective and is expressed in the deformation of intention, especially significant in a situation of failure. On the contrary, motivational tendencies not associated with self-affirmation contribute to the transition from direct emotional determination of behavior to an indirect one associated with a deeper and more stable time perspective.

1. Arestova O.N. Motivation and long-term goal setting in mental activity // Vestn. Moscow State University. Ser. 14. Psychology. 1999. No. 3. P. 1625.

2. Arestova O.N. The influence of motivation on the structure of goal setting // Vestn. Moscow State University. Ser. 14. Psychology. 1998. No. 4. P. 4052.

3. Borozdina L.V. Study of the level of aspirations. M., 1985.

4. Vasiliev I.A., Popluzhny V.L., Tikhomirov O.K. Thinking and emotions. M., 1980.

5. Zeigarnik B.V. Kurt Lewin's personality theory. M., 1981.

6. Levin K. Intention, will and need. Munich, 1925.

7. Leontyev A.N. Activity, consciousness, personality. M., 1975.

8. Neimark M.S. Personality orientation and inadequacy affect in adolescents // Study of the motivation of children and adolescents / Ed. L.I. Bozovic. M., 1972.

9. Spiridonova I.A. Temporal transspection as a methodological technique in the study of various forms of pathology // Methods of psychology. RPO Yearbook. T. 3. Issue. 2. Rostov n/d., 1997. P. 212214.

10. Frankl V. Man in search of meaning. M., 1990.

11. Hoppe F. Erfolg und Misselfolg // Psychol. Forsch. 1930. N 4.

12. McClelland D. et al. The achievement motive. N.Y., 1953.

Received by the editor on December 29, 1999.

source unknown

Less commonly, difficulties in understanding instructions may be due to gross violations phoneme tic perception or decreased acuity auditory perception generally.

- available level of difficulty of the task, which the child performs. The latter should be correlated with the average age-specific performance results, that is, assessed from the point of view of appropriateness to age.

Obviously, the main indicator in the analysis and general assessment of the cognitive sphere will be:

- overall performance given tasks and its compliance with age standards.

An equally important indicator when assessing and analyzing the implementation of tasks of an “intelligent” plan is

- activity strategy child. In this regard there may be
The following types of activity strategy are identified:

chaotic, that is, activity without taking into account the effectiveness of one’s own attempts, errors, trials;

Actions by trial and error method, that is, fairly targeted actions (maybe even erroneous ones), but with partial consideration of the trials and errors made;

purposeful execution of a task(with preliminary testing in perceptual-effective plan);

targeted execution with its own “anticipatory” programming and control activity (with preliminary visual correlation).

Ultimately, speaking about the strategy of activity, we come to understand the importance of another indicator for assessing cognitive child development, namely:

- criticality towards the results of one’s own activities. This indicator is also one of the most important “non-specific” criteria for assessing the child’s condition, which is difficult to overestimate when conducting differential diagnostics and psychological diagnosis.

It is also difficult to exaggerate the importance of assessing the potential of a child’s cognitive activity. The analysis of the types of assistance necessary and sufficient to complete certain tasks, its volume and degree of deployment seems to us the most important from the point of view of assessing the specifics of mental development as a whole. Such potential can be considered as child's learning ability in all its aspects.

Speaking about learning ability from the point of view of the characteristics of the cognitive sphere itself, it is necessary to consider the types of assistance provided to the child when working with certain diagnostic materials and didactic tools. As already noted, the type (specificity) and amount of assistance a child needs in completing certain tasks sufficiently reflects his learning ability.

The following types of assistance (training) can be distinguished, built in the logic of increasing its volume and scope for the child:

Stimulating assistance; organizing assistance (creation of an external program of activities); introduction of additional visibility; explanatory assistance; Full detailed training assistance with further transfer to similar material.

Learning ability, together with adequacy and criticality, can be considered as a set of extremely important differential diagnostic indicators.

All of the above indicators should be taken into account to one degree or another when analyzing the child’s performance of any of the proposed psychodiagnostic techniques.

Study of the operational characteristics of a child’s activity

Operational characteristics of activity are traditionally understood as characteristics of performance, the pace of mental activity, which to a certain extent reflect the level of mental activity. It is this factor that is often decisive for both performance and the pace of activity, and therefore the level of mental activity can be considered as one of the integrative characteristics that should be reflected in a psychological diagnosis.

The tempo characteristics of activity are an extremely important indicator of the productivity of the child’s mental activity as a whole, however, it makes sense not just to state a high or low tempo of activity, but to record dynamic changes in tempo under certain conditions of performing the proposed tasks or with their varying complexity.

It also makes sense to note that, in general, the operational characteristics of activities should be assessed in a dynamic aspect. As already mentioned, when working with a child, we can often observe, for example, a change in performance due to fatigue or satiety, a change in the pace of activity when motivation changes, etc.

The ability of a specialist to highlight the influence of the actual operational characteristics of a child’s activity and their dynamics on the performance of any type of task allows one to avoid both certain errors in interpreting the results of a psychological examination and to better understand the characteristics of the child’s behavior as a whole and, accordingly, to more clearly imagine general structure deviant development, correctional and developmental measures are necessary in each specific case.

Accordingly, this section provides a number of techniques for studying performance characteristics and attention parameters.

Pieron-Ruser technique

This technique is used to study and evaluate such parameters of attention as its stability, the ability to switch, and distribution. At the same time, you can evaluate the characteristics of the pace of activity, the ability to work on a task, and the manifestation of signs of fatigue and satiety. In its classical version of presentation, the technique fully realizes the possibility of studying the level of formation of voluntary regulation mental functions(programming one’s own activities and controlling them, retaining instructions, distributing attention according to a number of characteristics). The technique also gives an idea of the speed and quality of the formation of a simple activity program, the assimilation of a new way of action, the formation of elementary graphic skills, and hand-eye coordination.

Corrective tests

This type of technique is generally similar in its goals and objectives to the Pieron-Ruzer technique, but is used for children starting from 7-8 years old age. There are both letter and graphic versions of the technique. The technique is also intended to study the stability of attention, the possibilities of its switching, the study of the characteristics of the pace of activity, the ability to master a task, the manifestation of signs of fatigue and satiety, the influence various types motivation for productivity.

When working with a proof test, the child is asked to alternately identify and cross out elements in a certain way (certain letters, certain type or specifically oriented graphic objects, etc.), the number of which varies depending on the age of the child and the special goals of the study. Thus, the letter correction test is very indicative in the study of children with optical-spatial dysgraphia, including in a dynamic sense - as an assessment of the effectiveness of correctional measures. Graphic proofreading tests are more adequate when working with preschool children.

By the number of correctly identified elements, one can determine the degree of stability of attention, its active volume, and the possibility of distributing attention according to the number of elements necessary for highlighting. The distribution of errors on the proofreading form makes it possible to assess the characteristics of attention. If errors noticeably increase towards the end of work, this may indicate a weakening of attention due to fatigue (decreased performance) or satiety; if errors are distributed fairly evenly, this indicates a decrease in the stability of attention and difficulties in voluntary concentration. The wave-like appearance and disappearance of errors most often indicates fluctuations or fluctuations in attention. In the presence of random or special interference during the performance of a task, one can draw conclusions about the stability of attention and the child’s resistance to interference.

Account according to E. Kraepelin (modification by R. Schulte)

The technique was proposed to study performance (exercise), identify parameters of fatigue and ability to perform a certain type of action. For children, it is most convenient to use this technique as modified by R. Schulte. The child is asked to add (or subtract, depending on the sign in front of the line) two numbers in his head, and tell the psychologist only the result obtained (respectively, the sum or the difference between the upper and lower number).

A prerequisite for using the technique is the child’s ability to mentally perform counting operations within 20, which places demands not only on the child’s age, but also on his knowledge of the program material.

Based on the results of the child’s activities, various curves can be constructed that reflect performance characteristics, indicating the presence of exhaustion or satiety, and attention characteristics.

Methodology

The technique was developed to study the characteristics of performance. The technique was adapted for children. It should be noted that the methodology was one of the first tasks this kind, created on the basis of classifications of geometric shapes of different colors and sizes. Abroad, for example, the holistic system for the development of logical-mathematical concepts created by the Hungarian psychologist and mathematician Gyenes is widely used. Variants of the technique, adapted for children of preschool and primary school age, are used for neuropsychological diagnostics.

Target. The technique is used to identify the parameters of attention: maintaining attention, the ability to distribute attention according to one, two or three signs at the same time, switching attention. The technique also allows us to identify features of performance and other dynamic characteristics of mental activity.

At qualitative analysis and assessing the results of implementing the methodology, it is possible to assess motivational characteristics, retention of instructions, the possibility of programming the order of actions, the presence of a factor of activity inertia and satiation.

In general, it can be noted that the technique is one of the most multifaceted and interesting in terms of the possibilities of psychological interpretation of the results. Of course, analysis of the results makes it possible to evaluate a significantly larger range of parameters, in particular the formation of a voluntary component of activity, the characteristics of learning ability, the formation of spatial representations, the specifics of formation fine motor skills etc. In this section, the methodology is analyzed from the perspective of assessing the features of the operational characteristics of the activity.

Topic 3.2: Study of the features of mnestic activity

Memorizing two groups of words. Memorizing 10 words (by). Memorizing two phrases. Study of mediated memory (by). Study of mediated memory (pictogram).

Literature:

1., Kornilov’s cognitive sphere of the child.-M., 1994.

2. Stepanov intelligence using the drawing test method.-M., 1996.

3. Kherson pictograms in psychodiagnostics. - St. Petersburg, 2003.

Study of the features of mnestic activity

From our point of view, the study of mnestic activity is an integral part of the study of the cognitive sphere as a whole. Moreover, as can be seen from previous chapters, the study of this component cognitive activity is one of the central key points examination of the child, which allows, to a certain extent, both to clarify the diagnostic hypothesis and to determine the tactics of conducting the examination. Let us emphasize once again that, due to its importance for assessing the mental development of a child, an assessment of the nature of his mnestic activity must be carried out at the very beginning of the examination. Understanding very well that quite a lot of types and methods for studying this component of cognitive activity have been developed, we believe that for real practice activities of a psychologist In education, it is quite enough to study the parameters of auditory-verbal memorization and various phenomena of reproducing information presented “by ear.” These indicators of mnestic activity are most in demand in the practice of teaching children and are the most important factor, which determines the specifics of cognitive activity as a whole. At the same time, situations are quite possible (as part of the formation or adjustment of a research hypothesis) when the psychologist needs to evaluate other modally specific types of mnestic activity of the child (for example, features of visual or tactile memorization and, accordingly, reproduction).

Memorizing two groups of words

The technique is aimed at studying the speed and volume of auditory-verbal memorization, the influence of the interference factor when memorizing material, the problems of selectivity of mnestic traces, and the possibilities of maintaining the order of the presented material. For the first time, a similar method for assessing auditory-verbal memorization was used in the practice of neuropsychological examination.

Research on mediated memory (by)

The idea of creating a methodology was proposed by Sky, developed and tested (1928) for the study of logical or indirect memorization. It is used in the study of voluntary forms of memorization in preschool children.

The ability to indirectly remember, reflecting a certain level of development higher forms memory, is at the same time an essential characteristic of intellectual activity in general and can serve as one of the criteria for a child’s mastery of voluntary types of activities. The methodology for studying the dynamics of the formation of voluntary mnestic activity in ontogenesis makes it possible to multilaterally analyze the process of formation of such an aspect mental activity, as a means of organizing productive memorization. Provided by the structure of this experiment, the obligatory search for a mediating link (in the proposed methodology - the corresponding picture) for memorization presupposes an active choice of significant means, which, of course, reflects both the general level of development and the characteristics of the child’s mental activity.

Target. Study of the possibility of using an external means for memorization tasks, the amount of material memorized indirectly. Study of the characteristics of a child’s mental activity.

Pictogram

The pictogram method - creating images for indirect memorization of concepts - has been proposed. This method allows you to study the features of conceptual thinking and memory: the nature of their violation, the effective component of thinking , the nature of the associative process; personal characteristics of a person based on projections.

However, the use this method For psychological work with healthy people makes it possible to discover the characteristics of a person’s relationships, attitudes, the nature of his emotional difficulties, etc.

The pictogram technique is quite simple. The subject is given a standard sheet(s) of paper, a soft pencil and asked to remember a number of words, but for better memorization, make a drawing for each.

The instructions stipulate that the quality of the drawing does not matter, since sometimes the subjects refer to their inability to draw. In addition, the subject is asked not to resort to verbal or letter codes for the words being memorized.

It is very useful for the experimenter to record all the spontaneous speech production of the subject that arises during the execution of the task. You can also ask clarifying questions about the images taken.

For example, “How will this image help you remember...”

Usually a certain set of words (10-20 words) is used, for which it is necessary to make auxiliary drawings - pictograms. In the case of retesting, the test taker is offered an additional set of concepts. The most commonly used sets are:

1. Happy holiday.

2. Hard work.

3. Delicious dinner.

4. Illness.

5. Doubt.

6. Separation.

7. Development.

8. Love.

9. Hungry child.

10. Sadness.

11. Despair.

12. Wealth.

13. Beautiful woman.

14. A brave act.

15. Happiness.

17. An unforgivable mistake.

18. A real man.

19. Warm wind.

20. Favorite activity.

Usually, words of more concrete content are offered at the beginning, and then more abstract ones.

Often, along with standard concepts, the set includes specific, “affectively charged” ones that are significant for a particular subject.

As a rule, this technique is offered in combination and in comparison with others, and then the motivation of the study, as a test of visual memory, allows you to change the direction of the subject’s attention, providing greater spontaneity, freedom in constructing an image and reducing controllability.

Only after completing the entire task, and sometimes after an hour, every other day, etc., is the subject asked to remember the given words from the pictures, and the recall is asked to be done not in order, but in breakdown. You should ask the subject how the drawing helped him remember the word.

When analyzing, “Pictograms” are considered as a semantic series of indicators (the content of the pictures, theme, plot), clarity of understanding of the meaning of the subject when explaining concepts, knowledge of each concept for the subject; and a graphical series of indicators (location of the picture on the sheet, size, stroke, lines, strikethroughs, shading, image details).

It is generally accepted that this technique, first of all, allows one to study the characteristics of thought processes from the perspective of such characteristics as the conformity of thinking, its clarity, volume, type of organization of thinking, emotional coloring thought processes, etc.

A proposal about conformity of thinking can be made if standard typical images are used in 1/2-2/3 of the drawings and their explanations to the subjects.

It is clear that such a conclusion can be made by an experimenter who has significant experience with this technique and has accumulated certain statistics on the frequency of occurrence of images in different subjects.

When using typical (frequently occurring images) in 1/3-1/2 of the drawings, it can be considered that the subject has discovered non-conformity of thinking.

If such images occur in less than 1/3 of all drawings, then the subject’s thinking is sharply non-conforming and, conversely, sharply conforming if standard images occur in more than 2/3 of the drawings.

Clarity of thinking is determined by the nature of the use of signs of a phenomenon that relate it to a certain category of concepts.

At the same time, it is important to remember that with clear thinking, the subject’s pictograms are dominated by drawings (up to 2/3 of the total), based on the main features, rather than weak or random ones.

If thinking is not clear enough, only half of the drawings and explanations are based on the basic features of concepts.

With fuzzy thinking, weak signs of concepts predominate (approximately 50 percent) and random signs occur.

When thinking is impaired, random signs sharply predominate. Images can be selected according to their consonance (for example, a “cup of tea” pictogram is drawn for the word “despair”).

The volume of thinking is determined by the number of features that make up the characteristics of the concept in the explanation, that is, with a normal volume of thinking, the main feature and some additional ones are highlighted.

With a narrowed scope of thinking, the main feature is used, but the explanation is limited to pointing to one group (type) of phenomena and objects.

With an expanded scope of thinking, the pictogram includes phenomena and objects that reflect weak and random signs of the concept.

The type of organization of thinking is determined by the nature of the construction of the process of explanation. Moreover, if the explanation is built from simple signs to more complex ones while maintaining their correlation with each other, there is a high logical organization of thinking. If the explanation is built on the basis of situational connections between objects, then specific, situational thinking appears.

The emotional coloring of thinking affects the clarity of thinking when explaining concepts that have positive or negative emotional content (a happy holiday, happiness, friendship or serious illness, separation, despair). It's about what emotions are evoked a certain concept, and how they influence the clarity of thinking, strengthen it or weaken it, mobilize a person or demobilize him.

Similarly, based on the pictograms and its explanation, one can draw a conclusion about a person’s ability to contact other people. It is important to pay attention to the increase or decrease in the clarity of thinking on words - concepts that include interactions with other people (friendship, separation, toxic question, etc.), which can characterize a person’s ability to joint activities, its contact, adaptability, features of attention distribution during group interaction, etc.

One of the important diagnostic indicators is the degree of abstraction-concreteness, images and explanations used.

So, for example, pictograms can use both abstract images (diagrams, geometric figures, signs, mathematical symbols, etc.) and concrete ones - real-life objects and phenomena.

In addition, abstract images can be conformal (straight lines, geometric shapes, diagrams, diagrams, arrows, dots, circles, etc.) and non-conformal (abstract images of complex non-geometric shapes, symbols, signs of a non-traditional type).

Concrete and conformal images are more common in people who easily adapt to their environment, and, on the contrary, specific and non-conformal images occur in people whose adaptation is limited.

Graphic indicators “Pictograms”

Position of the drawing on the sheet

Pictograms on a sheet can be arranged in either an ordered or disordered (chaotic) manner. It is believed that there is a connection between the orderliness (organization) of the arrangement of drawings and personal organization, organization of thinking, and the predominance of the rational over the emotional. At a symbolic level, for the subject, the sheet(s) of paper represents his living space, and it is very important to pay attention to how he manages it. Sometimes the sheet is drawn into cells, in which drawings are then made. Such manipulations of additional structuring of space make it possible to create more rigid supports that reduce uncertainty.

The neat arrangement of drawings in pre-prepared “cells” or their digital designation is typical for people of an epiletoid type, focused on programming their own actions, on organization, accuracy, commitment, and pedantry of character.

Making separate pictograms each time on a new sheet is typical for people who are self-propagating, prone to attributing additional significance to themselves and who do not know how to use all the opportunities that life provides them.

The location of the drawings at the top of the sheet is associated with the mental stress of the subject. Most often it occurs in people who are timid, fearful, wary, and have a general predisposition to mental stress.

The arrangement of drawings in the upper part of the sheet is typical for people with a high level of mental energy, striving for self-affirmation, and, on the contrary, their location in the lower part of the sheet reflects low level mental energy, uncertainty, feeling of weakness, timidity.

In other words, all the patterns of arrangement of the drawing on the sheet described above remain in force.

Dimensions of drawings

The size of the drawing is considered regardless of the size of the sheet; the average size is 4-5 cm. larger side drawing. Such drawings are typical for balanced and calm people. .

Large size (6-15 cm) is more common among people with high self-esteem, self-confident, persistent and cheerful.

If the drawing is more than 15 cm, then it is considered very large and characterizes its performer as having an aggressive, explosive character, striving for self-propagation.

This display of self-confidence can manifest itself as defense mechanism according to the type of hypercomplexity.

A pattern of less than 4 cm is considered small and occurs in people with low mood, experiencing a state of depression or having low and unstable self-esteem.

Micro-patterns (less than 1 cm) are very often a sign of pathology (schizoid, deep neuroses, etc.) or occur in people with serious mental problems.

Sometimes the subject draws pictograms different sizes. The “uniformity” of the size of the drawings is an indicator of a balanced state. “Different-sized” drawings appear either for reasons of psychological imbalance, or because some stimulus words have a special personal meaning.

The lines of the drawing, the pressure on the pencil, erasing, crossing out and other characteristics are important for interpretation. The analysis of these indicators is carried out in accordance with the patterns discussed above.

When analyzing pictograms, special attention should be paid to the details of the image. All highlighted, prominent and unusual details should be considered in connection with their meaning, which is given by the subject himself with explanations. It is very important to perceive and “read” them as personal projections. Finding out the semantic meaning of such “unexpected”, “atypical” details can provide a lot of diagnostic material.

Same type and repeating details of drawings, identical or very similar in form, method of representation, as well as in semantic content, are most often found in people who are rigid, prone to reasoning and subordination. Repetition of images and graphic elements of drawings also occurs in people who are easily tired, weakened and prone to slow thinking.

Using symbols

The pictogram technique, which stimulates the free choice of an image to mention, is projective and allows you to explore personal characteristics man, his features mental state, the nature of interests, plans, concerns and problems.

Particularly informative are the images used to remember emotionally charged words (hope, happiness, illness, etc.). They are “autobiographical” and shed light on the existential situation of the subject.

Often, however, opposite tendencies are found in the pictogram - complete absence images, the choice of “literary cliches” or “cold”, neutral images.

“Cold images” are understood as those that, despite being adequate in content, turn out to be too far from a person’s personal experiences and do not in any way reveal his own thoughts or emotional relationships. This tendency can be found in subjects who are somewhat fenced off, withdrawn, not “involved” in the testing situation, or who are actively “defending themselves” from the experimenter.

The images used in the “Pictogram” can be very diverse. Let's illustrate this with some examples.

Most often, to remember the concept of “Disease,” the image of a thermometer, pills, or a person lying in bed is used; a man with a bandaged throat; image of a bed, a bottle of medicine. In some cases, a serious illness is depicted using an abstract graph - a temperature curve.

In a number of cases, when interpreting drawings on this issue, it is advisable to use the “language” of organs, discovered in psychomatic medicine (for example, a bandaged throat - the inability to openly express oneself, express one’s emotions, the image of a “broken heart” is associated with the inability to express one’s feelings and accept them from other people, etc.).

Doubt is most often depicted through an abstract symbol of a question or a drawing of a person in a pose of doubt (scratching his head, raising his shoulders, etc.).

Typical drawings on the theme “Separation” are: leaving transport, arrows, a road going into the distance, a farewell hand gesture, sometimes an abstract image of a whole that breaks down into elements.

You should pay attention to the degree of detail or abstraction of the image, which indicates either attention to the problem or the work of “resistance”.

In healthy subjects, the images embodied in the drawings are adequate to the content of the concepts and are moderately generalized. They are selected quite quickly, and are also simply and concisely explained.

Topic 3.3: Study of the perceptual-effective component of cognitive activity

Study of ideas about size. Seguin Board Method. Koos technique. Progressive matrices by J. Raven.

Literature:

Baranov's cognitive interests in primary schoolchildren and preschoolers. - St. Petersburg, 2006. , Kornilov's cognitive sphere of the child. - M., 1994. , Pylaeva's development of visual-verbal functions. - M., 2003. , Kornilov's cognitive sphere of the child.- M. , 1994 Raven J. K., Kurt J. H., Raven J. Guide to the Ravenna Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary Scales. - M., 1996 Shivarev “Seguin Boards” // Questions of pathopsychology. - M., 1970

Study of ideas about magnitude (at the subject level)

The study of the formation of ideas about relative size is carried out on the material of objects inserted into each other of the same shape (cups, ramekins, bowls, etc.). Traditionally, the method can be considered borrowed from defectological practices. Such material is normally used to analyze the formation of these concepts in children from 2,5 to 4 years.

In the game task, the child is first presented with all the molds, folded one into the other, and then they are quickly laid out in random order on the table or carpet where the child is, and asked to fold them in their original form.

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Koos technique

The classic version of the technique includes 16 multi-colored red-white-blue-yellow cubes with a side size of 18x18 mm, and a set of 18 multi-colored patterns. The size of the color images is slightly smaller than the size of the actual folded patterns.

Target. The main goal of the study is to determine the level of formation of constructive spatial thinking, the possibilities of spatial analysis and synthesis, and constructive praxis.

Also Koos technique can be used to study the level of aspirations. For this purpose, test patterns are not numbered (which it makes sense to bind into an album of test patterns).

Working with children from 3 to 10-12 years The authors consider it advisable to offer for use an incomplete number of cubes (nine pieces) and, accordingly, test patterns, since patterns from 12 to 18 are difficult to distribute by gradation shortcodes">