Objectivity and universality of management principles. Management science is based on a system of basic provisions and principles that are unique to it. Its main objectives are the study and practical application of the principles of development of the entire set of management relations and various forms of their manifestation in determining goals, developing plans, creating economic and organizational conditions for the effective activities of work collectives. Studying and mastering these patterns is a necessary condition for improving the management of public and private production, improving economic infrastructure and raising national economy countries.

The behavior of one of the main and most complex subjects of management - man - is also based on certain principles, internal beliefs that determine his attitude to reality, on moral standards. Management principles are objective, i.e. do not depend on the will and desires of individuals, although any truth is learned through a complex system of subject-object relations, and this is the main difficulty in managing society and the individual. These principles cannot be considered the absolute truth, but only a tool that can only tell the manager how to more intelligently influence the controlled system, and what kind of reaction should probably be expected to the control action. Even the most experienced manager, who is fluent in management theory, is not immune from an unreasonable, emotional reaction to a situation. It is always easier to understand and defend principles than to live by them.

Management principles are universal, that is, they are applicable to influence the individual and for optimal management of any society: official (industrial, official, civil, public) or unofficial (family, friendly, everyday).

Social management objects are the most complex and responsible. Although the natural basis of personality is its genetic, biological features(a person is formed approximately 15% depending on hereditary factors and 85% on his environment), yet the determining factors are his social properties: views, needs, abilities, interests, moral and ethical beliefs, etc. Social structure personality is formed in the sphere of production, social activities, as well as in the sphere of family and everyday life. The social activity of an individual is largely determined by the family structure and moral climate of the family. The family is at the origins of personality formation, family harmony is one of the most important components of human happiness, and happy parents raise kind, mentally healthy children.

A particularly complex object of management is a collective, that is, a group of people united on the basis of common tasks, joint actions, and constant contacts. The intellectual, cultural and moral potential of team members is so different that it is difficult to predict the reaction of each individual to the control influence. How to maintain friendly, cordial relationships in the family, how to establish and maintain mutual understanding with your colleague, how to influence the team in order to achieve assigned tasks without conflicts and stress? Management principles as the foundation of the most complex of arts - the art of management do not pretend to be a panacea for all occasions, but in all cases they will not leave a person without well-founded, thoughtful recommendations from professional specialists.

Management principles determine the patterns of formation of a managed system: its structure, methods of influencing the team, form the motivation for the behavior of its members, take into account the features of technology and technical equipment of managerial work. The art of management cannot rely only on intuition and the talent of a leader. This art is based on a solid theoretical basis accumulated over thousands of years by human civilization - on the principles and laws of management. Let's look at the most important of these principles.

1. Principle of Purpose: Every action must have a clear and specific purpose. It extends to all types of human activity, from government and industrial management to the tactics of individual behavior at the everyday and interpersonal levels. Without knowing the goal and the results that can be expected upon achieving it, any action, any action is doomed to failure or can cause a serious conflict ( see question 24).

Management is an art, like medicine or engineering, that must rely on its underlying science - concepts, theories, principles and methods.

Harold Kunz
President of the International
Academy of Management

I did not invent or invent any laws: I discovered them and therefore I can place myself (with all due modesty) on the same level as Archimedes, Pythagoras and Newton.

Cyril Northcote Parkinson.
"Parkinson's Laws"
Vladimir Igorevich Knorring.
"The Art of Management"

8.1. Objectivity and universality of management principles

Management science is based on a system of basic principles, principles that are unique to it, and at the same time relies on laws studied by other sciences related to management. It is obvious that, before starting to study the socio-psychological aspects of management and the art of influencing the individual and the team, it is necessary to consider fundamentals management - its principles. They start building a house not from the roof, but from its foundation.

The main objectives of management science are the study and practical application of the principles of development of the entire set of management relations and various forms of their manifestation in determining goals, developing plans, creating economic and organizational conditions for the effective activities of work collectives. Studying and mastering these patterns is a necessary condition for improving the management of public and private production, improving the economic infrastructure and raising the national economy of the country.

The behavior of one of the main and most complex subjects of management - a person - is also based on certain principles, internal beliefs that determine his attitude to reality, on moral standards. Management principles are objective, i.e. do not depend on the will and desires of individuals, although any truth is learned through a complex system of subject-object relations, and this is the main difficulty in managing society and the individual. These principles cannot be considered the absolute truth, but only a tool that allows one to slightly lift the veil over the super-complex world of the individual and the team and only suggest to the manager how to more intelligently influence the controlled system and what kind of reaction should probably be expected to the control influence. Even the most experienced manager, who is fluent in management theory, is not immune from an unreasonable, emotional reaction to a situation. “Feelings are good as servants, but terrible as masters,” but how strong is the tendency of servants to rebel... It is always easier to understand and defend principles than to live by them.

The principles of management of production, society and personality are based on the dialectical law of development, which generalizes the experience of human civilization. With the change of socio-political formations, with the continuous development of all phenomena in the world, methods, forms, techniques and the principles of management themselves change and improve. Changes in the political and economic situation in the country, transition to new level knowledge fills theory and practice with new content, one cannot use the accepted system of categories forever. Time also changes the language of science and terminology, and it is not surprising if any management principle, while its essence remains unchanged, is called different countries, in different national schools of management in their own way. The Russian school of management also has the right to do this. One of the founders of the scientific organization of labor, the creator of the “theory of administration” Henri Fayol said: “The number of principles of management is unlimited. Every rule, every administrative means that strengthens social education or facilitates its administration takes its place among the principles, at least for that time , while experience confirms him in this high rank. A change in the state of affairs may entail a change in the rules brought to life by this situation."

Fayol's authority is very high; his works in the theory and practice of management, which appeared along with the works of Taylor at the beginning of the 20th century, laid the foundations of scientific management and are deeply studied by specialists. However, the 14 management principles he proposed in their conceptual basis are not indisputable. These principles can rather be considered recommendations for organizing management, while the principles are the basis of the system and generalize phenomena in the field of knowledge from which they are abstracted. It is true that Koontz and Donnell observe that "principles cannot always be formulated as legitimate propositions. They can always be interpreted to mean that doing such and such will result in a more efficient and effective achievement of the goal."

For example, in Fayol, the principle of unity of command (employees should receive orders from only one boss) is adjacent to the principle of unity of leadership (activities should have one leader and one plan) and the principle of centralization. These principles differ only in minor and unprincipled nuances and may well be combined. The principles of discipline and order, justice and remuneration (“remuneration must be fair”), the subordination of individual interests to general interests and the spirit of corporatism are also autonomously determined. It seems that the principles of management should determine not the obvious, but deeper, fundamental patterns and at the same time serve as a guide to practical actions.

Management principles are universal, i.e. applicable to influence the individual and for optimal management of any society - official (industrial, official, civil, public) or unofficial (family, friendly, everyday). It is difficult to say where the role of these principles is especially relevant and important, but what is certain is that social facilities management is the most complex and responsible. Although the natural basis of a personality is its genetic and biological characteristics (a person is formed approximately 15% depending on factors of heredity and 85% on his environment [140]), the determining factors are still his social properties: views, needs, abilities, interests, moral and ethical beliefs, etc. The social structure of the individual is formed in the sphere of production, social activities, as well as in the sphere of family and everyday life.

A particularly complex management object is the collective, i.e. a group of people united on the basis of common tasks, joint actions, and constant contacts. The intellectual, cultural and moral potential of team members is so different that it is difficult to predict the reaction of each individual to the control influence. How to maintain friendly, cordial relationships in the family, how to establish and maintain mutual understanding with your colleague, how to influence the team in order to achieve assigned tasks without conflicts and stress? The principles of management as the foundation of the most complex of arts - the art of management - do not pretend to be a panacea for all occasions, but in all cases they will not leave a person without well-founded, thoughtful recommendations from professional specialists.

So, management principles determine the patterns of formation of a managed system: its structures, methods of influencing the team, form the motivation for the behavior of its members, take into account the features of technology and technical equipment of managerial work. The art of management cannot rely only on intuition and the talent of a leader. This art is based on a solid theoretical basis accumulated over thousands of years by human civilization - on the principles and laws of management. Let's look at the most important of these principles.

8.2. Principle of purpose

The laws of the external world and nature are the foundations of expedienthuman activity.

V. I. Lenin

It is perhaps difficult to find a person who would find it difficult to answer the question: what is a goal? It is clear that this is what we want to achieve, the goal is a mental, thoughtful and balanced determination of the result towards which our thoughts and actions are aimed. Happiness, well-being of family and friends, achievement of fame, honors and wealth - goals can be distant and close, general and private, intermediate and final. But it is even more difficult to find a person who could, in his everyday life, in the daily bustle and routine, remember these goals and give himself an account - why did he say this, why did he do it, what goal did he want to achieve? It is no coincidence that the question about the purpose of life has never been answered.

The problem of purpose and expediency is quite complex and multifaceted; these questions were studied by Aristotle, the Stoics, and teleology (from the Greek telos - goal and logos - word, religious and philosophical doctrine about the presence of goal-setting principles in the world), various aspects of this problem were considered as follows: major scientists and philosophers such as Leibniz, Schelling and Hegel.

In management, the problem of the goal is central, it determines and regulates actions and is the basic law, a complex algorithm of behavior that subordinates all aspects of the control influence. In cybernetics, a goal is understood as the action of feedback, in which information about the difference between the required and the fact stimulates the system to approach the optimal state. The functioning of any system, including human activity, will be effective if the cause-and-effect relationship between the elements of its structure includes a well-founded, clearly formulated goal that corresponds to the conditions and capabilities as the most important link.

Production, and even more so public management, along with strategic goals, must solve a significant complex of interrelated organizational, scientific, social and technical problems. Simultaneously with traditional, predetermined tasks, emergency situations constantly arise that require urgent operational decisions; often, the success of the team’s activities depends on the skillful solution of numerous and unexpectedly emerging acute problems. The art of determining the most important tactical goals, determining the order and methods of solving them is the basis of the art of management and is often based on foresight and intuition. However, the list of key, central tasks and, therefore, the expected effect from their solution can and should be determined in advance for each of the main management subsystems. An example of defining such main tasks (goals) is given in the table.

Table 3
The main goals of the most important production management subsystems

Subsystem name	The main purpose of tasks placed in the subsystem
Technical and economic planning	Development of a system of comparable, visual technical and economic indicators, main planning and production tasks
Operational management	Ensuring an operational schedule for completing key production tasks with high labor productivity and product quality
Logistics support	Compliance with the delivery schedule of material and technical resources and components
Marketing	Ensuring stable sales of manufactured products

The variety of goals and production tasks is so great that there is a need to apply network modeling methods and some concepts of graph theory. Methods for constructing a target model in the form of a tree graph (goal tree), the top of which is the general goal, and the branches are sets of tasks, the solution of which will ensure the achievement of the goal, have become very popular. This hierarchical structure clearly demonstrates the need for organizational and information connections between the tasks of the subsystems and the stages of achieving the goal. The goal tree does not show how to achieve the goal, but only determines the final results of each stage of the planned work. The number of levels of such a structure depends on the complexity of the goal and the number of intermediate stages of work.

The method of constructing a goal tree served as the basis for the development new concept production and public administration, called "management by objectives". In this case, control and evaluation of the activities of each element of the management system is carried out based on the results achieved (for example, quantity and quality of products, economic efficiency, labor productivity, labor discipline, etc.). To determine new priorities and adjust local goals, the so-called "management audit". A constant focus on the general goal of the enterprise and control over the achievement of local goals are characteristic of Japanese management and many companies in America and Europe. However, the management by goals method will not be effective if management is highly centralized and labor motivation is weak.

Figure 26. Tree of enterprise goals

So, one of the most important principles of management can be formulated briefly and clearly: Every action must have a clear and defined purpose. This principle applies to all types of human activity, from government and industrial management to the tactics of individual behavior in everyday life. interpersonal levels. Without knowing the goal and the results that can be expected when achieving it, any action, any action is doomed to failure or can cause a serious conflict. The art of determining the most important goals by a leader will be devoted to the section of Chapter 11, “The Work Collective as an Object of Management.”

8.3. The principle of legal protection of management decisions

Dura lex, sed lex
(The law is harsh, but it is the law.)

Latin proverb

Entrepreneurial activity is always associated with a certain risk, and in Russia, after its entry into competitive market relations and with not yet established legal norms- especially. The interaction between producer and consumer, between seller and buyer, is subject to many legal restrictions. More and more new laws are constantly being born, codes are changing. The State Duma of Russia amazes the world not only with loud scandals, but also with amazing legislative fecundity; the so-called subjects of the Federation are not inferior to it; countless presidential decrees and government decisions are born. Each department in Russia, “meeting the wishes of the workers,” is constantly “improving” the system of accounting, reporting and supervision: quality requirements are changing and constantly regulated food products and to the protection of consumer rights, to labor protection and standards of working conditions, to the protection environment etc. Predicting the direction and result of the action of these laws, decrees and regulations is more difficult than predicting the path of an old woman, a “guest of Moscow”, in a subway crossing, but it is necessary to take into account this formidable element of lawmaking, to the great joy of officials of all ranks. No matter how the heads of enterprises and firms feel about these legal acts, it is necessary to implement or at least take them into account - otherwise large fines or decisions to completely stop the operation of the enterprise are inevitable.

The principle “everything that is not prohibited is permitted” raises serious doubts. Try, for example, a ride along Tverskaya in a cart, although road sign“The passage of horse-drawn vehicles is prohibited” was filmed a long time ago! Many areas of business that promise undoubted and quick profits are either in conflict with current laws (trade in weapons, drugs), or on the verge of violating them (gambling establishments, numerous “massage” establishments, etc.). Decisions to invest capital in such areas, with all their commercial tempting, will practically inevitably lead to collapse, as they do not have legal protection, not to mention the moral and ethical side of such a business. Relying on the well-known proverb that has been in force in Russia at all times, “The law, whatever the shaft turns, comes out there,” on “telephone law” is burdensome for the entrepreneur’s pocket and becomes simply dangerous.

Business risk should not be confused with the risk of breaking the law, especially since, despite difficulties, contradictions, and endless discussions, the country’s legal space is constantly expanding, more and more new ones are being introduced legislative acts. Such federal laws, both about consumer protection, antitrust policy and competition, about standardization (which formed the basis social movement, called consumerism abroad, and the activities of the Russian Consumer Union), certification of products and services, advertising, etc., are already producing tangible results.

With Russia's transition to an open economy, with the increasing role of international relations (by 1996, several tens of thousands of enterprises and organizations in Russia participated in foreign economic activity), it became necessary to know and constantly study the legislative acts of business partner countries. And first of all, take into account the current trade restrictions of these countries: the amount of the customs tariff, i.e. tax on imported goods; quota sizes - the quantitative limit of goods allowed for import into the country; embargo system, i.e. list of prohibited imports; the existing exchange control system; non-tariff barriers (certain countries impose a strict ban on the import of goods that do not meet the standards adopted in the country). The principle of legal security requires enterprise managers to know the current legislation and make management decisions only taking into account the compliance of these decisions with current legal acts. And finally, does the skillfully defended and ultimately adopted management decision comply with the standards of morality and ethics?

8.4. Control optimization principle

The question of centralization and decentralization is a simple matter of measure. It is necessary to find the degree of it that is most favorable for the enterprise.

A. Fayol

Any managed system develops evolutionarily, improves, its orderliness increases, and its structural organization is optimized. The source, the cause of development are the internal contradictions of the system, and the evolution of the system depends on the timely identification of these contradictions, their reduction or elimination negative influence. Contradictions as a dialectical category are a necessary and essential factor in the development of any forward movement. But the accumulation of contradictions can lead to chaos, loss of control, and regression.

Timely processing of information about internal processes in the system and its comprehension make it possible to make reasonable management decisions, improve intra-system communications, and increase the efficiency of interaction with external environment. Management optimization allows you to improve the structure of the managed object and increases its functionality, which ultimately leads to the weakening or complete elimination of intra-system negative processes. This important management principle can be formulated as follows: optimization of management increases the efficiency of the managed system. The validity of the principle is confirmed by countless examples, since the principles of management are universal and can be applied to any operating open system - technological processes, production teams or intra-family relationships. Optimization of management, including self-regulation processes, for any complex systems (be it a person, a company, a manufacturing enterprise or the economy as a whole) is the main condition for development and a guarantor of effective activity. For example, aircraft of any system provide an undeniable gain in speed of movement, but it is important to ensure their high reliability. Progress in aviation and improved control increased speed and constantly improved the reliability and safety of flights. Improving management processes in work teams has the main goal of increasing labor productivity while reducing contradictions between the manager and performers. The environmental needs of society and technological progress are in constant conflict, and the main task of production workers is to reduce the negative impact of technological processes on the environment.

The effectiveness of a controlled system also depends on the degree of its openness and receptivity to external information (the well-known principle of a parachute: it operates only in the open state). During the years of stagnation, many sectors of our industry and enterprises found themselves in the position of closed systems, and their development slowed down significantly. Optimization does not necessarily lead to an increase in complexity, but is always characterized by the search for qualitatively new ways and structural rationalization. “Everything ingenious is simple,” although the elemental base of this “simple” in the process of evolution and optimization is always more perfect than its prototype. This is the element base modern computer, which has come a long way from relay circuits and vacuum tubes to integrated circuits, complex in their structure, but simple in their functions. This is the path of evolution of living nature. Thus, during the evolution of vertebrates, a simplification of the structure of many organs is observed. For example, the number of skull bones was significantly reduced: lobe-finned fish had 143 bones in the skull, stegocephalians - 90, cotylosaurs - 84, primitive mammals - 42, and humans - only 27.

Optimization and simplification of complex production systems is a prerequisite for more effective use constantly growing volumes of information, which determines the progress of these systems. In the national economy, the principle of management optimization dictates the need to reduce sectoral hierarchical levels of management, reduce the regulatory role of the state apparatus, which fetters independence and initiative, improve the management structure of enterprises and labor motivation. All this will ultimately increase the efficiency of work collectives and the national economy as a whole.

This fundamental principle of management provides answers to the most important, fundamental, and of great practical importance questions - what decision should a manager make: concentrate all power in his own hands or distribute most of it to his colleagues? Centralization or decentralization? When and in what cases is centralization necessary? What management structure is optimal for a given production situation? And finally, how many employees should report directly to the manager? Three, five, or maybe ten? Agree that every leader should know the answers to these burning questions.

Centralization of management, theory says and practice confirms, has undoubted advantages in solving global, strategic problems. It allows for a wide, large-scale distribution of all types of reserves and resources, but at the same time the creative initiative of performers is inevitably suppressed, and tactical tasks are not always optimally solved. This conclusion is confirmed by the sad experience of socialist construction in our country, the tragic episodes of the Great Patriotic War, the disfigured fates of millions of Soviet people, especially creative professions. A striking example is the defeat of Napoleon's invincible army at the Battle of Waterloo as a result of strict centralization of control. Napoleon owns the famous phrase: “Better one bad commander-in-chief than two good ones.” But in some, most often extreme, situations, the principle of unity of command is absolutely irreplaceable: war, fire, natural disasters. It is difficult to imagine managing an army without the implementation of this principle or a family without a head - father or mother. The principle of unity of command has an important consequence - the employee should receive orders only from one immediate superior. This clear and understandable rule is constantly violated; it is difficult for the boss to overcome the temptation to interfere in the production process himself, and his instructions seem to him, undoubtedly, the wisest. Example: a director walks through a workshop and sees a group of workers moving a machine. “Why are you putting it here? It will be inconvenient there, put it in this place!” And soon there will be a stormy explanation with the workshop manager: there is an approved plan, the place for the machine has been thought out in advance, the necessary communications have already been brought there. The director is wrong twice: he made an engineering-unfounded decision and gave it to the performers over the head of their immediate superior. "A body with two heads in social world, as in an animal, is a monster. It’s hard for him to live,” wrote Henri Fayol.

Decentralization of management frees team members from constant annoying supervision, effectively stimulates initiative, and more fully reveals the potential capabilities of individuals. The average worker performs a task with renewed vigor if he is given at least a minimal degree of actual control over the situation.

An interesting experiment was conducted: two groups of subjects solved complex puzzles and performed the tedious task of reading proofs in a room with a high level of industrial noise. One of the groups has a button to turn off the source of this noise, i.e. has the opportunity to improve its working conditions, although turning off this source is undesirable for production. As a result, the group with the switch solved five times more puzzles and made a negligible number of errors in proofreading, but did not use the switch - it was enough for them to realize that they could control the situation and right moment take initiative.

Decentralization is effective if reasonable and important decisions are made at the lower levels of the management hierarchy and these decisions do not require coordination and approval by management (for example, when ensuring operational management, resolving personnel issues, etc.). Decentralization of many management functions is inevitable when the structural divisions of an enterprise are territorially isolated (branches, departments of structural divisions) or when specialization is necessary (research institutes, design bureaus, central warehouse with a large volume of loading and unloading work, etc.). But decentralization of management has a dangerous tendency to drag the controlled process into anarchy and chaos. Often, experienced managers are justifiably afraid of losing control over the managed system, while weak ones fear that a competent informal leader will appear who can replace his boss and undermine his authority. Delegating his powers to performers during decentralization, the manager often cannot answer specific questions from his immediate superiors or when speaking at a general meeting. For example, what is the staff turnover in specialties for the reporting period, how the production process is ensured by machine operators of various profiles, what spare parts are needed, what additional electrical equipment and instrumentation is needed. Competent deputy managers know the answers to these questions very well, but the manager himself feels, to put it mildly, uncomfortable in this situation. Should he know the answers to these and hundreds of other small production questions?

So, how should a manager, the first person of an enterprise, use his power more wisely, especially if this enterprise is a private company? Management theory gives clear, unambiguous recommendations: the manager must take all organizational and administrative power into his own hands and delegate a significant part of his powers to experienced deputies, specialists in their field. And at the same time, do not interfere with their work with petty supervision or constant monitoring, if they generally successfully fulfill their official duties. “If it’s not broken, don’t fix it!”, and if you remember the Hippocratic oath, then “Do no harm!” And only if there is a clear threat of disruption of planned work or an obvious inconsistency of the performer with the position held, the manager is obliged to actively intervene in the work of the lagging structural unit, using full power, even to the point of replacing the performer.

Such an exceptionally rare situation is possible when all structural units work without failures, plans are carried out, a clear system of logistics is established, the work of the team is reasonably motivated and the leader remains, as it were, without work (just as a well-played orchestra after many rehearsals can play without a conductor). In this case, the leader is a real talent, an excellent organizer! And still, he will not remain idle; it is necessary to solve long-term, strategic problems, establish new production connections, work on further improvement of the production body, and issues of enterprise development. “Good management is based on the reconciliation of centralization and decentralization,” says General Motors CEO Alfred Sloan.

Controllability standard. There remains one more, very significant question: how many subordinates can and should be had, what is the manager’s standard of control? In a painful, complex way, humanity has come to the understanding that an inflated standard of controllability can lead to loss of control and disorganization of the work of an enterprise. The first literary source in which this important issue is raised is the Bible. The book "Exodus" tells that when Moses began to lead the Jews out of Egypt, he took over all management functions. But I soon realized that thousands of big and small problems cannot be solved alone. "And Moses chose out of all Israel capable people, and made them leaders of the people. And they judged the people at all times; important matters were reported to Moses, and all small matters were judged themselves." Scientific research and hundreds of experiments have identified criteria and indicators characterizing the numerical number of official relationships between the manager and subordinates in the process of interaction. The French researcher V. A. Greikunas substantiated this dependence with the formula where the number of all types of connections between a manager and his subordinates is described by the following expression:

K = n,

where n is the number of subordinates; TO - number of relationships.

The Greikunas formula inexorably shows that if four performers are directly subordinate to a manager, then the number controversial issues, disagreements, and consequently, requests for their resolution to the boss will be about 44 times per working day:

Many scientists studied the problem of the range of control (Y. Hamilton, L. Urwick, G. Simon, etc.), and although Greikunas’ concept was criticized, it did not raise any fundamental objections. However, with all the undoubted value of Greikunas’s conclusions, it is necessary to doubt their infallibility. This formula shows only a general trend, since all official communications cannot be carried out in a unit of time, and it is unlikely that an increase in the number of subordinates by just one person will cause a doubling of the number of calls to the manager. For example, if a new position of deputy for capital construction is added to the staff of a developing enterprise, then one can more likely expect a reduction in the volume of work for the first person than an increase in contacts by more than two times. But the fact is indisputable that with a large number of direct executors, the manager is actually unable to fully manage the enterprise and can only please his vanity with the illusion of power. According to most experts, the controllability rate varies widely depending on many factors, but on average it is 3-5 people. Reducing the span of control is dangerous due to the emergence of complicated organizational structures consisting of small units with an excessive number of vertical levels.

The experience of modern manufacturing companies in Russia confirms the particular relevance of studying and developing controllability standards for various working conditions of enterprises. Alexander Vulfov (S.I. Realty): “One of the truths that I took away from the construction site: to pay for one engineering worker, you need to hire at least 10 workers. That is, if the number of all workers is divided by the number of all engineering and technical personnel, the ratio should be at least 8 to 1, and even better 10 to 1." This point of view is valid for construction conditions, where the work of workers is strictly unified and regulated by profession and the efficiency of the team’s labor can be fairly clearly measured. Sergey Likharev (a branch of the well-known company Cannon in Russia) believes that the need for structural changes within a division can be established by comparing the growth in the volume of information or material flows (the number of banking transactions, man-hours worked, the volume of movement of material assets, etc.) and control over subordinates will not be lost if no more than 10 people work in the department.

A manager's level of controllability depends on several factors:

• type of production (batch, small-scale, individual), its complexity and responsibility;
• the equipment of the manager’s work with technical management tools (personal computer and the information database created on its basis, the effectiveness of existing communication links, etc.);
• the place of the manager in the hierarchical structure, on which the complexity of the problems being solved, the degree of his responsibility and, naturally, the strength of the emotional load depend;
• knowledge and experience of a manager (the art of management!).

The usual norm of control ranges from three to seven performers directly subordinate to the manager. An interesting confirmation of these findings: the army Ancient Rome, homogeneous in its composition, was built on the principle of six (6 maniples - century, 6 centuries - cohort, 6 cohorts - legion). Napoleon Bonaparte, commanding an army with a more complex structure (infantry, light and heavy cavalry, miners, artillerymen, etc.), laid the principle of the troika as its basis, i.e. reduced the standard of control (3 platoons - company, 3 companies - battalion, 3 battalions - regiment). The Soviet Army was built for a long time according to the same structural formula, and only in recent years, when particularly complex and mobile weapons (missile forces, space weapons) appeared, these structural units became autonomous, subordinate to only one commander each (unit principle). Any managed system must develop, improve, orderliness increases in it, and the structural organization is optimized. The source, the cause of development are the internal contradictions of the system, and the evolution of the system depends on the timely identification of these contradictions, reducing or eliminating their negative impact. Optimization of management, including self-regulation processes for any complex systems, be it a person, a production team or the economy as a whole, is a condition for development and a guarantor of effective activity.

The weak link in the management of the national economy of the USSR was the excessive rigidity of organizational structures that were slow to respond to changes in the external environment or the emergence of new production goals of the enterprise. This shortcoming is also typical for modern Russia, especially for organizations public sector, although it is obvious that economic independence without freedom of action within the boundaries of authority and responsibility of managers will be ineffective. Any organization must have a certain freedom (within the framework of its regulations, without existing laws there is no real freedom), which will stimulate the flowering of the potential abilities and creative capabilities of its team.

This concerns, first of all, the ability, if necessary, to improve the organizational structure of the enterprise, since a non-optimal management structure is the most common flaw in production activities many teams. The organizational structure must reflect the long-term program and set of main goals of the organization, since achieving goals is the basis of joint activities. Finally, the structure must respond to changes in the external and internal environment. An organizational structure is effective only when it contributes to the achievement of the goals set by the team with minimal expenditure of labor and resources. It is important to note that achieving goals is not only effective solution production tasks and, as a consequence, fair wages, but also other methods of motivation: involvement in solving problems, prestige of work and confidence in career growth. The search for a structure that is optimal for a given time is often accompanied by serious mistakes: exceeding the controllability norms of management employees, an incorrectly chosen management style, attempts to achieve savings by merging structural units with similar work profiles (a single office or a united bureau of duplicating equipment, etc.).

The principle of optimization underlies any organizational structure, regardless of the applied optimality criteria and current system restrictions. By the way, if we recall the thesis about the universality of management principles, then the principle of optimization should be extended to family relationships. Indeed, the structure of family ties depends on changes in the external and internal environment; The role of the young wife, who has become a mother, changes, which, in turn, changes the status: mother-in-law (or mother-in-law), who, thanks to her experience, tact and authority, becomes an indispensable grandmother, and sometimes an informal family leader. The role of the young father is also changing, who must now be especially active in ensuring communication with the outside world and the financial well-being of the family. With the advent of a new goal - concern for health and normal development child - the structure changes, sometimes significantly family relations. And if the family is not able to rebuild the structure of family ties in the changed living conditions, if recommendations and methods of the art of management are not taken into account, then the most dire consequences are possible, as evidenced by the court chronicle.

8.5. The principle of delegation of authority

The most important ability a leader must have is the ability to get results through others... To the extent that he skillfully transfers power, to the extent that he skillfully leads.

The very name of the principle contains a decoding of its main meaning - the transfer by the manager of part of his official functions to his subordinates without active interference in their actions. This optimization technique is usually called the method of delegation of authority and was discussed when considering the problems of decentralization of management. The role of the method of delegation of authority in management is so great that many researchers and practitioners tend to consider it as a separate management principle. The methodological foundations of this principle are clear, but some practical questions arising from the implementation of the principle should be answered in more detail: when is it advisable to use this method, to what extent should management functions be transferred to subordinates, what control methods should be used in this case?

So, the principle of delegation of powers consists in the transfer by the manager of part of the powers, rights and responsibilities assigned to him to his competent employees. The main practical value of the principle is that the manager frees his time from less complex everyday affairs, routine operations and can concentrate his efforts on solving problems at a more complex management level; at the same time, which is very important for the manager, compliance with the controllability norm is ensured. At the same time, this method is a targeted form of employee training, promotes the motivation of their work, the manifestation of initiative and independence.

It should be recalled again that the main task of a manager is not to do the work himself, but to ensure the organization of the work process through the efforts of the team, take responsibility and use power to achieve the goal. Building relationships between a boss and his subordinates on cunning, deception or flattery is immoral and hopelessly wrong. People, with all their individual differences, still behave predictably in an ordinary, routine situation - if the team knows its tasks and understands the methods used by the leader to achieve the goal with minimal difficulties, then you can confidently count on the support of the majority and find performers who can trust the independent solution of local and sometimes multifunctional problems. Such an employee, singled out from the team for his undoubted organizational abilities and professional knowledge, is well aware of the benefits of the trust placed in him, is proud of the awareness of his importance and will try to justify the trust placed in him. Delegation of authority is possible and advisable if the manager has prepared worthy performers, trusts them and can skillfully manage them. The performer must be professionally trained, have experience in practical work and receive a working report - a complete analogy with the preparation for independent work of pilots, drivers, and machinists, although, fortunately, the activity of a manager is not associated with the danger of a serious, irreparable disaster.

Rice. 22. Hierarchical pyramid

The hierarchical pyramid (Fig. 22) illustrates the subordination of performers to their leaders up to the highest. In the figure: R - leader, 3 - deputies, NO - heads of departments, RG - group leaders, 1I-4I - performers. The bureaucratic path of information passing from top management to performers and back is often very complex and lengthy. However, situations often arise when performers need to make quick operational decisions at their hierarchical level. Strictly speaking, in order to obtain permission to interact with performer 2I, performer 1I must transmit information along a long path from 1I to P and wait for instructions along the same return path. A disastrous loss of time can be avoided if management delegates part of its powers to direct executors and the necessary contacts between 1I and 2I are carried out directly by them via the 1I-2I bridge.

Methods for solving production and organizational problems are always multivariate, and if a subordinate uses his own, independent, and perhaps still, suboptimal decision tactics, then this reveals another positive feature of the principle of delegation of authority - the performer goes through a good and absolutely necessary school of management development, learns to be independent. The performer asserts himself, his self-confidence and initiative grow. At the same time, it is important to remember that the performer has the right to make a mistake, and in this case the manager is obliged to provide him with all possible assistance in the most tactful form. After all, one of the main tasks of a leader is to develop the abilities and skills of a subordinate.

A particularly delicate aspect of this principle is the organization of control over the actions of subordinates. Petty supervision will do nothing but harm (violation of the principle of least impact!), lack of control can lead to disruption of work and anarchy. The solution to the problem of control lies in clearly established feedback, in the free exchange of information between colleagues and, of course, in a sufficiently high authority and managerial skill of the leader. By the way, an experienced high-level official, wanting to form an objective opinion about the quality of the manager’s work, is always interested in how his subordinates work (this characterizes the manager very well). The principle of delegation of authority is illustrated in Fig. 23.

Rice. 23. Scheme for implementing the principle of delegation of powers

So, the principle of delegation of authority will be effective if:

• subordinates really know and understand what new responsibilities have been transferred to them. The employee’s affirmative answer to the question: “Do you understand everything?” - is not always truthful: he may be mistaken, or he may be afraid to admit that he did not understand everything;
• the employee is prepared to perform new functions in advance, there is confidence in his ability to complete the task and the incentive and motivation mechanism is ensured;
• a subordinate will not receive “valuable instructions” from another boss through the head of his immediate supervisor;
• the performer knows his rights and obligations without any uncertainty. Without fulfilling this condition, the performer will resemble, in the words of Norbert Wiener, “a eunuch in the harem of ideas with which their sultan is married”;
• the performer is free in his actions: the less noticeable the manager’s participation in choosing ways to implement the assigned tasks, the better;
• the performer is confident in his right to take calculated risks and the right to make mistakes. This is also important as a way to combat routine and inertia in the activities of the management apparatus;
• Specific goals and deadlines for completing the task will be established;
• the subordinate will correctly understand the need to monitor progress and provide objective information about deviations from planned indicators;
• the performer understands that he not only has the right to make operational decisions, but is also obliged to apply it if necessary. A person who has received authority not only can, but is also obliged to act if the situation requires it, he must know that he will have to account not only for his decisions, but also for inaction. This provision is especially important in extreme situations, in crisis conditions, when the human factor becomes especially important.

Major experts in the field of management G. Kunz and S. O'Donnell, in their famous book on management, emphasize the importance of selecting performers taking into account the nature of the task at hand (the principle of correspondence), the need to use a reward system for effective delegation of authority and constantly open lines of communication: between the manager and subordinates there must be a free exchange of information, with the help of which the performer receives the information necessary to make a decision and correctly understand the essence of the delegated powers. The delegator and the “authorized” must have a common information base, a common set of organizational and methodological ideas.

Often a unique task of psychological choice arises: what task should the performer be entrusted with, a familiar one or a completely new one? Most often, a new task is delegated, especially if it seems unattractive and routine to the manager. Perhaps this decision is not always correct. The problem is that, having delegated the solution to a task to someone else, the manager is still responsible for its implementation and control, and even more so simply observing (what is now fashionably called monitoring) the progress of the implementation of a familiar problem is much easier. There is a danger that soon the authorized person will advance so much in solving the task entrusted to him that the manager will not be able to recognize even its initial contours and he will have to “catch up” with the performer, i.e. still study the problem and the proposed methods for solving it. Experienced administrators often assign capable performers tasks that are slightly more complex than the subordinate is accustomed to performing. In this case, it is advisable to prepare the task in the form of a written order. Having received a difficult task, the performer opens up more fully and receives sincere satisfaction from completing the task and the trust placed in him.

It should be noted that this management principle is timidly applied by people who have recently received a promotion, since it is difficult for them to abandon the usual stereotype of past activities. A manager who sorts correspondence himself and types on a typewriter in front of a bored secretary evokes regret, but not sympathy. Sometimes the principle of delegation of authority does not give the expected effect - the performer does not fully perform the leadership functions assigned to him. Most often this happens in cases where it is necessary to make unpopular decisions in the team: imposing penalties for violations of labor discipline, deprivation of bonuses, investigating immoral acts of employees, etc. Under various pretexts, the performer tries to transfer the solution to these problems to his manager in order to appear, as it seems to him, on the best side in the eyes of the team. Among other reasons, most often there is uncertainty about the correctness of the responsible decision being made, insufficient experience, and sometimes fundamental disagreement with the opinion of the manager.

However, there is a set of management tasks, the solution of which should be left to the manager. This is, first of all, defining the goals, policies of the organization and making fundamental decisions. It is the duty of the first person to undertake the tasks with high degree risk, especially confidential in nature and all unusual operations that go beyond the established regulations and traditions. When considering situations where a management decision can cause irreversible consequences, it is appropriate to make a comparison between the responsibility of a general practitioner and a surgeon. The therapist can more easily trust the treatment of the patient to his younger colleague, since at any moment he can join in healing process, but the surgeon, with great prudence and caution, decides to entrust the operation to his student.

There is another delicate issue - the right to sign. Many managers believe that it is reasonable to centralize this right: the executor, the trustee, has thought through the decision, prepared the appropriate document and submits it to the manager for signature, who thus exercises his natural right of control. But this method of interaction indicates that only part of the rights is delegated to the performer and there are many objections to this method:

• the performer, deprived of the right to sign, has every reason to believe that he is not completely trusted and such uncertainty does not contribute to mutual understanding;
• decentralization of signature rights speeds up the process of making management decisions and reduces the manager’s workload;
• with the centralization of this right, it is difficult to establish the true culprit of the erroneous decision; often the manager signs the document either without reading it or without delving into its essence; the direct executor develops a tendency to transfer all critical decisions to a higher level of management;
• When the right to sign is centralized, the manager becomes confident in his significant superiority in knowledge over the executive specialists; the manager often begins to identify his personality with the organization he heads.

The effectiveness of delegation of authority is obvious, but not all managers are in a hurry to apply it for the following main reasons:

• fear of losing power and position. By giving part of my powers to others, they argue, I naturally reduce my rights, and this will not lead to good. If the performer does not complete his new tasks, then he will have to urgently intervene and correct the mistakes of others. If a subordinate completes tasks too well, then management may quite reasonably think about my suitability for the position;
• ambition and distrust of subordinates. A low assessment of the abilities of your employees and inflated self-esteem give rise to distrust in the staff - it is better to do everything yourself;
• fear of receiving a negative assessment of one’s actions from colleagues and superiors: oneself, they say, is a slacker, does not want to work, shirks work, and therefore likes to delegate one’s work to employees.

The practical value of this management principle is obvious, and it is no coincidence that it is the basis of the European concept of management with delegation of responsibility in a market economy (better known as the “Harzburg management model”). Moreover, delegation of responsibility as a principle of leadership and management organization has been practically implemented at a number of Russian enterprises: the GAZ automobile plant, the Shchekinsky chemical plant, a number of construction and food enterprises. The ideas of the Harzburg model have been used in Western European companies for more than 30 years (including Volkswagen, OTTO, Karlstadt, Berlitz), and in the early 90s they were actually used in the Japanese Line production management model ".

American practice widely uses the team unity method, in which decentralization of management is combined with formally assigned rights and responsibilities of performers at each hierarchical level. The contractor has sufficient freedom to exercise his rights, bears personal responsibility for the functions assigned to him and periodically reports on the progress of the work.

The team unity method does not contain elements of novelty, but with this method of managing a production team, one of the basic management concepts is particularly strictly adhered to - the manager does not have the right to assign a task to the performer without bypassing his immediate superior. This rule must be observed in all forms of management, but it is especially strictly observed when organizing work using this method.

A significant disadvantage of the method is the possibility of a barrier appearing between the manager and the object of management, because his subordinates do not always benefit from the manager’s contacts with lower levels of the management structure.

The importance of the principle of delegation of authority is especially growing in conditions of the dominance of economic management methods, the implementation of which is practically impossible without the independence and creative initiative of performers. This principle once again confirms the validity of the well-known formula: “Never do what your subordinates can do, except in cases where a person’s life is at risk.”

8.6. Principle of correspondence

In industry, as in medicine,
one who is looking for a simple remedy
from all diseases, doomed to failure.

Elton Mayo

Basics of another important principle management - the principle of compliance - were laid down about a hundred years ago. The American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor, the founder of the scientific organization of labor and management, the “father of scientific management,” while observing the work of loading pig iron into railway cars and the work of excavators, drew attention to the fact that workers have different attitudes towards their work, which requires only physical strength and simple skills. Some, physically strong and with average intellectual abilities, worked with pleasure, while for others this work was a burden. Taylor proposed selecting workers based on scientifically developed criteria and introducing a system of training and education for them.

Determining an employee's suitability for the position held is not an easy task. You need experience and the ability to separate professional business qualities from the verbal tinsel and external pomposity of an employee. Most often, people try to bite off more than they can chew, because usually a person has a very high opinion of his abilities and intelligence. Cases of underestimating one's capabilities, timidity, and shyness are much less common. If a person with a good education is entrusted with routine clerical work, then a significant part of his knowledge will be wasted without use, and the employee himself will try to change his place of work for a more interesting position. It is important to support the timid person in time, help him or moderate the exorbitant ambitions of the overly self-confident. One of the most famous managers in America, Lee Iacocca, says this: “I have seen many cases where people spent years in positions that did not correspond to their capabilities. More often than not, the management did not have the means to identify this until it was too late. Any company loses good workers who simply found themselves in the wrong place; they might have received greater satisfaction and achieved greater success if they had not been fired, but transferred to a job that was more suitable for them. It is clear that the sooner the essence of the problem is identified, the better. better chance of solving it."

There are many methods to help a person find his true place in the team, to find his calling. Japanese managers achieve this goal through rotation, i.e. moving an employee from one place of work to other structural units. Most often, these moves are made “horizontally,” but sometimes with promotions, “vertically.” The mentoring system, when an experienced specialist is assigned to a newcomer, and frequent contacts between the manager and his employees, sometimes in an informal setting, provide a lot. Lee Iacocca widely practiced a system of mandatory quarterly written reports on the activities of his leading employees; some managers did this monthly. Unlike Peter the Great, who demanded that one speak not according to the written word (“so that everyone’s stupidity would be visible”), Iacocca believes that drawing up a report allows the performer to delve deeper into specific details, and the manager to objectively evaluate the results of the employee’s work and draw informed conclusions about his performance. suitability for the position held.

The work performed must correspond to the intellectual and physical capabilities of the performer - this is the basis of the principle of compliance. Readers themselves can recall many examples from their own production and life experience when, thanks to the accidents of the situation, a person with average intellectual and organizational abilities was elevated to the top of the hierarchical ladder and, despite all his efforts, to work without rest from morning until late at night, so and couldn't achieve any noticeable results. Not only his work suffers, his health, family well-being, and friendly contacts with other people are also at risk. The principle of compliance must be applied by every manager when selecting and placing management personnel and, first of all, when assessing their own capabilities and their suitability for the work performed. The great ancient Greek philosopher Socrates recommended strictly applying the principle of correspondence. He taught that the main task and main evidence of the art of any public figure, military leader, merchant, builder is the ability to give a person work according to his abilities and achieve the completion of the assigned task.

Laurence Peter's talented and witty book is virtually entirely devoted to the principle of correspondence. The wonderful cocktail of satire, humor and scientifically based facts called the Peter Principle has a bitter taste, but the truth is that every person rises to his own level of incompetence and, alas, remains there. " General trend such that, over time, each position will be filled by an employee who is not competent enough to perform his duties. All useful work is done by those who have not yet reached their level of incompetence." It is indeed rare that a man is content with a position corresponding to his abilities and can resist the temptation to take a higher position that exceeds his capabilities.

A consequence of the principle of correspondence is a reasonable, but rarely implemented in practice, recommendation: every person should soberly and objectively assess their capabilities and be wary of falling into the “zone of their incompetence.”

Life experience suggests that quite often a leader who performs his duties quite competently and with dignity in a situation where he is promoted to a higher position loses his usual guidelines and begins to work beyond his capabilities. You have to constantly stay late at work, perform urgent tasks at home, reduce your time for rest, sleep and communication with family and friends. With such an overload, work suffers, family relationships deteriorate and, as a result, an environment of constant stress will inevitably affect health.

However, not everyone can honestly and courageously assess the situation, understand the destructiveness of such a situation and make a decision to voluntarily transfer to a job that is more appropriate to their physical and intellectual capabilities. More often than not, ambition, self-confidence, hope for good health and good luck (“maybe I can handle it and everything will be okay!”) still prevail over reason.

8.7. The principle of automatic replacement of missing items

No rights without responsibilities
and there are no duties without rights.

Axiom of control

The obvious importance of the principle of automatic replacement of absentees is clear to every experienced manager. The replacement of absentees (illness, vacation, business trip) should be decided automatically on the basis of existing job descriptions and regulated formally. How often have situations arise in industrial practice when, due to the illness of, for example, the chief accountant, the work of the entire enterprise was paralyzed (only the accountant keeps the seal or only his signature is recognized by the bank!). Each job description should clearly and unambiguously state the need to master a range of issues within the competence of two or three closest colleagues to perform their functions in special cases. Some organizations even have special “service books” that describe the relationships between positions that are similar in function.

There is one, somewhat unexpected consequence of this principle - the importance of official job descriptions, documents aimed at fulfilling one’s duty within the framework of the law. There are few people who have experience working in government bodies who would be sympathetic to regulations, instructions, and circulars, but their absence leads to legal nihilism, when everyone is responsible for everything, and in the end, no one is responsible for anything. There are a lot of them, these official documents, and not all of them are drawn up competently, clearly and concisely. Satirists and humorists make a good living from this rich field of bureaucratic masterpieces: “give me a certificate that you need a certificate,” etc. Beautifully drawn, under glass and in a good frame, plans for evacuation in case of natural disasters on the wall of a modest office or long instructions in case of a fire or in the event of a nuclear threat always evoke affection.

But the instructions are different. Example: two specialists, lovely ladies, do not like each other. One of them went on leave, and the head of the department asked the remaining one to take control of the exposed area of ​​work. "No, I don't agree." The boss persuaded, asked, and finally ordered - after all, the business is suffering! “No, I won’t, let her do everything herself when she returns. My job description says nothing about such a replacement and that I am obliged to carry out your individual, one-time orders.” And formally she is right. The boss had no choice but to, swearing and cursing (who?), take on this additional work and, under the maliciously sympathetic glances of the employees, hasten to make adjustments to the “stupid piece of paper” - the job description.

There is another very serious document - the safety instructions (experienced production workers nod their heads in understanding). Each new employee is required to read these instructions, sign in a special journal, and only after testing his knowledge and instructions at the workplace can he be allowed to work. And suddenly - misfortune, this employee violated safety regulations and died. This is really scary, this is grief for the family, for the entire team. But if the procedure for admission to work is not documented, instructions are not given, and there is no signature in the safety knowledge test log, then others will also suffer: the immediate superior of the deceased, the safety engineer and the chief engineer of the enterprise. They will be held accountable and severely but fairly punished.

Be careful, managers: job descriptions must be drawn up correctly, constantly adjusted to take into account changes occurring in the system, and require their strict implementation. It should be remembered that an ill-considered, hastily developed document may soon require new additions and clarifications - remember the legislative leapfrog in State Duma Russia!

However, replacing an absent person, especially if you have to replace the head of a structural unit, requires great tact, preparedness and experience from the performer. The main thing is that work should not suffer, and excuses like “I can’t solve this issue, I’ll have to wait for the boss” are completely unacceptable. The very fact of transferring the functions of a manager, at least for some time, to his replacement indicates their mutual trust, recognition of the performer’s competence and professionalism. By taking on additional responsibilities, the performer, having the right to make mistakes, is responsible not only for his decisions, but also for inactivity, especially in difficult work situations. The replacement must know his new functions, but even better understand what he should not do. Firstly, he should not cancel or at least question the fundamental decisions made by his leader, even if he does not approve of these decisions. Secondly, it is important to understand that the decisions made by the executive must leave room for subsequent adjustments; the manager cannot be confronted with a fact, forcing him to accept something for which he is not ready or with which he fundamentally disagrees. Any form of coercion and violence is unpleasant, but driving your boss into a corner is completely unacceptable, and it will ultimately cost the replacement huge losses. And finally, you should not try to use the situation to increase your authority at the expense of your absent boss: “I understand you and would support you, but my boss...” Such attempts are naive, unethical and always give a negative result.

8.8. Principle of leaders first

First of all, what is skill characterized by? The ability to do something quite complex. And skill is the ability to do something complex with someone else’s hands. A musician needs only his skill; a conductor also needs skill.

S. N. Parkinson

For conscious use next principle management - the principle of the first leader - consider the situation: you are entrusted with the implementation of a responsible event. The director of the enterprise is far from understanding the importance and specifics of the task entrusted to you, you have not established the necessary business contacts with him, but the chief engineer perfectly understands the seriousness of the task entrusted to you, knows how to implement it, and with him you have the most trusting, friendly relations. You have prepared a draft order necessary for organizing the work, which contains the traditional clause: “Control over the implementation of this order is entrusted to...” To whom? The answer is obvious - to the chief engineer, your potential colleague and assistant. Is this the right decision? Having started to carry out the assigned task, you have prepared, for example, a project staffing table, but the chief engineer does not have the right to approve it - this is not within his competence. And you are forced to contact the director, causing him, naturally, displeasure. Or you need to carry out a small amount of work on capital construction, but even in this case the chief engineer cannot resolve your issue - this is the jurisdiction of the deputy director for capital construction. And you are again forced to contact the director.

The principle of the first manager states: when organizing the implementation of an important production task, control over the progress of work should be left to the first manager of the enterprise, since only the first person has the right and opportunity to decide or entrust the solution of any issue that arises during the implementation of this activity. Since the main goal of introducing the majority the most important events is to increase the efficiency of the socio-economic functioning of the enterprise, then such work should not be managed by a specialist in a particular field (for example, an automated control system developer), but only by a specialist who can cover the entire problem facing the enterprise as a whole, who deeply knows the goals and tasks, bottlenecks in his work, i.e. first leader.

Most often, this principle is applied when developing an enterprise automated control system, and this is always associated with solving legal and organizational issues: changing the management structure, introducing new functional responsibilities management staff and production personnel, etc. The solution to all these issues is the prerogative of only the first manager of the enterprise. The development and implementation of automated control systems, as a rule, are carried out not on the initiative of the director of the enterprise, but on the basis of the decision of higher organizations. And today, after the transition of enterprises and firms to work in market conditions, one cannot delude oneself that the head of a company branch will initiate the introduction of means and methods of computer information processing. In this case, the efficiency of automation is reduced, since specialists in the field of automated control systems do not have sufficient rights to oblige the enterprise services to switch to a new control technology, and the development of an automated control system project without the participation of the enterprise manager is doomed to significant gaps and shortcomings.

The creation of new management technologies requires a set of preparatory work, the participation of the first manager in which is necessary: ​​it is he who must resolve issues of financing, redistribution of rights and responsibilities of performers, and attracting specialists from other related organizations to the work. Among the preparatory activities, special mention should be made:

• conducting training and advanced training for company employees;
• organizing the exchange of experience and business trips of specialists to those related enterprises where automation work is developing most successfully;
• Conducting conversations and seminars between developers of the new system and leading specialists of the enterprise.

An analysis of the failure to implement many important programs and serious tasks shows that one of the reasons for such failures is non-compliance with this management principle.

8.9. The principle of one-time input of information

In the activities of a manager, information, its efficiency and reliability, plays a decisive role, since it is the subject, means and product of managerial work. Information once entered into the computer's memory can be repeatedly used to solve a whole complex of information-related problems - this is the essence of this important management principle. This method of accumulating production, economic, personnel and regulatory information is the basis for creating databases and data banks, an indispensable tool for obtaining objective and reliable data on the progress of technological process. Let us recall that a database is a collection of information stored in computer storage devices, and a data bank is a more powerful information storage system - a functionally organized information support for a group of users or a set of tasks solved in the system. Creating an autonomous data bank makes it possible to separate information from application programs and facilitate access to it various categories users and store information more securely.

Another important consequence of the implementation of the principle of one-time input of information and the creation of banks and databases on its basis is the possibility of direct access to the stored information by the end consumer without any intermediary. The developed dialogue procedures operate on the basis of ultra-high-level algorithmic languages, but (despite the intimidating name) mastering these languages ​​is a matter of several hours or days. Working in an interactive mode with a data bank, specialists and management staff can independently solve problems and get away from the traditional dependence on programmers, who have long felt like the management elite. Databases and data banks are always created with a certain degree of redundancy, i.e. the dynamism and continuous development of the system as a whole are taken into account, which necessarily leads to an increase in the volume of processed information and the emergence of new types of management tasks.

In industrialized countries, already in the 80s, publicly accessible data banks were created, which became possible thanks to the development of integrated communication systems and the mass introduction of computer technology. Any information, no matter how remote, has become accessible to the average user, and entry into a publicly accessible data bank can be done from a home computer. All this contributed to the development of small business, scientific and cultural services. At the same time, the marketing of information services was intensively developing and the economic space for highly profitable investments in this area was developing. The development of information support is clearly illustrated by the following data:

As you can see, our lag behind advanced countries in information support continues to grow rapidly and threatens to become irreversible. In this case, Russia may turn into an information colony and will never be able to provide its population with a modern standard of living, culture, education and well-being, even with the help and assistance of highly developed countries.

The real application of the principle of one-time input of information allows managers at all levels to use large volumes of reliable and timely information in their work. For example, the manager of a company or supermarket can easily receive daily, weekly, monthly and annual information with cumulative totals about the price of each of a large range of goods, the quantity of goods sold and its warehouse balances, current expenses and profits, etc. Some of this information is entered into the database automatically, using warehouse or workshop production recorders, and in stores - using a device that reads information about the product recorded on the packaging. "Individual managers can now make decisions based on information produced within their companies, without access to third-party databases. In-house databases allow a manager to obtain information about his business, markets, competition, prices and forecasts in a few hours, and when “This took him months of work. Thanks to this new automation, decision-making, which was previously the prerogative of senior management, is now transferred to the production managers, who are now better informed,” is the opinion of an experienced manager about the changes that have been made to base management practices. data and implementation of the principle of one-time input of information. It is only important to maintain the exact targeting of the information provided, i.e. protect the user from redundant information and, when changing the structure of the enterprise, transfer information to the subscriber who needs it.

The principle of one-time input of information is the basis of one of the promising areas of modern management - information management. The most important function information management is the management of data banks, ensuring the creation of a clear organizational structure that allows for the timely provision of reliable information in a form that would facilitate the decision-making procedure. The information entered into the memory of the data bank ensures the integration of information technology tools that determine the efficiency of the enterprise.

Information management is currently used by most of the world's leading scientific and industrial corporations, although in 1985 in Germany only 5% of enterprises used this method of managing data banks. The costs of innovative scientific research, the introduction of new tasks and technologies, and modern software products are very high. According to the American magazine "Datamation", the costs of leading computer companies for these purposes are:

	Expenses for the introduction of new scientific developments
	% from income	million dollars
Computer Associates

8.10. The principle of new tasks

The use of modern mathematical programming systems and technical means of information processing makes it possible to solve and accumulate fundamentally new production and scientific problems. It is unwise to create automated systems only relying on traditional production management methods and existing technologies. The use of modern computer technology and a powerful set of software makes it possible to create new planning and management techniques, new information technologies that could not be used in traditional systems due to the impossibility of processing a large volume of information within tight deadlines.

The industry and state funds of algorithms and programs contain almost the entire range of tasks for technical preparation of production, technical and economic planning, operational management, accounting, financial management, sales and sales of products, quality control, personnel accounting, execution control, etc. An experienced manager does his best to promote the introduction into production practice of this large set of tasks that have been streamlined and tested on real data sets, which allows you to quickly process and receive any objective, reliable information and free performers from routine, humiliating manual labor. An example of the implementation of this management principle in production, construction and in the apparatus of various government services can be fundamentally new sets of tasks, the implementation of which became possible only with the use of high-speed computers with a large capacity RAM: automated information system on the progress of construction of critical facilities (AIS), control system for the transportation of concrete and mortar (SUPER), operational system for recording the daily implementation of the production plan, automated system for monitoring the execution of critical documents (ASKID, modern version - organizer) and a number of other highly efficient systems cope with tasks that were completely impossible to solve using traditional methods of information processing.

Most fundamentally new tasks have a complex organizational and technological model and are difficult to formalize. The methods available to the theory of algorithms and programs cannot always describe multivariate situations that arise in the management process. Currently, searches are underway to create models that would describe the situation being analyzed more fully and would reflect the experience of one or more highly qualified specialists in solving the problem at hand. Systems operating on the basis of such models are called expert systems and are increasingly used in solving new problems in various areas science and technology, including management. The high interest in expert systems is explained by the fact that in order to solve complex new situational problems it is not necessary to involve large specialists; these problems can be solved by ordinary employees who own computer equipment.

However, the introduction of the principle of new tasks constantly encounters noticeable resistance during implementation. The manager must be prepared for this negative reaction to innovations and understand its reasons: fear of a reduction in working hours, and, consequently, earnings, and even loss of a job; risk of decline social status and the fact that new norms and requirements for labor intensification will arise. The most justified reason for resistance to any innovations is the fear of unemployment, which in recent years has become a real component of our everyday life. There are other, more personal reasons: criticism and rejection traditional methods work can be perceived as a personal insult, fear of narrow specialization and monotony of new working conditions, misunderstanding of the essence and consequences of innovations and, finally, most importantly - fear of depreciation, devaluation of one’s personality, its social significance. Once again, it is appropriate to recall that management is not only a science, but also a great art. When enterprise management is carried out only on the basis of rational, scientifically based, but traditional methods, this poses a threat to development and there is a possibility of losing the most talented, innovatively thinking specialists who are capable of putting forward and solving fundamentally new problems.

Not only individual bright personalities, but also entire enterprises led by brave leaders. At the beginning of the 20th century, even a special name appeared for such enterprising companies - grunders. Today, the strategy of boldly investing capital in the latest high technologies and in the search for unconventional solutions to new problems is called venture capital. Typically, venture enterprises are created by scientists, inventors who come up with new ideas or original technologies (“know-how”). There are many examples of such “grunderism” in world practice; it is enough to recall the Apple company, which created the first personal computers, the conveyor technology of H. Ford’s car production, the design bureau of S.P. Queen, who created the world's first satellite and spacecraft. In competition, and in any life situations Those who are able to make unpredictable, sometimes outwardly illogical decisions on emerging problems have a chance of success. Don't always try to be too rational!

It should be emphasized again that the successful implementation of the principle of new tasks largely depends on the results of scientific research and the effective use of the latest information processing tools. Several optimistic and encouraging notes can be added to the requiem for domestic developments of new computer technology: there have been reports of a sensational breakthrough by scientists at the Modul research center in the field of creating a high-performance microprocessor.

The ultra-fast microprocessor based on the NM 6403 “neuromatrix” created by this research and development center allows for massively parallel calculations, has the ability to learn and generalize, is adaptable and resistant to inaccurate training information. In terms of performance (and low cost!), the Russian microprocessor surpasses all known world analogues. And specialists from the Elbrus group under the leadership of academician B. Babayan are ready to present to the public the E 2 k processor built using Very Large Instruction Word technology, which, thanks to cross-platform compatibility and predicted performance, surpasses not only Intel Merced, but also McKinley in several times, it may well compete with these processors in a couple of years. If only there was money for implementation, but Russia has always been rich in ideas...

8.11. Principle of advanced training

Matsushita first produces qualified people, A then products.

The basic principle of activity of the Matsushita company

A characteristic feature of any society striving for prosperity is increased attention to the education system - from primary to advanced training of certified specialists. Germany, for example, by decree of Frederick the Great introduced compulsory primary education back in the 16th century, to end of the 19th century V. 97.5% of German children received school education. By 1925, 99.4% of Japanese children were attending school, and in 1927, 93% of Japanese could read. Let's be objective - the success of the system public education The USSR was also very significant, although the centralized distribution of institute graduates, who could not be refused employment, created many difficulties and conflicts.

But the implementation of the principle of mandatory advanced training has traditionally met with resistance at all levels of management: employees at lower hierarchical levels refuse any forms of study and advanced training (“Why do I need this? I won’t understand anything anyway...”), and senior managers have already have known for a long time. Once upon a time, even before perestroika, if managers were required to send an employee to study, they usually sent the weakest employee, unnecessary to the enterprise. There were even “full-time promotion specialists” who took courses 7-10 times, but, alas, they remained ordinary engineers in the technical department or procurement service...

However, numerous studies show that after graduation, on average, about 20% of knowledge is lost annually; scientific and technological progress dooms most specialists to lag behind in the main areas of their professional knowledge. It is recommended that specialists improve their knowledge in the field of mechanical engineering every 5.2 years, in chemical industry- every 4.8, in metallurgy - every 3.9, and in business - every 2 years. From 1990 to 1994, the number of students in the system of advanced training and retraining of managers decreased almost four times: in 1990, 4836.1 thousand people studied, in 1991 - 2169.4 thousand, in 1993 . - 1380 thousand, in 1994 - 1773 thousand. The number of students increased slightly from 1995 to 1998, but still did not reach the 1990 level. The Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences believes that it is urgently necessary to provide support for the system of advanced training of specialists at the expense of budgetary funds, as well as by attracting extra-budgetary financial sources.

So, this management principle urgently requires mandatory training for all employees involved in the production process, regardless of their position. The market economy of modern Russia places more serious demands on improving the qualifications of enterprise managers than under socialist planned economic management. First of all, this applies to those who make strategic management decisions, who are responsible for the development of the enterprise, for the constant updating of products and the implementation of new technological and organizational solutions. The process of human learning is not as simple as it seems to many uninitiated. Human learning begins at birth and continues throughout life, but the intensity of perception, so amazing in infancy, decreases over the years, and during the period of intellectual and physical flowering of the individual, the ability to learn decreases significantly. This fact, strange at first glance, is confirmed by many studies by teachers, psychologists and sociologists (Fig. 24).

Perception, skills

Age, years

Rice. 24. Speed ​​of knowledge perception and relative assimilation of skills depending on age (perception, skills)

As you can see, the ability to perceive new information, including in the system of advanced training, decreases with age. However, at the current pace of development of the leading branches of knowledge, and especially the theory and practice of management, each specialist needs to improve his professional training. After all, I didn’t consider it shameful great commander A.V. Suvorov at the age of 60 to pass the midshipman exam!

The experience of the largest companies in Europe, America, and Japan shows how persistently they pursue a policy of total advanced training and retraining of personnel. Thousands of institutes, colleges, permanent seminars and courses conduct training for personnel at any level, and enterprises spend large amounts of money on these activities, because they see this as a guarantee of the development of their production. For example, in the USA, about 1,500 higher educational institutions are engaged in training professional managers; in 1986, IBM spent $750 million on the education and training of its employees, and in total in 1985 in the USA, 60 were spent on all forms of management education billion dollars. The annual budget of the University of Maryland in the USA is more than 1 billion dollars, and Moscow State University is approximately 10 billion rubles! Japanese firms spend 3-4 times more on training per employee than American ones. In general, the share of education costs as a percentage of national income in Russia is approximately 2%, in the USA - 12.2%, in Germany - 12.1% (data from the magazine "Personnel Management" No. 1, 1997). Think about these numbers!

But there is also a tougher view of the problems of personnel training. The managers of the consulting company Deka believe that “qualities that cannot be developed in your staff through training, as a rule, can be acquired by hiring new employees who have these qualities.” Comparing advanced training programs in various foreign companies and. special institutes, you can see that the history of the enterprise, its principles, strategy are necessarily studied, and significant time is necessarily allocated to study theory and methods practical application art of management. This circumstance once again confirms the importance and relevance of the issues discussed in this book.

Another method of training is job rotation, when specialists of various profiles are moved from department to department for a period of three months to a year. Rotation allows the company's employees to become familiar with many aspects of the enterprise's activities and understand the need for coordination and interconnection between departments. The need for rotation and constant improvement of one’s professional skills is explained by the peculiarities of the human psyche. When entering a job, a person is usually full of ambitious hopes and optimism; a new job and a new team stimulate initiative. These hopes do not always come true, and after a period of disappointment, the employee gets accustomed to the new workplace and begins to competently understand the tasks facing him. The next stages are the acquisition of strong skills, mastery and a new wave of dissatisfaction with oneself, with one’s place in the team; a person feels the need for further creative development and material stimulation of one’s work (these stages are clearly visible in Fig. 25).

An experienced manager who is interested in the professional development of employees must sensitively grasp the period of decline in a person’s business activity, help him overcome disappointment in the discrepancy between what is desired and what is actual, as well as in the loss of professional interest in an area of ​​work that has already been mastered. It is necessary to transfer, rotate an employee to a new area of ​​work or send him for advanced training. It is not necessary to improve the level of your knowledge in academies and special institutes. It is possible, and it is much cheaper, to do this within the walls of your own enterprise, because we have previously had technical training days. In everyday life, such training goes on continuously: a new employee starts work, someone is transferred to another department, someone is promoted - all of them need to be prepared for new working conditions.

Rice. 25. Stages of employee business activity

The manager and specialist responsible for training will face many difficulties along this path, because not everyone has teaching abilities, they do not always know the necessary methods, and, as always, it is a pity to spend time on training - the old views on advanced training are very tenacious in us. Generalization of the experience of in-house training allows us to identify the most typical pedagogical errors:

• The new technologies, production techniques, economic or management rules and regulations being studied usually seem clear and simple to specialists. Listeners, timid in front of authority and afraid of appearing incompetent, are embarrassed to ask again, ask additional, sometimes truly naive questions. It is necessary to show patience and more often use one simple pedagogical technique: it is better to present a complex topic twice, once in a fascinating, interesting way, maybe even simplifying, vulgarizing the problem, and the second time - academically strictly, clearly and competently;
• abundance of new material. The teacher, to whom everything is, of course, clear, sometimes cannot appreciate the novelty and volume of the flow of information that is unexpected for students and is sincerely surprised at the poor initial preparation of students. “How come you don’t know this? What were you taught before?” The teacher is obliged to obtain information in advance about the level of knowledge of students, be prepared for the heterogeneity of their training and more often give students the opportunity to take a break from mastering complex material with the help of a friendly joke, analysis of some production incident, and involve students in a relaxed discussion;
• boredom, despondency: “I don’t understand anything and, of course, I won’t understand anything.” A teacher can, for example, read a job description out loud. Everything is written there correctly, clearly, and if the listeners don’t understand anything, that’s their problem, I’m smart, I know all this. No, such a mentor is not smart, and his listeners will very quickly give him their impartial verdict. Not every specialist is also a good teacher; it is necessary to carefully select candidates for teachers (principle of correspondence!).

A curious feature distinguishes modern students of large Russian institutes of advanced training, academies and business schools: despite their undoubted abilities, energy, and assertiveness, many students do not understand the technology of learning itself, they are not ready to work seriously and hard and hope to quickly and immediately receive ready-made recipes that will make their professionals in management activities. The director of the school of international business at the Institute of International Relations, A. Manukovsky, spoke well about this combination of ambition and intellectual immaturity of some listeners: “As for the people who come to us, as a rule, they are talented, with a great desire to do something, with energy, but also with an absolute lack of basic skills. These are people who do not know how to study. They are snobbish, they are already bosses. They are not ready to “throw away” their ambition and immerse themselves in study. then I have to put a pill in their mouth that will make them immediately become entrepreneurs.” And indeed, you have to constantly, tactfully, but persistently teach how to learn from the very first lectures, only then can you be confident in the successful results of the joint work of teachers and students. It is necessary to teach not only the basics of the management profession, but also methods of the art of influencing opponents, including oratory. WITH great benefit for listeners and with their most active participation, it is reasonable to give the floor to one of them for an impromptu speech on a certain topic, followed by a reasoned analysis of this oratorical “masterpiece” (believe me, the field for criticism will be very wide!). It is important to clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of such oratorical techniques as surprise of information, dramatization and clarity, expression and, of course, humor. Latest achievements in information technology open up new opportunities in solving problems of advanced training. Very interesting prospects open up when using the ideas of a television university for an individual education system - with the help of television networks, industrial firms and individual listeners have the opportunity to gain access to powerful educational centers at any distance and at a time convenient for them. The use of personal training programs, the possibility of interactive contacts with specialists and experts of the highest level will undoubtedly increase the quality of training in the system of advanced training (in 1998, a television academy was created within the structure of the Academy of National Economy under the Government of the Russian Federation).

8.12. The principle of "Mechnikov's fitter"

First the money, and then the chairs.

I. Ilf, E. Petrov
"Twelve Chairs"

The Russian entrepreneur has entered the harsh world of international business, and on this treacherous “warpath” the most unexpected dangers await him. First of all, of course, he is characterized by a complete disregard for the laws and rules of market relations, an amateurish hope for the Russian “maybe”. Further, he is beset by ignorance of foreign languages, legal illiteracy, inability to conduct business negotiations, draw up agreements and contracts.

Here are the characteristic negative aspects noted by Western businessmen when collaborating with Russians: the duration of negotiations; lack of necessary powers among Russian representatives, especially government agencies; inability to name realistic prices (as a result of poor knowledge of market conditions); optionality during negotiations (no-shows at meetings, slow response to letters and faxes); a tendency to keep excessively detailed protocols with details of each item (and a protocol is not a contract yet!); poor knowledge of marketing principles and market laws. And amazing, sweet trustfulness - and of course, we drank martinis with him, even kissed goodbye!

Here is a non-fictional example: a Moscow industrial and commercial company headed by an intelligent, educated, but, alas, very trusting physicist agreed with a charming American businessman from the “former Russians” to supply a substantial shipment to America optical instruments. We decided not to draw up a contract, since we have many mutual acquaintances, they drank, however, not martinis, but Russian vodka and “how can you not trust people...”. The embarrassing result is clear - the Russian company lost several thousand dollars. “Then the archivist very quietly asked: “And the money?” “Hush, fool,” Ostap said menacingly, “they tell you in Russian - tomorrow means tomorrow.” Of course, not all foreign businessmen are as brazenly straightforward as Ostap Bender, but The world of business is truly harsh, and relying only on philanthropists would be naive.

Ostap Bender's partner in the deal with chairs, fitter Mechnikov - “a man tormented by Narzan”, from the popular novel by I. Ilf and E. Petrov “The Twelve Chairs” - gave the name to another wise advice in the field of the art of management. This principle, formulated in the episode given in the epigraph, allowed the partners to reach agreement as “a product of non-resistance of the parties.”

The “Mechnikov Fitter” principle states that any management decision must be supported by documents (including, if necessary, financial documents) or materially. You cannot sign an order to pay a bonus if the manager is not convinced of the existence of a bonus fund; You cannot hire a new employee until a vacancy has been created; You cannot deliver goods without advance payment or open a joint business without a trade loan. First - money, then - chairs!

The “Mechnikov fitter” principle, or rather its inversion, has another area of ​​application, which puts this principle at one of the most important places in management problems in modern Russia - payment for work based on final results. Labor requires reward, and only what is rewarded is done. The problem of wages is more complex than a simple comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of time or piecework wages.

In Soviet times, remuneration was usually carried out for the time worked, and not for the final result of the employee’s work and the results of the enterprise’s activities as a whole. Everyone was sure that at the end of the month he would receive the exactly calculated amount of money, regardless of how the person worked and what the overall result of the team’s activities was. Here the “carrot and stick” method was no longer in effect, but only the “stick” (reprimand, demotion, dismissal), since there was no “carrot”, except for commendable or honorary diplomas and bonuses at the end of the year, which were usually also guaranteed.

Remember the familiar picture: repair workers in bright orange jackets are sitting on the side of the road, waiting for the asphalt mixture to be delivered. They are not in a hurry, they are calm, because they will be paid for the working day, and not for the result of the work - road repairs. And the driver of the car is in no hurry: he will make the required number of trips and get his due. And in the store there was the same picture: whether the seller served the buyer well or “barked” at him, whether he sold a lot of goods or not enough - he doesn’t care, his salary is precisely fixed and does not depend on the results and quality of work.

Today, the vast majority of enterprise managers live only for today, do not care about the future and the strategic development of their enterprise, and are reluctant to spend resources on technical re-equipment and advanced training of specialists. Middle managers also have no material interest in obtaining the required result with a smaller number of performers and in the shortest possible time. But the remuneration of employees of Japanese companies depends more than 30% on the final profit of the company! A version of the “Mechnikov’s fitter” principle in this case is formulated as follows: “If the result of your work is a profit, you will receive money.” This principle is very categorically supported by the famous American manager Jack Stack, protesting against the “pay me today, I’ll work it out sometime later” method. This is precisely the reason for the death of most companies, because so many people think so, from the manager to the ordinary worker. You must take the opposite position - "earn money first." We will deliberately not dwell on other “principles of management (unification of document flow, feedback, etc.), since their importance in the science and art of management is not so significant.

Self-test questions:

1. The concept of management principles, their objectivity and universality.
2. The principle of legal protection of management decisions is particularly relevant in the context of the transition of the Russian economy to market relations.
3. Centralization and decentralization; principle of control optimization.
4. What factors does controllability depend on?
5. Features and scope of application of the principle of delegation of authority.
6. What management principles do you consider especially relevant in the conditions of organizing production in modern Russia?

In the USSR, individual departments had data banks in their field of activity, but they were not publicly available.

Kurits S., Vorobiev V. Diseases of the state (diagnosis of pathologies of the system of public administration and law)

Chapter 2. Natural principles of management as sources of public administration and law

2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.

This chapter examines the principles of managing wildlife as the main sources of state laws, conventionally designated as constitutional law. Natural principles of management have been tested over billions and millions of years in the process of evolution of living nature, but the people who created states had no idea of ​​the existence in nature of an integral system of managing living beings. When building a state, man intuitively used only certain natural principles of management. On this incomplete and therefore internally contradictory basis, he built the laws of the state, which to this day retain gaps and contradictions and do not allow predicting the future of the state, causing crises and conflicts in the relationships between people and states.

1. Universality of management principles in nature and society

Man in his organizing activity is only a student and imitator of the great universal organizer - nature. Therefore, human methods cannot go beyond the methods of nature, and in relation to them they represent only special cases.
A.A. Bogdanov (1925)
Nature, in the broad sense of the word, can and should serve not only as a source of problems that I solve, but also to suggest an apparatus suitable for solving them.
N. Wiener (1948)
The state represents one of the varieties of living nature systems, but an organization (organizational system) created by people, i.e. artifact. Just as in nature, where the control center—the brain—controls the organism, and the leader—the pack, so in an organizational system the subject of control (an individual or a group) largely determines the fate of the entire artifact in the present and in the future. Management processes occurring in the control center and in the rest of the system (in the control object) are determined by formal rules. The basis of formal rules is the principles enshrined in state law (customarily called constitutional law). In addition, in the very object of management - in the people, representing a multitude of citizens and residents endowed with free choice, and in the subject of management (state power) - management processes also take place. All of them reflect the relationships of the participants among themselves, with the authorities and with nature. Management processes can contribute to the achievement of the goal of the subject of management, but they can also hinder it. Opportunity to achieve desired result depends on the characteristics of the subjects and objects of management and the principles on which they rely in their actions.
Where, from what sources do the principles and rules according to which the subject and object of state management act (or should act), what is the standard of their behavior? If we are ultimately talking about the sources of norms of constitutional law, then what is their connection with the principles of governance in nature? From the fact that the state exists in the natural world and the natural principle is primary in it, it follows that all other sources are secondary, either borrowed from the same natural sources, or do not have the necessary scientific foundations.
To answer the question about the connection between legal norms and management principles, it is proposed to consider the essence of a natural phenomenon - “management” and the principles of management that determine the actions of subjects and objects of management in the system.
As has been shown, control is a tool that directs an object to achieve a certain goal (?e/c). “Aristotle’s teleology was overcome and eliminated, but the subsequent development of Western European science discarded and bypassed rather than solved the problems contained in it (such as order and purpose in living systems), and therefore the main systemic problem has not become obsolete to this day.” Most well-known researchers of natural systems have addressed the issue of expediency in one way or another, recognizing the existence of a purpose for the system. However, any dispute about expediency in nature was reduced to the formulation of the question about the Creator, about God, which is quite natural for ordinary thinking, immediately depriving the study of any scientific character.
On this issue, the authors of the book take the point of view of A.A. Bogdanov: “With the development of science, it became clear that those relationships that are expressed by the word “expediency” can arise and develop in a completely natural way, in the absence of any “subject” who consciously sets goals - that there is objective expediency in nature”, “.. “The primary moment that gives rise to change, emergence, destruction and development of organizational forms, or the basis of the formative tectological mechanism is the connection of complexes.” Formative mechanisms (according to Bogdanov) include: connection (conjugation), fusion (copulation), entry (ingression - a chain connection between organized complexes) and separation (disingression). These mechanisms and the “laws of divergence and convergence of forms” (relations in the environment) represent a certain natural phenomenon, which, under the conditions of the stochastic influence of the environment, gives the randomly combined elements the properties of a stable and organized system.
The presence of a control mechanism in all forms of existence of living matter and ways of being of material objects gives grounds to consider control as an immanent category of the universe, characteristic of living nature. The universality of management processes suggests the existence of basic principles of management, which, during the development of the universe, assimilated the features of a specific system included in the universe. On this basis, we can assume that the management of artifacts—organizational systems—is built on the same principles, since there are no other mechanisms in nature and humans have no other sources for borrowing. However, taking into account the dual role of man as a biological object and as a thinking social being, some of these principles can be applied unchanged, others in a modernized form, for which the influence of the human factor will play the role of limitations.
Management as a process (as discussed above) represents the sequence of creating a management impulse (which is based on information - a decision) that encourages the movement of components material system in the direction of the system achieving a certain desired state (result) by converting resources (matter, energy) entering the “input” of the system into the result at the “output”.
Along with the purposeful impulses of the control center (“decisions”), material and virtual (information) resources are subject to stochastic environmental influences that can counteract the implementation of the decisions of the control center. The interaction of the processes of ordering (negentropy) and chaos (entropy) relates to living nature, reflecting the unity of contradictions, the general stable connections of things and natural phenomena that influence their changes.
The movement in inanimate nature of the elements of the nucleus, atom and planets and other physical and chemical objects (which are classified as closed systems) occurs along strict trajectories, retention on which and the impulse for constant or periodic movement are given by internal forces. The actions of these forces are of a regular, natural nature.
In living nature, the components of which have separated from the environment as a result of evolution, becoming open systems of a biological or organizational nature; the existence and development of systems associated with the metabolism, energy and information occurs according to negentropic programs. These programs are managed by an internal center built into the system. Changing the location of the control center allows us to bring greater certainty to the understanding of the differences between inanimate and living nature and the basic concept of “systems analysis” - closed and open systems. The process of purposeful influence on systems of inanimate and living nature represents the essence of the management process.
Returning to the concept of “system” as a collection of a certain set of physical components interconnected, we discover the property of emergence. The apparent “strangeness” arises as a result of the mechanistic idea of ​​a system as a certain combination of components, for example, in a machine (which, due to a large number of elements, may externally resemble a system), the connections between the components are determined by an external control center - its creator (the designer of the machine), therefore in it the sum of properties components is equal to the properties of the whole. Another thing - living system, in which the interaction of components is determined by an internal control center that selects the necessary connections for the given conditions for preserving the entire system. The simplest example: a pianist presses the keys with each finger, and a swimmer, pressing his fingers one against the other, gives them the ability to move in the water. In biological and organizational systems, the choice of options for connecting components, which can be the most complex subsystems, is infinitely large. The own control centers of these components are each time able to create compositions of connections that best ensure the achievement of their goals, coordinated with the overall goal of the system.
This understanding of the system as an integral set of subsystems (the extent of this series in breadth and depth is not entirely known) provides a tool for understanding the universe as a certain global system (of unknown origin) with systems and individual elements embedded in it. The elements of the universe are in cause and effect, i.e. subordinate relationships with the center of its management, and the management process takes place in the center and on the periphery (in nested systems), based on common principles of management. This condition is expressed in the unified functions and control structures of living nature systems that implement these principles. Let's try to imagine a hierarchy of systems (Fig. 8), illustrating Darwin's theory of evolution in living nature.
Three elements are now recognized as the substantial foundations of nature (see bottom of the model - roots): (1) matter - M, which exists in the form of matter or field. The latter determines the movement of material objects, their change and mutual transformation, the general measure of which is energy - E. The movement of material objects (elements) leads them to interaction, as a result of which “separates” arise (in the terminology of A. Bogdanov). Those. the field is connected by a causal relationship with separateness, which acquires the property of a system with its own internal environment, separated by a shell from the external environment; The image of the system is carried by information - I.
Since the process of interaction of countless numbers of such systems occurs under conditions determined by time - B and space - P, each system as a whole and their internal environment are random in nature, depending on the characteristics of the place and time in which it appeared, i.e. from the external environment. Open (biological) systems that exchange matter and energy with the environment appeared about 3.5 billion years ago, adding the necessary diversity to nature (according to Ashby), in contrast to the initially appearing conglomerates (which are not entirely correctly called closed (physicochemical) systems ; the existence of intermediate systems took nature 1.1 billion years (see Fig. 8).
The newly formed open system, in addition to matter and energy, began to use information about the state of the external environment (I, see Fig. 8) to organize randomly occurring processes of the relationship of components in the internal environment, which led to a decrease in entropy, i.e. increasing the stability of the system, which represents the essence of management. Thus, management, along with metabolic processes (see below), became a source of negentropy.
According to Bogdanov, stability exists in two forms. Quantitative stability can increase the lifespan of a system as a result of an increase in the number of elements of the system and the space it occupies, i.e. inclusion of new elements that may have greater survivability. However, an increase in numbers increases the heterogeneity (multi-directionality) of elements, which can lead to a decrease in the structural stability of the system, as a result of which the system will split into two, each of which will begin to new life(analogous to the process of reproduction in lower biological objects).
With the advent of open systems, the first precellular stage of the abiotic origin of life on earth is completed: protobionts (probionts) evolve: the first primitive unicellular organisms appear. There is a process of their quantitative and structural complication, after which, as a result of evolution, the first multicellular organisms appear (more than 500 million years ago). So, with interruptions for the oxygen catastrophe (2.3 billion years ago), for many glaciations (the largest occurred 500 million years ago

ago), the Permian mass extinction (250 million years ago, when 95% of all species of living beings died), the systems and principles of managing organisms were improved in the struggle for survival in nature, which continues to this day. Since these management principles relate to living nature in general (from the primary manifestations of life to organizational systems created by man, in particular, states), we will call them Global principles of wildlife management (Fig. 9).
Here we are forced to make reservations. First, the above explanation of the origin and development of the basic categories of the management system, although based on modern scientific understanding, is presented here in a very simplified form, which is inevitably accompanied by the loss of some important details. However, these simplifications can enable the reader without training in this field of knowledge to gain an understanding of the unity of natural creations and artifacts. The second reservation, which does not change the essence of the arguments presented, fundamentally affects the visual perception of their models, is that in human perception, evolution, represented by the tree model, has roots below (see Fig. 8), which give an idea of ​​its source, the original . The principles of management of organizational systems, on the contrary, are generated by the highest level of management, which is associated with the geometric top of the system (see Fig. 9). All further judgments are presented in this order.
The next level is the general principles of managing objects of living nature at the stages of cellular and organismal evolution, more precisely, the principles of their internal management. Based on the Global Management Principles, General principles complemented by differences acquired during evolution in the plant and animal kingdoms. General principles of control determine the mechanisms of the life cycles of cells and their associations - organisms.
The next level is special management principles. They determine the mechanisms for managing (regulating) the life cycles of populations (instinctively united organisms)

PRINCIPLES
MANAGEMENT
GLOBAL

CELLS,
ORGANISMS
Populations
ANIMALS
(instincts)

Associations of PEOPLE (thinking, instincts)

LEGAL STANDARDS

Symbols of connections:

and organizations (artifacts) created by people, combining the instinctive desire of individuals to live together and the conscious search for means for common protection and the development of consumer and cultural values. In contrast to the previously listed levels of living systems, where virtual principles of management operate, described in the language of philosophy and science, at the level of Special Principles there are documented norms of law (Ubi homini sunt modi insiH), which reflect the rules of joint living and activity established by people.
Since organizational artifacts have a natural basis (their creators are people - biological objects), the principles of managing artifacts are genetically related to the principles of management in living nature (from the family to the state and organizations of the world community), since these principles form the basis of the model of managing all “ living" systems. However, when applied to human relations (morality), some of the natural principles of management are unacceptable due to anti-humanism. As we mentioned earlier, in nature, a biological object that fails to adapt to the environment dies, since the evolution of living nature has only one basis - the randomness of the processes, and it does not have the moral aspect characteristic of man, due to which in human society an unadapted member provide help and support. Therefore, some natural management principles need to be “humanized” for application in human society. An example of the symbiosis of natural and legal principles of management is the primary human organization - the family, which relies on both natural instinct and an artifact - the institution of marriage created by people, which serves to protect the rights of each participant in a voluntary association and the results of their life together.
Continuing our consideration of the hierarchy of management principles of organizational systems, we point out one more aspect of the classification of management structures: macro level (integral organization), meso level (organization divisions) and micro level (performers).
Management principles differ in their influence on the objects of management. Upper level - Global principles represent a categorical imperative for all systems, ranging from transitional (from inanimate to living) throughout time and space in their opposition to the chaos of random manifestations of the nature of the universe. General principles are the same imperative for objects of living nature at the stages from a biological cell to a population of organisms. Finally, for the thinking organism (man) and for its organizational artifacts, following or exploring natural principles of management is an act of free will. A person (as an individual or a member of a community, a leader of an organizational system) has the opportunity to subjectively choose alternatives and bear personal responsibility for their choice or assign responsibility to controlled people (subordinates, subjects - totalitarian systems). At the stage of organizational systems, including states, these subjective preferences are subject to “humanization,” i.e. natural principles receive legal restrictions in methods and means of application, and the process of humanization continues to occur to this day in the form of law and morality and will not be limited in the future.
Reliance on management principles, tested by nature for millions of years, makes it more likely to achieve the goals of the organizational system with maximum efficiency (minimum expenditure of resources, including time). At the same time, the possibility of proactively creating phenomenal results that will lead a person to some more effective management principle is not excluded (although not confirmed), however, before such a pok-nok appears, it is necessary to make fuller use of the available means.
One more aspect. The management hierarchy in the universe determines the supremacy of the management influences of the upper level over all subsystems of the lower levels subordinate to them, reflecting the principles of autocracy and centralized management. These influences in the form of direct “instructions” represent the dictate of the control center (body) over the objects of management, and the strength and ethics of the dictate are determined by the nature of the structure of the organizational system. This statement is correct even in the absence of a subject (as a thinking substance), whose role in a wide variety of forms is played by a control mechanism (or center), for example, the natural environment or the genetic mechanism of an organism.
Let's take a closer look at the principles of management in accordance with the hierarchy presented by the model (see Fig. 9): Global principles of management - in living nature (open systems); General - management in organismal and population systems; Special ones are management in organizational systems, as well as norms of constitutional law that assimilate the presented principles of management.

Kurits S.Ya., Vorobiev V.P. Management principles— source of constitutional law // Law and management. XXI century. 2007. - No. 1. P. 50-59.

L. von Bertalanffy. General System Theory—A Critical Review, General Systems, vol. VII, 1962, p. 83

“To adopt a “general systems theory” suitable for various classes of phenomena, the most important criterion isomorphism, naturally, is the isomorphism of the “system-forming factor” (authors’ emphasis), which is understood as the result of the functioning of the system (i.e., the goal) as a system-forming factor.” Anokhin P.K. Fundamental issues of the general theory of functional systems. - M., 1973.

Quote by: Bogdanov A.A. Tectology. General organizational science. - M.: Economics, 1989. - P. 113. Strictly speaking, the name “tectology” as an organizational science is not quite rightfully extended to nature, where organisms and populations arise as a result of spontaneous evolution, while organizations are created by people consciously (artifacts) and organizational science can only describe human activities.

By definition, systems include objects in which many components are in interactions caused by the components themselves. In inanimate nature, from planetary to atomic levels, as well as in machines, components do not initiate interactions (except under the influence of chance). Therefore, they do not belong to the concept of system used here. Planetary and other nonliving systems fall into other unifying categories.

Even if we reject the assumption of the presence of some external control center, believing the emergence of the movement of physical bodies at the micro- and macrolevels to be the consequences of random connections of matter and energy, the emergence of ordered orbital movement does not find an explanation in the language of creatures that cannot go beyond the system (lack of meta -language).

Machine failure (loss of performance) is caused by the failure of its weakest element (the known “link in the chain”).

Biology describes in detail bypass connections (bypasses) that arise or are artificially created when natural connections are disrupted, for example, when blood vessels are obstructed or removed, the role of which is played by capillaries, or the functions of an injured or removed part of the brain are replaced during a head injury.

When creating an evolutionary model, geochronological data, the Evolutionary Theory of Charles Darwin, V.I. Osipov were used. History of natural disasters on earth // Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences. T. 74. - No. 11. - P. 998-1005 (2004); P.E.de Chardin. Human phenomenon. - M.: Nauka, 1987.

According to the figurative expression of the Austrian physicist E. Schrödinger, living organisms seem to feed on negative entropy (negentropy), extracting it from the environment and thereby increasing the increase in positive entropy in nature. Article from the multi-user encyclopedia Wikipedia www.wikipedia.org

The book does not discuss closed systems that are subject to even more general (higher in the hierarchy) principles of control of physical and chemical processes.
logical (circuit)
----------- functional
----------- instinctive
Rice. 9. Principles of management in nature and in artifacts (recorded in legal norms)

Control principle used in management: improvement of a production process or product can be achieved faster and more efficiently if the capabilities of the best existing model are thoroughly studied (the experience of American and Japanese automobile companies and electronic equipment)

It’s like a dictate (lat. Byugaive - prescribed), which appears in the form of a predictation, since in organizational systems created by man (see below), subordination is enshrined as the principle of hierarchical management.

2. Global principles of management in wildlife

Global principles of control at the top level represent the immanent properties of living nature, realized, according to Bogdanov, by random processes of conjugation, copulation, ingression and disingression of matter, energy and information. Starting from the transitional forms from inanimate to living nature, in the course of random evolutionary processes, principles for managing objects of living nature arose, which, to simplify the presentation, we will call the management of biological objects. Biological objects represent open systems, the internal elements of which: molecules, atoms and their constituent elementary particles that interact, represent closed systems (we repeat, they are not considered by us). Open systems that exchange matter and energy (together with information) with the environment are in a constant effort to reduce the influence of the environment in order to maintain their individuality (according to Bogdanov).
Before moving on to a description of the natural principles of control of biological objects, let us briefly dwell on some more general laws of nature and the apparatus of cognition. Since there are different approaches to the concepts discussed below in philosophy and other sciences, the concepts we have chosen represent only working hypotheses.
We are talking about such basic concepts as dialectics, principle and property.
In this work, dialectics is considered in terms of dialectical contradiction, which is understood as a source of change and development inherent in any biological object or judgment, as well as the parity of elements as a source of self-development of the system. Both basic categories represent the reality observed by reason (using the senses) and mind in countless examples of biological objects and human-made objects (artifacts) of a physical and virtual nature, although the property of parity is not yet recognized as a basic category.
The life cycle of a biological object involves the beginning (origin) and end of the object’s life. Regarding artificial objects (artifacts) created by man: objects, organizations and conclusions, the duration of their existence (life cycle) is determined by the principle of non-universality of artifacts, which limits the duration of the existence of an artifact by its area of ​​application (conventionally, space), and therefore by time: both are elements of the system universe "time-space".
The principle of parity, in fact, comes down to the principle of pairing, which is observed in nature and in judgments, for example, in philosophy - the category of movement is associated with two components: the moving body and the body relative to which the “observer” moves. This difference was also discovered at the deepest level of nature observed today - elementary particles that have left and right rotation (spin). The differences in natural objects that are tangible by the senses are represented by countless paired differences belonging to the same object or the same genus, species or class of objects.
It was shown above that control is the purposeful influence of the subject of control on the object. Management uses many tools, some of which are the most common. This generality can be represented as principles, for example, the principle of feedback control mentioned above. The same certainty is required by the concept of “property” of an object, because its uncertainty excludes the possibility of changing the property, i.e. targeted management. Property according to Hegel means “visibility, the reflection of one quality in another,” i.e. relationship type: A and not-A. This quality of a property plays an exceptional role in the control of an object, since it separates one system S from another, for example, from the environment So, which allows one to obtain an adequate idea of ​​the internal environment S. Thus, the property is a basic element of cognition (like matter or energy in nature ), i.e. the subject, and the control principle is the predicate, which arose in the course of the development of cognition, while “property” and “principle” can change places. In our work on management principles, we rely on currently existing scientific ideas about open system models.
Based on these judgments, it can be assumed that the first property characterizing the system is integrity. This property is realized by the Global Management Principle - the separation of the system from the environment, which establishes the boundary between the external environment and the system (the integrity representing the internal environment). The global principle of separation of a system from its environment operates at all levels of hierarchy in living nature, in all situations and at all stages of organismic and organizational evolution. The pinnacle of its implementation is the principle of state sovereignty, reflected in constitutional law, in the norms and customs of peoples and in international law (see Fig. 9). This Global principle, apparently, goes back to the division of the integrity of a higher order (the universe) into interacting units, which is the basis of the dialectics of development.
The global principle of separation led to the emergence of another Global principle of control - the adaptation of a living body to existence in the environment, which means the specialization of the internal parts of an integral system: the shell, which limits penetration into the system, and the internal environment, where tectological processes of quantitative and structural complication take place. The specialization of internal parts was completed in the property of functional-structural complexity, which represents the basis for the management of open systems, including the concepts of “functions, structures and connections” used in the systems approach to the study of complex systems; these concepts became generally accepted in the 20th century. The property of functional and structural complexity serves to preserve the internal composition of components and connections, and the constancy of the internal environment.
The concept of “function” in the systems approach means object (functional) relationships (interconnection relationships), as well as a method of activity, behavior characteristic of an object. In the most general sense, a function expresses the relationship of a part to the whole or parts among themselves, serving the preservation and development of the whole . From the perspective of a systems approach to management, i.e. in relation to organizational systems, the definition of “function” can be considered as the definition of a property in dynamics, leading to the achievement of the goal of the system.
The concept of “structure” reflects the most stable manifestations of the orderliness of relationships and connections between stably identified elements of the system (in this case, functions). Structure is the structure of a system, represented by the spatial arrangement of components that serve to implement functions.
Communications play an important role in the system. In the usual sense, the concept of “connection” means that which unites elements into a system. Depending on the nature of the system, connections can be rigid or flexible. Hard couplings occur in technical systems; flexible - in biological, economic, social. The most important ones include direct, reverse, irreversible (unidirectional), reinforcing (synergistic) and cyclic connections. In a management system, connections also act as vertical and horizontal relationships. Vertical (hierarchical) connections are relationships of linear management; horizontal connections (connections between units of the same level) - relations of coordination control, headquarters control.
The development of nature, representing random processes of evolution, manifested itself in another Global principle of control, ensuring the renewal of living bodies, while maintaining the total amount of matter occupied in objects of living nature. This principle, discovered by L. von Bertalanffy, is called the principle of equifinality2<). Если негэнтропийные процессы создают условия для роста продолжительности существования живых тел, то принцип эквифинальности устанавливает ограничение продолжительности жизни биологического объекта.
Therefore, the property of functional-structural complexity ensures the preservation of the internal environment and structure within the scope of the Global Principle of Equifinality. However, within these limits of action of this principle, the influence of the external environment can manifest itself, which can help to increase the quantitative stability of a living body (by increasing its mass). On the other hand, excessive growth of body weight can lead to increased heterogeneity, i.e. to a decrease in structural stability. As a result, the body will be divided into new parts, which, under favorable external conditions, can gather into some kind of community. The stability of the community is ensured by the Global Principle of Self-Reproduction. Consolidation of the properties of stability and other useful properties in new living bodies leads to an increase in the overall duration of existence (preservation of matter and structure) of the community of living bodies, overcoming the limitations of equifinality.
The principle of self-reproduction manifests itself at all levels of living nature. At the initial stage of the development of living nature, protobionts—precellular formations—already had the property of self-reproduction, expressed in division. Later, evolution led to the emergence of a specialized carrier of hereditary information (DNA), which was transmitted to subsequent generations through the system of sexual reproduction, without affecting the integrity of the carrier of this information.
Finally, the Global principle of feedback (according to Wiener), which represents a mechanism for transmitting information from the external environment to the internal environment and from components of the internal environment to the control center (ingression, according to Bogdanov), which serves to reduce the influence of randomness on the functioning of the internal environment. At the highest stage of evolution - the organizational stage, this Global principle will manifest itself as an instrument for the reaction of members of the organization to the decisions and actions of its control center.
Global principles of management in open systems of living nature are presented in Table. 1.

Property open systems	Principle management	Purpose of the principle	Results implementation principle
Integrity	Separation of the system from the environment	Creation of components with special properties -	Diversity of natural objects is a condition for evolution
Dependence on the external environment	Adaptation of a biological object to existence in the environment	Warning degeneration systems	Natural selection
Survival separately	Functional and structural complexity of the internal environment	Specialization of internal components and connections to ensure homeostasis - stability of the internal environment of a biological object	Reducing the system's dependence on the external environment
Survival of the individual within the community	Self-reproduction. Hierarchy in management	Spreading DNA	Expansion of distribution area
Vital cycle separate body	Equifinality (of a life process, a special case of a cycle)	Elimination of a living body that has lost the ability to exist in the environment (returning used elements to nature)	Renewal in nature while maintaining the total amount of matter
Self control	Feedback	Confrontation accidents	Height survivability

All other interpretations of dialectics as a method of cognition of the laws of development of nature, for example, I. Kant considered dialectics to be the logic of appearance (cited from: works. Kant, p. 169) and G. Hegel in “The Science of Logic” (cited from: works. Modern philosophical dictionary, pp. 240-241) presented dialectical logic as a reflection of the “absolute idea”, which presupposed the existence of the understanding of things, and as the art of conducting a conversation, are not considered in this work.

Strictly speaking, the accepted definition of the life cycle of a biological object (which we also habitually use) is inaccurate, since a cycle (Greek kybov - a circle is a set of processes, works, operations that together form a complete circular sequence), and the life of a biological object (from birth or conception) continues only until death, after which physicochemical processes of decomposition into primary elements occur with his body (non-living). These elements (atoms) do not disappear, but are used in new compositions of objects in the universe. The concept of the life cycle of a non-biological object (for example, judgments, decisions, theories) is correct from the point of view of cyclicity, but conditional from the point of view of life (metabolic processes).

Since its creator, man, is himself a product of nature, and therefore, as its element, cannot go beyond its limits, if only due to the lack of meta-language.

For example, a magnet: one side attracts, the other repels; female - male chromosomes in the hereditary system of the body (in Chinese philosophy, particles: yin - yang have a wider representation), introvert - extrovert (in psychology), etc. The symmetry of identities (the symbol of the inanimate in Japanese philosophy is death, i.e. eternal peace - the absence of movement) and the pairing of opposites (dialectical contradiction) is a symbol of development.

Requirements for defining a principle in management are given in the work of Nobel laureate Simon G. “Management Sayings”, see Classics of Public Administration Theory: American School. - M.: MSU im. M.V. Lomonosov. — P. 177. “Difficulties arise due to the use as “management principles” of what are only criteria for describing and diagnosing management situations.”

Previously, we considered them as management components, for example, the top management functions POSDCORB (Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, Budgeting), presented in the above-cited work by Gulick L. “Notes on Organization Theory.” See Classics of Public Administration Theory: The American School. - M.: MSU im. M.V. Lomonosov. — P. 116. Here they are presented as components and connections used in the systems approach.

Currently, the most recognized hypothesis of the origin of life is A.I. Oparina - J.B. Haldane; Of great interest are models of the evolution of organisms up to forecasts of organizational systems in the work of Thuard de Chardin. Human phenomenon. - M.: Nauka, 1987.

2.3 General principles of wildlife management

The next stage in the evolution of control systems in living nature is associated with the improvement of means that limit the influence of the external environment on the living body, and thereby enhance the possibilities of self-development of its internal environment. Subject to the Global Management Principles, open systems: from biological molecules to organisms, see Fig. 9, acquired at this stage of evolution (organismic for short) new properties, the implementation of which required further development of control principles, which we called “General principles of control of organisms.”
Let's consider how the properties of a biological object developed at the molecular and cellular levels, at the homeostatic, behavioral and mental levels of organisms and how the General Principles of Management relate to the Global Principles.
The property of the integrity of a living body (see Table 1) has received a new expression. As a result of evolution, the huge variety of forms of biological objects has been reduced to three generic unified objects that relate to the concept of genus: cell, organism and population. Each genus has the property of selfhood, reflecting the transition from sameness (similarity) to uniqueness - selfhood (du pareil au Mête). Each genus is unique, since, probably, all other variants of these objects represented dead-end directions in the evolution of living nature; differences within the genus are manifested in terms of species, for example, the organism of a herbivore and a predator. The property of selfhood is realized in a cell by the biochemical mechanism of chromosomal protection, in the body - by the principle of the territorial imperative, and in a population by the principle of distribution in a certain area of ​​a collection of individuals of the same biological species, freely interbreeding with each other, having a common origin, genetic basis and to one degree or another isolated from other populations of this species.
During a period that lasted almost three and a half billion years, the primary physical-chemical-biological drop (according to Bogdanov) went through the stages: protein molecule - organism - population. At the first stage of development, the protein molecule (a multimolecular phase-separated open system capable of interacting with the external environment) acquired the properties of growth and development. Cells were formed, which, having the property of division, spread on the surface of the earth, asserting their right to exist.
At the next stage of the same stage of evolution, the inherent property of the cell to assimilate matter and energy led to the emergence of a new integrity - an organism that integrated many individual cells. A need arose to create conditions for the existence of a new biological object in the environment, using only the internal capabilities of the new object itself. These conditions were ensured by the General Principle of Effective Management of the Organism, which arose during evolution (goes back to the Global Principle of Adaptation of the Living Body). The principle boiled down to reducing the dependence of an object on the environment by creating a mechanism for generating its own energy, reducing losses of energy generated and assimilated from nature, and losses associated with the chaotic (random) interaction of incalculable cells of a living organism - negentropy, i.e. to minimizing resources received from the environment to achieve the final result.
At the next stage of the same stage of evolution, a new biological object arose - a population of organisms, representing an association in a certain space (area). The desire for the long-term existence of an individual organism, contrary to the principle of equifinality, was ensured by the population through the sexual transmission of hereditary information to future generations.
Let us consider the mechanisms for each stage of evolution, combining the first and second stages together. Without delving into biology, we only note that biochemical metabolic processes were used to generate our own energy: specialized cells of the body converted food into energy, which was used for the functioning of the body (movement, protection, production, etc.) and for generating heat. Warm-blooded organisms appeared that “freed” living nature from the curse of the second law of thermodynamics.
The opportunity to reduce energy consumption arose from a number of other factors. Firstly, the boundary between a biological object and the environment became less permeable: thick skin appeared, allowing less energy to be spent in protecting life, and fur. Secondly, systemic principles were realized that influenced the entire “animal branch” of evolution. The organism has assimilated a property known as “pack compaction,” an indicator of the ratio of the mass of an animal to the surface area of ​​its outer surface (the law of the German physician M. Rubner). Optimization of this indicator led to a decrease in the body’s consumption of food, water and energy required to resist the environment; the optimal value of the indicator was achieved for all living calorific animals (including humans):
M3
—2 - Const, where
M is the mass of the body,
S is the area of ​​the outer cover.
For example, in a goose, mouse, and human, the packing density is approximately 0.98–1.18. The external expression of this principle can be seen in the harmony of the bodies of animals and humans as the highest representative of the animal world (nothing superfluous). Thirdly, the desire to reduce energy loss (and preserve life) led to the appearance of limbs (limbs, wings) in the body, allowing it to quickly move and change its habitat, especially during the birth and raising of children (better natural conditions: more food, favorable climate ).
The emergence of new properties in addition to the odd number of heterogeneous cells within the body and metabolic processes within cells, as well as the unpredictability of the habitat, required the coordination of the actions of all participants in the process called life. The course of such a process, like any process of development and interaction of a huge number of components, requires ordering, i.e. reducing disorder (entropy).
Ordering is achieved through a control mechanism. As shown in Chap. 1, the functioning of the control mechanism requires a very specific set of components and connections, the totality of which constitutes the control system. It includes a control center that determines the actions of the components of a biological object (in general terms, they “make decisions” in the form of an imperative information signal); peripheral actuators that implement decisions, and connections connecting the center with the periphery: direct connections, through which decisions are sent to the actuators, and feedback connections, through which the control center receives information about the results of execution.
At this stage of evolution, the Global principle of functional and structural complexity was implemented in the General principle of management of the management system itself, which determines the processes occurring in it; sometimes these processes are referred to as regulation.
The principles of management, as well as the properties of the management system at both hierarchical levels, fully retain their relevance at the next stage of the evolution of living nature - in organizational and legal systems that are created by man. Management systems for organisms and populations rely on management principles that originate in nature and have been tested over millions of years (see Fig. 8). These are the principles: hierarchy, autocracy; target management; subordination, coordination, adequacy of information, feedback, management efficiency, which at the stage of organizational development will be realized and enshrined in the functions and structures of the management system. The control principles shown below are derived from an analysis of the properties of the components of the control system of the organism and population.
Hierarchy (from the Greek "Hedra" - sacred power) represents one of the main properties of complex systems, which is reflected in the principle of hierarchical control, i.e. as a source of active influence on the entire biological object. Built on a hierarchical principle, the body's control system has at the top a control center - the brain, to which information flows about the state of components and connections, as well as the parameters of processes occurring in the body. In order to relieve the brain from the continuous and huge flow of information, to free it up to make decisions on strategic issues of preserving the object as a whole, the control system is divided into subsystems. The division is carried out according to the managerial principle of structuring, which is based on the functional purpose of the subsystems, reflecting the purpose of each subsystem (more details in Chapter 6).
Subsystems have their own control centers, which receive information about the operating parameters of controlled components, connections and processes, and the peripheral centers themselves make decisions, trying to eliminate the resulting deviation of parameters (the managerial principle of delegation of authority). If the deviation of the parameters does not exceed a certain norm, information about the deviations is not transmitted to the brain. If the peripheral center fails to restore the normal state, the information is transmitted to the center (brain), for example, in the form of pain, and only then the highest levels of the body’s control system come into action to make a decision. based on a choice of alternatives.
This structural arrangement led to minimization of the mass of the highest control organ - the brain, which (for example, the human brain has 14 billion cells) is packed into a volume weighing about 2.5% of the body weight. Reducing the specific share of brain mass also corresponds to another principle of effective management (reducing unit costs to achieve a result), which goes back to the Global principle of management in the universe (inanimate and living nature).
The principle of autocracy is directly related to the hierarchy of management of an object; it can be found in the life cycle of an organism, a population, and further - in organizational systems created by man. The essence of the principle is that the basis of control information generated at the highest level of the hierarchy by a single control center is dictate - a universal category of existence of an organism, population and organization. In organisms (and technical devices), such information plays the role of a direct “switch” of chemical and electromagnetic mechanisms for the remote start of biochemical processes or the movement of organs. In populations (and subsequently in organizations), this information is a warning signal of future sanctions. The general natural principle of autocracy is implemented in an organization within the framework of the principle of subordination, which gives the governing body the right to carry out the sanction of depriving the offender of benefits and direct punishment - causing damage to the violator.
Since a biological object does not have the organs of foreseeing the future nature, intensity and date of changes in the external environment, as well as part of the changes in its internal environment, it is deprived of the opportunity, as shown above (see paragraph

1. 6), develop management strategy and tactics. However, the absence of such information can become a source of internal chaos and destruction of the object. In the course of evolution, nature “found” a solution to this problem by introducing into a biological object the “striving for self-preservation,” which represents an excess of the level of acquired energy over expended energy, i.e. growth of negentropy provided by metabolic and control processes.

The desire to realize this internal property relieves a biological object from searching for information about its future, since a significant part of the information about the future of the environment and the system itself cannot, by definition, be reliable. To eliminate the possible negative impact of uncertainty on the process of moving towards the goal, the facility has reserves to eliminate the consequences of unforeseen violations (that is, excess energy). If there were not enough reserves, the object died; evolution looked for other ways. On this fundamental basis of the uncertainty of information about the future and its replacement with other information that gives greater certainty to the future - its goal, the principle of target management arose.
The principle of goal control regulates the unconscious movement of the animal body, the subconscious movement of the human body and animal population, and the conscious movement of man as an individual and an organization of people towards a certain desired state - a goal. The goal represents a system-forming factor that can consolidate the efforts of the system components and inform about the functional and structural defects of the system. In these qualities, the goal plays the role of a negentropic means. Since objects of living nature always have a control center, and this center is the only one, the center cannot exist without a goal, even if the source of the goal is not known; the question of the sources of the state's goals is discussed in Chapter. 4.
The control system of a biological object that has come down to us was formed in ancient times in the body of an animal. Here, the control center exists in the form of a brain, in which a huge number of analyzers (receptors) of received information and synthesizers of imperative brain signals (“decisions”) are concentrated, sent to internal organs through direct management communication. For example, cells in the human brain ensure the reception of information received from sensory organs that perceive information both from external stimuli (exteroception) and from internal organs (interoreception). Information comes in the form of visual, sound, tactile (through the skin) and mental images and is converted into signals from the nervous and humoral systems (the latter transmits biochemical information using fluids: blood, lymph, tissue fluid), which enter the control center, the brain. From there, through direct communication, the processed information in the form of imperative signals (“decisions”) is sent to peripheral control centers in the body’s control subsystems, which convert them into actions of actuators to maintain a biological object in a normal state or to eliminate deviations that have arisen from the norms developed by evolution for every type of organism.
Here the actions of two management principles are manifested: the above-mentioned subordination and feedback (assessment of the state after the implementation of the decision). In the process of centralized control described above, there is also a third principle of control - coordination, which serves for the temporary integration of execution mechanisms into functional systems (according to Anokhin) to eliminate deviations from the normal state and to anticipate the result - the acceptor of the result of the action.
The use of feedback in the control system of a biological object raises the need for another control principle - ensuring the adequacy of information. Mechanisms that implement the feedback principle in a biological object differ from mechanisms in a technical device or in a technological process. In the first (biological) there is a signal delay caused by the fact that the same communication channel is used for forward and feedback communications, and it takes time to release it. Secondly, in a biological object, evolution “took care” of the duplication of communication channels: in the event of the destruction of some channels, their role is played by other organs and tissues that were not originally intended for this purpose. Due to delays in the transmission of information or the use of ersatz channels, the adequacy of management information may be incomplete. Both of these features: delay and incomplete adequacy can cause future pathology; Below we will trace how a violation of the principle of adequacy of management information caused by subjective preferences of a person, i.e. deliberate distortions in political interests, reflected in the management of organizations and in law.

The term is borrowed from the monograph of Levinas’s doctoral dissertation “Totality and the Infinite. Essay on the theme of exteriority” (“Totalité et Infini. Essai sur l’Exteriorité”, 1961): “The determinant of the logical transition from sameness (similarity) to the Self (du pareil au Mête) is the starting point that fixes some feature, trait, specific difference , due to which the transformation of the logical sphere into the sphere of the interior world takes place” [Electronic resource]. — Access mode http://iampolsk.narod.ru/TIl.htm. The works of Richard Rorty (b. 1931), an American philosopher, a modern follower of I. Kant, and J. G. Mead (Mead, George Herbert) (1863-1931) are devoted to the same topic. [Electronic resource]. — Access mode: http://slovari.yandex.ru

One of the sensations that the body acquires genetically is the so-called “sense of space.” In his book The Territorial Imperative, Robert Ardrey traced the development of a sense of “territory” from animals to humans. Ardrey argues that "a person's sense of territory is genetic and cannot be eliminated." Through extensive research on animals, he described the genetic programs of behavior in the animal kingdom, emphasizing the connection between sexual reproduction and the sense of territory (genetic inheritance has not been proven). [Electronic resource]. — Access mode: ІрУ/уогИБарутпш- sionchannel.org/o-zhivotnyx-i-territorii/. The principle also reflects the initial form of functioning of the body's needs for safety (according to Maslow) and operates in all situations and at all stages of organismal evolution.

The set of metabolic processes and control mechanisms is classified as negentropic processes. The English neurophysiologist W. R. Ashby and the French physicist L. Brillouin explored the commonality of the concepts of “entropy” and “information”, treating information as negative entropy (negentropy). Brillouin and his followers began to study information processes from the point of view of the second law of thermodynamics, considering the transfer of information as an improvement of this system, leading to a decrease in its entropy. Some philosophical works have put forward the thesis that information is one of the basic universal properties of matter; This thesis is accepted in the present study.

Sexual reproduction has led to the population becoming the unit of selection. That is, the system is very complex, but it is precisely this system that turns out to be stable. This is the main thing that sexual reproduction provides - the creation of a supra-individual species. A. Markov Sexual reproduction made evolution a stable process. [Electronic resource]. — Access mode: http://www. svobodanews.ru/Article/2007/09/14/20070914190046053.html

English scientist R. Goldacre in 1963 found that the spontaneous formation of surface films and elementary membranes arose already at the stage of phase-separated systems of organic substances.

In the human body, for example, there are the integumentary, musculoskeletal, digestive, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, excretory, reproductive, endocrine and nervous systems (which are functional subsystems of the body).

In nature, mutants are known that have two control centers: two-headed animals and populations with two leaders. These formations are not viable, in some cases they do not produce offspring (sterile existence). At the state level, dual power is a source of constant instability, causing casualties among the population and loss of property of citizens (see below).

2.4 Special principles for managing populations and organizations

1. Global, General and Specific management principles, representing a hierarchy of interrelated management tools at the specified levels.

Properties of living matter	Global management principles
Integrity	Isolating the system from the environment
Dependence on the external environment	Self-government. Feedback
Survival of an individual biological object	Functional and structural complexity of the internal environment (quantitative and structural stability). Self-reproduction of objects. Efficiency (reducing unit costs to achieve results).
Renewal in nature	Equifinality of a separate object
Survival of a biological object in a community of objects	Hierarchy in management

1. The self (uniqueness) of a biological object (protected by the chromosomal mechanism of the cell, the territorial imperative of the organism, the area of ​​distribution of the population).
2. Negentropy

self-generation of energy, reduction of energy losses, self-management, reduction of losses from chaotic (random) interaction of components and connections.

1. Isolation within a biological object of an integral control system for the development and implementation of management “decisions” based on the principles of management of the organism:

hierarchy in management, structuring (W. Ashby's principle of diversity), autocracy, subordination, transfer of authority, coordination, feedback and adequacy of information.
Special principles for managing associations of biological objects:

1. Multifunctional management of the control system (the emergence of a personalized control center - leader).
   

1. Separation of functions of conservation and development of a biological object.
2. The emergence of the category of “goals” in a thinking organism, which supplemented the list of principles for managing the organism with the function of planning, as well as “leadership” (absent in nature) and modernization of the feedback principle (inclusion in the chain of a thinking being with will).
3. All three groups of principles are in a hierarchical relationship and have a cumulative (cumulative) nature, i.e. each lower principle includes the corresponding upper principles in their original content or taking into account changes associated with the peculiarities of the implementation of the principle at a given hierarchical level.
4. Global and General principles of control are derived from one common invariant basis (from the substantial properties of natural components), which makes it possible to present them as universal in the sphere of control of “living” systems, and their foundations are classified as a category of reason (a metaphysical category in the sense of Kant).
5. Judgments about a general basis, as well as specific consequences from this judgment, have the property of reproducibility.
6. The list of presented principles of management in living nature is not exhaustive, not only from the point of view of future discoveries of science - it can be supplemented and clarified by scientific data that remained unknown to the authors of the book.

There are examples when the opened opportunities for greater use of ready-made energy materials, causing low mobility and a passive type of nutrition, led to the natural elimination of body organs that had lost their previous purpose. In bivalves, such changes in the external environment led to the disappearance of the head, and the pork tapeworm “lost” its digestive system. [Electronic resource]. — Access mode: http://dronisimo.chat.ru/homepagel/ob/aromor.htm

In addition to the sexual transmission of hereditary properties, special ethological relationships have arisen in animal populations: mutual assistance is a form of relationship between individuals of the same or different species, in which each of the interacting individuals derives certain benefits for itself. The main types of mutual assistance are: collective protection from predators; joint construction of nests; care of offspring (social insects, birds); - replacement of deceased parents; Grooming, which shows the comfort of the “mental” state, serves as a mechanism for maintaining the ethological hierarchy, as well as various forms of teaching the offspring. [Electronic resource]. — Access mode: http://encycl.yandex.ru/ Yandex encyclopedia.

The apparent anomaly of control in certain species of animals, for example, elephants, in which the strategy of the future (control function) is determined by female individuals - old female elephants, does not contradict the principle, since these members of the population have passed childbearing age, and the need to protect them as the guardian and transmitter of the new genetic information is lost to future generations.

Management methods are implemented in accordance with certain principles.

Science combined with elements of art

Focus

Functional specialization

Versatility

Sequences

Continuity

Optimal combination of centralized regulation and self-government

Taking into account individual characteristics and psychology of employees

Patterns of interpersonal relationships and group behavior

Ensuring the unity of law and responsibility in every link of the management process

Competitiveness of management participants

Maximum involvement of performers in the process of preparing decisions

Let's look at these principles.

The main thing in management is considered the principle of science combined with elements of art . Management uses information from many sciences, which is caused by the complexity and diversity of solving problems of modern economic practice. At the same time, situations in the external environment and internal environment of the organization are changing and can change so rapidly that there is no time to search for a scientifically based solution to the problem. Then success depends on the art and skill of the leader. Mastery is determined by intelligence, knowledge, experience and talent.

The principle of purposefulness means that management as a process should be focused on solving specific problems of the organization.

The essence principles of functional specialization and versatility is that any management object requires an individual approach that corresponds to the focus and characteristics of the management object’s functioning. At the same time, management actions are aimed at leading people. Therefore, management must have something universal, something common to managing people.

Management is based on principle of consistency . The leader's actions must follow one another and be logically justified. For example, it is unacceptable for management to first make a decision and then evaluate and comprehend the situation. Sequence in management can be cyclical, when actions in a certain sequence are repeated after a certain time.

Continuity principle management means the continuity of management of economic activities. This allows you to timely detect and solve emerging problems, ensure the stable development and functioning of the organization.

In turn, the stable development and functioning of the organization requires the implementation the principle of an optimal combination of centralized regulation and self-government individual elements of the organization.

Management is impossible without compliance the principle of taking into account individual characteristics and psychology of personnel , patterns of interpersonal relationships and group behavior, because management is carried out by people. This approach ensures a normal moral and psychological climate in the organization’s team. In this case, decisions are made carefully and accepted by employees for execution.

The principle of ensuring the unity of rights and responsibilities at each level of the organization’s management is necessary for the normal flow of the management process. An excess of rights in management, compared to responsibility, leads to the autocracy of managers, their willfulness, and arbitrariness. Lack of rights paralyzes business activity and managerial initiative.

The principle of competition among management participants carried out on the basis of personal interest. Personal interest is supported through material and moral rewards, acquiring new knowledge and practical skills.

Modern management cannot be most effective without compliance the principle of the widest possible involvement of performers in the process of preparing decisions at all stages. The decisions subsequently made, in the development of which the work and ideas of the performers were invested, are implemented with greater interest and activity than the teams of superiors.

The general methodological principles of management outlined show their importance in management.

Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:

1. Division of labor. The purpose of the division of labor is to perform work that is larger in volume and better in quality, with the same amount of effort. The division of labor is directly related to specialization.

This principle may be applicable to both the spheres of production and managerial work. The division of labor is effective up to a certain extent, beyond which it does not bring the desired results.

2.Authorities and responsibilities. Authority is the right to manage the resources of an enterprise (organization), as well as the right to direct the efforts of employees to complete assigned tasks. Responsibility is the obligation to carry out tasks and ensure their satisfactory completion.

Authority is an instrument of power. Authority meant the right to give orders. Power is directly related to responsibility. A distinction is made between official (official) power and personal power arising from the individual qualities of the employee.

In modern conditions, this principle sounds like powers (rights) must correspond to responsibility.

3. Discipline. Discipline involves achieving compliance with agreements concluded between the enterprise and its employees, including obedience. In case of violation of discipline, sanctions may be applied to employees.

Fayol considered observance of discipline obligatory, both for managers of all ranks and for workers. He pointed out that discipline is as great as the leader.

4. Unity of command (unity of management). The employee must receive orders and instructions from his immediate supervisor. In addition, he must respect the authority of the leader.

By formulating this principle, Fayol came into conflict with the recommendations of Taylor, who believed that workers could report to different functional managers.

• 5. Unity of direction (directorate). Each group operating within the same goal must have a plan and one leader. If there are several groups, a single plan approved by senior management is necessary to coordinate their activities. Fayol emphasized “One leader and one plan for a set of operations having a common goal.”
• 6. Subordination personal (individual) interests - common. The interests of one employee or group of employees must be aimed at fulfilling the interests of the entire enterprise and must not prevail over them. In the event of conflicts in interests, the task of the leader is to reconcile them.
• 7. Staff remuneration, i.e. the price of the services provided. Workers must receive a fair wage for their work. This applies equally to workers and managers.
• 8. Centralization. The enterprise must achieve a certain correspondence between centralization and decentralization, which depends on its size and specific operating conditions.

Small enterprises have a high degree of centralization, while large enterprises have a lower degree. Choosing the right balance between centralization and decentralization allows you to achieve the best results.

9. Sklar chain (hierarchy). A scalar chain is a series of executives located at different levels of the hierarchy (from top managers to lower-level managers). The scalar chain determines the subordination of workers. A hierarchical management system is necessary, but if it is detrimental to the interests of the enterprise, then it needs to be improved.

A rational management structure of an organization requires, along with a hierarchy, horizontal connections.

10. Order. Fayol divided order into “material” and “social”. Each employee must have his own workplace, provided with everything necessary.

To do this, the manager must know his subordinates and their needs well. Briefly, this principle can be formulated as “a place for everything and everything in its place.”

• 11. Justice. Justice is a combination of kindness and justice. An employee who feels treated fairly feels loyalty to the company and tries to work with full dedication.
• 12. Stability of the staff's workplace. For an enterprise, the most preferable are employees who hold on to their jobs. High staff turnover characterizes poor performance of management personnel and reduces the efficiency of the enterprise. In addition, this principle says that an employee needs a certain time to master the required skills at the proper professional level. In a prosperous company, the management staff is stable.
• 13. Initiative. Demonstration of entrepreneurship and initiative not only by managers, but also by all employees of the enterprise. The implementation of this principle often requires the administration to “sacrifice personal vanity.”
• 14. Corporate spirit. The strength of an enterprise is in the harmony (“unity”) of all employees of the enterprise; Fayol pointed out the inadmissibility of using the principle of “divide and conquer” in management. On the contrary, he believed, leaders should encourage collectivism in all its forms and manifestations.

The classification of management principles proposed by Fayol contributed to streamlining the management process. Fayol emphasized the universality of management principles, without limiting their application only to the sphere of production.

Fayol believed that the system of principles he proposed could not be finally formulated. It must remain open to additions and changes based on new experience, its analysis and generalization.

Fayol noted that the application of principles in practice is “a difficult art, requiring thoughtfulness, experience, determination and a sense of proportion.” Many of the above signs have not lost their relevance today, despite the changes that have occurred over the past decades.

Fayol considered management theory (in his terminology, administration) as a set of rules, techniques, and principles aimed at carrying out business activities most effectively, optimally using the resources and capabilities of the enterprise.

Fayol highlighted the most important principles of unity of command and leadership. According to Fayol, to achieve a certain goal there must be an appropriate program and a single leader. Violation of this principle leads to incorrect division of functions within the organization.

Unlike Taylor, Fayol denies the need to vest functional workers with administrative rights and for the first time points out the need to create headquarters, which should not have the right to lead, but only prepare for the future and identify possible ways to improve the organization.

Fayol paid special attention to drawing up a forecast and plan. He pointed out the need for short-term and long-term planning in every organization, as well as the need for planning on a national scale, based on the needs of society as a whole and especially production.

Fayol's merit is the statement that every member of society needs, to a greater or lesser extent, knowledge of the principles of administrative activity.

These are the main provisions of Fayol's administrative school. Fayol considered the main thing in it to be the method of analysis and division of the administration process. He paid special attention to the issue of training management personnel, strongly opposing the existing system based on engineering disciplines. Fayol considered the main thing for workers to be their achievement of technical mastery. The skill of managerial workers can be achieved as they move up the career ladder.

Fayol set the task of teaching industrial administrators how to manage the workers employed at the enterprise, which would ensure the greatest individual and collective labor productivity by concentrating their “will” in one, strictly defined direction, indicated by the entrepreneur.

The latter requires the creation of a science of human management based on “careful study and scientific experimentation.” Fayol's school paid special attention to the development of the basic individual, psychological qualities that an administrator should have. A list of qualities was compiled, which included the following:

• o health and physical qualities;
• o intelligence and intellectual abilities;
• o moral qualities (restraint, will, perseverance, determination in making responsible decisions, sense of duty, etc.);
• o good general education;
• o the ability to manage people (foresight, the ability to develop an action plan, organizational skills, the ability to influence people to achieve their goals, the art of communication, sociability, the ability to control the actions of subordinates);
• o knowledge of all the most important functions and activities of the enterprise;
• o genuine competence in the activities of a particular enterprise.