1. Story means a narrative, a story about the past, inherited. Its founder is Herodotus. This is a multidisciplinary science, it consists of: political, civil, military history, economic history, culture, state and law.

Functions of historical knowledge:

Cognitive

Educational

Political

Worldview

History in the humanities. The humanities are the sciences about man and society. Among them, the most important for every person is Domestic history. Currently, our Fatherland is going through difficult times. There is a rapid process of change in socio-political and economic relations. A person who does not know his history cannot navigate the world around him, is not able to adequately respond to the difficult realities of social and political life. It is very important to be able to learn lessons from the experience of previous generations in order to determine one’s place in society and become a worthy citizen of one’s country.

Object of study for history is the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society, both in the past and in the present.

The subject of history is the study of the development of human society as a single contradictory process.

2. Historical sources- this is everything that directly reflects the historical process and makes it possible to study the past of human society.

Source types:

Written ( legislative acts, records management materials, political essays and projects, journalism, documents and political parties, public organizations)

Material (archaeological excavation materials)

Ethnographic (maps)

Oral (myths, epics, legends)

Investment (languages)

Film and photo documentary (film, photo)

Fine (paintings)

Digital

Phonic (sound)

Study methods:

Comparative-historical

Statistical and mathematical

Structural-systemic

Retrospective (from latest to newest)

Civilization (I half of the 20th century, Oswald Spengler - “The Decline of Europe” and Arnold Toynbee - “Comprehension of History”). The development of humanity occurs in the form of successive civilizations, each of which develops its own historical and cultural traditions, ethnic norms, and religious systems. Civilization is not static, it is mobile. In his comprehension of history, Toynbee put forward the theory of a cycle of successive local civilizations. He identified 302 civilizations. The stage-by-stage cyclical development of civilization is of a decree nature. This means that the transition from one stage to another is automatic, and that not all civilizations in mandatory go through all the mentioned stages. Any civilization at any time can leave the cyclic distance without withstanding its tension.

Formational (formation - from the Latin “type, formation”) - according to this approach, the world historical process is usually represented as a process of consistent change of socio-economic formations, differing from each other in the method of production and the corresponding social-class structure. The history of mankind is defined as a movement from the first classless society (primitive communal system), through class ones (slavery, feudalism, capitalism), to a new classless one (communism). It is argued that the change of socio-economic formations is carried out mainly through revolutions and constitutes a universal objective law of historical development. Formation theory was formulated by Karl Marx as a generalization of the historical path of Europe. He was aware of the diversity of the world and saw that some countries did not fit the formation characteristics.

3. Reasons for the emergence of the Old Russian state:

Social division of labor

Economic development

Society's interest in the emergence of a state

Stages of formation of the Old Russian state. VI-IX centuries. The East Slavic tribes united into communities that had not only a tribal, but also a territorially political character. Such unions included 120-150 separate tribes, which consisted of large quantity births and occupied a significant territory. The glades lived along the middle reaches of the Dnieper, and the Drevlyans lived on the right bank of the Dnieper. Most developed lands Slavic world– Novgorod and Kyiv – controlled the northern and southern sections of the Great Trade Route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which arose at the end of the 9th century. Tribal unions were headed by princes. There was a militia, headed by the thousand and sotsky. A special military organization was the squad, which was made up of the senior (ambassadors and princely rulers who had their own land) and the junior, who lived with the prince and served his court and household. On behalf of the prince, the warriors collected tribute (“polyudye”) from the conquered. One of these associations was a union of tribes led by Kiy. Slavia was located on the territory in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen with its center in Novgorod. According to the so-called “Norman theory” (Bayer, Miller, Schletser, Karamzin was an adherent of it), the statehood of Rus' arose in connection with the appeal of the Slavic tribes to the Norman warrior Rurik with his brothers Sineus and Truvor to come and rule over them. However, archaeological sources indicate minimal influence of the Scandinavians on the Slavs, and the entry in the chronicle “Tale of Bygone Years” about the calling of the Rurikovichs, on which Norman historians rely, turned out to be a late insertion into its original text. Modern historians have amazing evidence that Eastern Slavs stable traditions of statehood were formed long before the appearance of the Varangians.

Theories of the origin of the Old Russian state.

Norman- the state was organized by the Varangians, called to reign - Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. The basis of the theory is Nestor’s “Tale of Bygone Years,” which mentions the calling of Rurik and his brothers to Novgorod to reign. This decision was allegedly caused by the fact that the Slavs quarreled among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish order. The Varangians established a state system in Rus'.

Anti-Norman– Old Russian state formed under the influence objective reasons. A number of other sources indicate that statehood among the Eastern Slavs existed even before the Varangians. The Normans in that historical period were at a lower level of economic and political development than the Slavs. In addition, the state cannot be organized by one person or several even the most outstanding men; this is the result of the complex and long development of the social structure of society.

6. The reasons for the conquest of the Tatar-Mongols were:

The desire of the tribal nobility to enrich itself.

Acquisition of new pastures

Securing your own borders

Gaining control of trade caravan routes

Tribute from countries - agricultural and urban structure

Consequences:

Rus' was thrown back in its development by 500 years and this was the reason Russia lagged behind Western civilizations.

Russian lands and cities were devastated, entire principalities were destroyed, colossal damage was caused to the development of the economy and culture, but the fight against the yoke helped to unite Russian people, the formation of a centralized state.

The very long break in lawmaking was undoubtedly caused by the Mongol invasion. IN historical science There were many opinions regarding the issue of Mongol influence on Rus'. So, for example, “N.I. Kostomarov suggests that the very unity of the state territory (unique power) owes its emergence to the Tatar government; he derives this result from the actual power of the khan over the Russian land. The Khan was recognized as the supreme sovereign, the Tsar of the Russian Land, which constituted one province of his vast kingdom, and the Russian Grand Dukes were his assistant provincial rulers; Thus, the general main principles of the Mongolian state order are applicable to Rus', and then, upon liberation, they passed to the Russian Grand Dukes, who inherited the power of the khans. In particular, all the land that the khan owned was considered his private property, this is how the Russian princes began to look at their state... A trace of Tatar influence can be seen in the internal nature of the power of the Moscow state, namely in the enslavement of all classes of society, which characterizes Mongolian state law; The method of transition of this phenomenon into Russian law is considered to be direct borrowing of written Mongolian laws. But the private nature of the sovereign’s power over the land and population is rooted in the most ancient system of any society (in the power of the landlord) and is not alien to Russian law of the 1st period. On the other hand, the concept of the patrimonial nature of the power of the Moscow sovereigns is exaggerated. As for the method of borrowing, the laws of the Mongols (Chingizid Yasa, Tsaajin-Bachik) were completely unknown in Rus'.” Nevertheless, the following features of the Mongol heritage should be noted: the Golden Horde system was the prototype of the Russian imperial statehood. This was manifested in the establishment of an authoritarian tradition of government, in a strictly centralized social system, discipline in military affairs and religious tolerance, little influence and authority of city assemblies, a habit (although not always throughout the history of Russia) of not assimilating new ones, conquered and included without bloodshed in composition of the Russian Empire of the land, not to change the life, religion and language of the conquered peoples. Mongolian law did not have a direct influence on the formation of Russian legislation. However, under the influence of the Horde system of government, such features as cruelty (torture as part of the trial, mutilating punishments), the principle of mutual responsibility, and group responsibility appeared. The Mongolian influence was noticeable in financial and administrative legislation: the concept of the treasury, regulation of capitation taxes, population census, and Yam service. Also, the division of crimes by object enshrined in the Great Yasa had a certain impact on the legislation of Muscovite Rus' (against the state - 1, life and freedom - 2, religious - against morality and customs).

7. Stages of formation of a unified Russian state:

the first stage - the end of the 13th century - the 80s. XIV century - economic recovery in the Russian lands, the rise of the Moscow principality and the beginning of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow;

second stage - 80s. XIV - second quarter of the XV century. - further unification of lands around Moscow, the struggle of the Grand Duke of Moscow with the Moscow appanage princes;

third stage - second half of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. - formation of a single state.

The formation of the statehood of Muscovite Rus' is associated with the strengthening of Moscow and the constant struggle against external and internal threats. The Mongol conquest caught the lands of Rus' at the stage of fragmentation. The Principality of Galicia became part of Poland, South-Western Rus' became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Ukrainian nation began to take shape on these lands. The so-called Black Rus' on the Neman River became part of Lithuania. The Belarusian nation was formed here. The center of Russian political life finally moved to northeastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) and northwestern (Novgorod) Rus'. The Great Russian (Russian) nation was formed on this land. It was this territory at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. will become the basis for the formation of a unified Russian state. After Batu's invasion, Rus' slowly begins to recover. This process takes place most intensively in the northeast of the former Kievan Rus - in the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. In the XIII-XV centuries. There is an increase in population between the Oka and Volga rivers. The influx of population came from the south and north-west - the danger came from the Tatar-Mongols and Lithuania. Newcomer peasants are provided with tax benefits for 5-15 years. Agriculture is developing the fastest. A three-field appears. There is an intensive growth of feudal land ownership. Its main form was patrimony - that is, the land was inherited. For more efficient development of patrimonial lands, the boyars transfer parts of the lands to their vassals for exploitation. This is how the estate appears. There is an increase in monastic land ownership. The Mongols, tolerant and interested in loyalty to the church, left the lands in the hands of the church. Under the influence of the Golden Horde exactions, serf exploitation intensified among the people. Old forms of dependence are disappearing. The peasantry appears. From the beginning of the 14th century. the fragmentation of Russian principalities ceases and gives way to their unification. The center of unification was the Moscow principality, which separated from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality back in the 12th century. The creation of a unified Russian state is due to the following factors: Strengthening economic ties between Russian lands; separation of crafts from agriculture, resulting in the growth of cities. Strengthening economic ties also required political unity. Under the influence of Horde oppression, the feudal lords, in order not to go bankrupt, set the task of completing the enslavement of the peasantry. This task could be solved only by creating a centralized state, the function of which was to suppress the resistance of the exploited working masses. The tough policy of the Moscow Principality. Did not exist in the 14th century. political prerequisites that could unite the Russian lands. Inter-princely treaties on alliances often remained only good wishes. Only real force and brutal politics could solve the problem of unity. External threat factor. The occupation of Russian lands by Lithuania and the Golden Horde required the unity of all Russian principalities. An external threat forced the creation of a unified Russian state. Already in the 12th century. In Rus', the ideology of grand-ducal power began to take shape, which could overcome the collapse and fragmentation of Rus'. Such power originates in the Moscow Principality. From the 13th century Moscow princes and the Church begin to carry out widespread colonization of the Trans-Volga territories. At the first stage of the formation of Russian statehood, the question of which center the Russian lands would unite around was decided. Tver and Moscow claimed leadership. In the 13th century, the Tver principality was the strongest in Rus'. The Moscow princes (grandsons of Alexander Nevsky) Yuri and Ivan Danilovich waged a fierce struggle with the Tver princes, who claimed a leading role among the Russian principalities. In 1325, Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita received the title of Grand Duke of All Rus' and the khan's label for reign. The metropolitan comes from Vladimir to Moscow and Moscow becomes the religious center of Rus'. The methods of annexing lands were varied. According to the agreement, appanage princes agreed to serve Moscow as vassals. There are numerous cases of the purchase of appanages, and the local prince became a vassal of Moscow. Princes often bequeathed their lands to the Moscow prince. So Pereslavl-Zalessky became part of the Moscow principality. There was a practice of fictitious renunciation of an appanage prince from his patrimony, the transfer of the latter to the Moscow Principality, with the subsequent granting of the same patrimony to the same prince. In 1375, Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich (1359-1389) defeated Tver, after which it could no longer compete with Moscow. In 1368 and 1370 Moscow, where the white-stone fortress was built, repels the attacks of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd. In 1380, Dmitry Ivanovich defeated Mamai on the Kulikovo Field, for which he received the nickname Donskoy. This victory strengthened the power of the Moscow Principality. The unification process went faster. Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) annexed Nizhny Novgorod. After the death of Vasily I, the feudal war of 1431-1453 began. The youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri, and after his death, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka fought for power with Vasily II the Dark. The war ended with the victory of Vasily II. In total, from 1228 to 1462, 90 internal strife and 160 clashes with external enemies occurred in northeastern Rus'. The centralization and unification of Russian lands took place in a military environment. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, the territory of the Moscow principality increased 30 times compared to the beginning of the 14th century. In 1439, Basil II refused to recognize the Florentine Union between Orthodox and Catholics under the rule of the Pope. Metropolitan Isidore, who recognized the union, was deposed. In 1448, Jonah was elected to his place, regardless of Byzantium. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the choice of the head of the Russian church was determined in Moscow. At the end of the 15th century, the unification of the Moscow state was completed. Ivan III took the title "Sovereign of All Rus'". The double-headed eagle becomes the coat of arms Russian state. In 1468, Ivan III annexed Yaroslavl, in 1472 - Perm the Great, in 1485 - Tver, in 1489 - Vyatka lands, in 1503 - Chernigov. In 1471, a battle took place on the Shelon River between the Moscow army and the Novgorod militia. In 1478, a veche bell was taken from Novgorod to Moscow. Novgorod became part of the Russian state. In 1480, during the battle on the Ugra, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown. Russia became independent. In 1502, the Horde was defeated by the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. In 1510 Vasily III annexed Pskov. In 1514 - Smolensk. Thus, the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of Moscow statehood was completed. The centralization and unification of Russian lands and the formation of statehood of Muscovite Rus' implied not only the unification of territories, but also the creation of a centralized state apparatus. The Moscow state remained an early feudal monarchy. The head of the Russian state was Grand Duke, who issued laws, managed government administration, and had judicial powers. As the state centralized, the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow increased. There is a sharp reduction in boyar immunities. One of the means of strengthening the grand ducal power was the monetary reform of the early 16th century. A unified monetary system was introduced and the prince had the exclusive right to mint coins. The Grand Duke ruled the state with the support of the Boyar Duma. It was a permanent body based on the principle of localism (filling a position depending on the origin of the candidate). The Duma carried out legislative, administrative and judicial activities. In the XIII-XV centuries. The palace-patrimonial system of government continued to operate. An important role in it was assigned to the princely court and palace departments - the roads. At the end of the 15th century. Orders are replacing paths, this is due to the need to create permanent government bodies. The orders combined administrative, judicial and financial functions. Local government until the end of the 15th century. carried out by the governors of the Grand Duke. Instead of a salary, they had the right to support themselves at the expense of the local population. This system was called feeding. Judicial bodies are being formed. The court was not separated from the administration. Judicial functions were carried out by: the Grand Duke, the Boyar Duma, governors, volostels, and the church court. This is how the state apparatus is formed - an attribute of the statehood of any state.

Ticket 8. During the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-1584), a number of transformations were carried out in the country. The reforms were aimed at further centralizing the state, improving the order system, the armed forces, finances, and affected a number of areas of public life.

The first decade of the reign of Ivan the Terrible was marked by the birth of zemstvo councils, the first of which was created in 1549. It consisted of the Boyar Duma, the “Illuminated Council” from among the highest hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church and representatives of various layers of landowners (landowners).

Judicial reform. Boyar children were removed from the jurisdiction of the boyar court, and from now on only the royal court could judge them. Some time later in 1550. A new code of laws was introduced - the Code of Laws of Ivan IV, which eliminated the judicial privileges of appanage princes and strengthened the role of the central judicial bodies. In the Code of Laws, for the first time in Russia, the law was proclaimed the only source of law.

Lip reform. It represented a transformation of local government in the Russian state. According to this reform, some important cases were removed from the court of governors and volosts and transferred to “elected heads” (gubal elders), who were elected from the local children of the boyars. It was directed against feeders and administrative arbitrariness. However, she provided local authorities management has ample opportunities for resolving social conflicts.

Zemstvo reform. It was taken as a continuation and addition of the labial reform. It was introduced with the aim of eliminating “feeding” and introducing zemstvo self-government. In the early 1550s. in certain regions of the Moscow state the power of governors was abolished; in 1556. By the tsar's verdict "on feeding" the governor's office was abolished on a national scale. Together with governors and local volosts, elected zemstvo authorities were established. Some state documents were transferred to them. functions.

Military reform. She approved the principle of compulsory service for nobles from the land. In the early 1550s. 16th century A new Streltsy army was created. Important role The decree on the abolition of localism during hostilities played a role in strengthening the armed forces of the Moscow State. The greatest fact of Russian history was the emergence of the central state order system. management.

Church reform. In January-May 1551 The Council of the Russian Church gathered, which received the name Stoglavogo after the number of chapters in the collection, which were reduced to its decisions. The cathedral consolidated the unification of the all-Russian pantheon of saints, a single cult and rituals, and established general rules– canons – for church painting. The Council declared the high moral importance of the church, the pastoral service of priests, and spoke out against the debauchery, drunkenness and vagrancy of monks. The church was entrusted with the organization of schools.

A group of people close to him formed around the king - the Chosen Rada. It was headed by the Kostroma nobleman A.F. Adashev, archpriest of the Annunciation Kremlin Cathedral Sylvester. Not being a formal government institution, the Elected Rada was essentially the government of Russia and for 13 years ruled the state on behalf of the Tsar.

Oprichnina. 65. How did the time of boyar rule affect the character of Ivan the Terrible?

The fierce struggle of the boyars for power, which took place in front of the young Ivan IV, had negative impact to the formation of his character. The prince witnessed an unfair trial and executions, saw the greed and intrigue of the boyars, their mockery of the memory of his parents.

Constantly observing scenes of wild tyranny, violence, betrayal, he gradually got used to them, and the following were formed in his character:

timidity

secrecy,

suspiciousness

cowardice,

incredulity

cruelty.

During this period, discontent among many segments of the population was caused by:

The feuds of the nobles,

revelry and oppression of the feeding boyars,

increased raids from the Kazan and Crimean khanates

66. How was Ivan the Terrible characterized by historians?

The young king was:

endowed by nature with brilliant abilities,

inquisitive

well read,

was very impressionable,

was unbalanced

easily moved from joy to anger,

easily moved from wild joy to deep depression.

67. When, from what time did the Russian Grand Dukes begin to be called tsars?

Since 1547, when Ivan was 16 years old, Metropolitan Macarius crowned him king in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

68. What was the significance of the crowning of Ivan the Terrible?

The proclamation of Ivan IV as Tsar was of great historical significance:

firstly, it equated Ivan in rank with our eastern neighbors - the Astrakhan and Kazan khans - us IV glaciers of the Golden Horde, the recent rulers of Russia;

secondly, the transformation of Rus' into the Russian state seemed to predetermine its significance as the “third Rome” - the center of Orthodoxy after the fall of the “second Rome” - Byzantium;

thirdly, the royal title placed Ivan IV above European kings: Danish, English, French, Polish, Swedish, etc.

fourthly, the proclamation of Ivan the Terrible as Tsar sharply elevated him above other Russian princes, from now on he was revered as the “great sovereign”

fifthly, the ritual of the crowning of Ivan IV was also important for the Orthodox Church. By strengthening autocracy and elevating the authority of the autocrat as God’s viceroy on earth, the church also defended its own interests, for the royal power took upon itself the responsibility of preserving the rights and privileges of the church.

69. What is the Elected Rada and who was included in it?

By the end of the 40s, a small circle of people close to him had formed around the tsar, later called Prince Andrei Kurbsky Elected Rada .

It included representatives of humble but large landowners:

Alexey Adashev,

Prince Andrei Kurbsky,

priest Sylvester,

Metropolitan Macarius,

clerk Ivan Viskovaty

The elected Rada functioned from 1547 to 1560. In fact, it was the government of Russia.

70.What is the Zemsky Sobor, when and by whom was it convened for the first time?

The Zemsky Sobor is an advisory body, a meeting of class representatives from boyars, nobles, clergy, merchants, townspeople and black-growing peasants.

First Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549 At the Council, measures were taken that expanded the rights of the nobles and limited the rights of large feudal lords - boyar-governors.

The councils did not limit the power of the king, but contributed to the local political activities of the central government. They did not become permanent, but were subsequently gathered several times as needed.

71. What reforms were carried out by the Elected Rada?

Based on solutions Zemsky Sobor in the 50s of the 16th century. The following reforms were carried out:

• judicial - a new all-Russian Code of Law of 1550 was adopted;

  church;

  reforms of central and local governments.

72. What consequences did the reforms of the Elected Rada have?

By the middle of the 16th century. Russia has become a powerful power. The reforms made it possible to begin solving foreign policy problems.

The era preceding the reign of Ivan the Fourth was quite difficult in its economic and political situation. Every now and then internecine wars broke out between disparate principalities, and neighboring powers such as Lithuania, Poland and Germany were just waiting for the moment to take possession of Russian lands. Tatar-Mongol raids, as well as the enmity of the Russian princes, prevented Rus' from developing and existing peacefully.

The crowning of Ivan the Fourth was prepared and held in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. A huge number of people gathered to watch this. Everyone was interested not only in what kind of person he was, but also in how he would govern the principality in such difficult times.

So, the wedding ceremony itself took place on January sixteenth, 1547, according to the Byzantine scenario existing at that time. Therefore, such objects as the royal staff, the cross of the life-giving tree, Monomakh's hat and other similar objects were used in the ceremony. Contemporaries note that the ceremony was majestic and magnificent. It was attended not only by the boyars and nobility, but also by noble church ministers of Rus', who were dressed in the most expensive brocade decorations, embroidered with precious stones and gold.

General rejoicing accompanied by the loud ringing of church bells - all this complemented the majesty of this colorful holiday. Thus, the crowning of Ivan the Fourth not only determined the high title of the Russian ruler, but also equated Rus' with the Roman Empire. At the same time, Moscow itself henceforth became the reigning city over the entire Russian kingdom. According to all the canons, the newly-minted Moscow prince was anointed with myrrh, and this, in turn, distinguished him as “the chosen one of God.”

Of course, the church also had its own special interest. For example, to achieve priority in the management of the state and the people, and also to significantly strengthen Orthodoxy in Rus'.

It should also be noted that the wedding of the new ruler of Rus' was not completely approved by the Catholic monarchs. They declared that Ivan the Fourth was an impostor, and the ritual itself was an audacity unheard of in history. Six months after the ceremony, fires began that destroyed thousands of homes, as well as food supplies and livestock. Moreover, more than a thousand people died in the fires. The grief that befell the people led people to despair and dissatisfaction with the government.

The period preceding the reign of Ivan IV, politically and economic situation was not easy. The scattered principalities were at enmity with each other. Neighboring states - Lithuania, Germany, Poland - sought to take over. Civil strife and Tatar-Mongol raids did not allow Rus' to exist and develop peacefully.

The Tsar was the first Tsar of Orthodox Rus'. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, with a huge crowd of people. What kind of person is this? How will Russia be governed in quite difficult times?

Wedding ceremony

The crowning of Ivan the Terrible as king promised changes for the better. The ceremony took place on January 16, 1547, in compliance with the Byzantine script existing at that time. Such attributes as the cross of the life-giving tree, the royal staff and other church objects were used. The wedding ceremony was marked by pomp and grandeur. The boyars, nobles and church ministers present were dressed in expensive decorations made of brocade, gold and precious stones.

The ringing of church bells, general rejoicing - all this represented a big, colorful holiday. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible gave him a high title, and Rus' was equated with the Roman Empire. Moscow became the reigning city, and the Russian land became the Russian kingdom. The young Moscow prince was anointed with myrrh, which in religious terms meant “chosen by God.” The Church had a certain interest in all this: to achieve priority in government and the further strengthening of Orthodoxy.

Crowning of Ivan the Terrible

The Catholic rulers did not approve of these events. They considered Ivan IV an impostor, and his wedding an unheard-of insolence. The period in which Ivan the Terrible had to reign turned out to be very difficult. Six months after the wedding, fires began that destroyed tens of thousands of houses, property, livestock, and food supplies. This is all that is necessary for life. And the worst thing is that more than one thousand people died in the fire. The grief that befell led the people to discontent and despair. Riots, uprisings, and unrest began. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible as king turned out to be a difficult ordeal for him.

I had to decide important tasks: strengthen “judgment and truth” and further expand Orthodox Rus'. The Grand Duke of Moscow, Ivan III, dreamed about this, laying the core of the Russian state. However, there were many obstacles along the way. Each principality gravitated towards independence. The boyars fought among themselves for power. The princes strove for power and greatness.

Methods of government

According to historians, as a result of secret murders, Ivan IV was left an orphan at the age of eight. He considered himself abandoned, resentful and harbored anger against humanity. Growing up, he acquired cruelty, for which over time he began to be called Terrible. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible (1547) is the beginning of a period of cruelty and violence in Rus' on the part of the Grand Duke, who received the title of Emperor. An example is the complaint of 70 Pskov residents about the excesses of the governor, Prince Pronsky. He subjected the complainants to severe torture. This entailed the permissiveness of local managers. Feeling impunity, they continued their rampage.

Permissiveness and its consequences did not take long to pay off: bloody terror began. This caused confusion and popular unrest in Moscow and other cities. To suppress discontent, cruel measures were used: terrible executions, in which the king himself took part.

The positive side of reign

And historians noted the crowning of Ivan the Terrible as a positive achievement for the Russian state. Among the reforms is the restriction of localism (service code), obliging not only serfs to serve, but also the landowners themselves. The local government reform provided for the replacement of the power of governors with elected bodies. This significantly limited abuse. Much attention was paid to the construction business. Old ones were updated and new stone buildings for various purposes appeared.

In 1560, a beautiful and pleasing sight appeared in Moscow even today. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible led to significant changes in foreign policy.

Foreign policy

As a result of the strengthening of paramilitary forces, the borders of the Russian state were expanded. In 1556 it was finally conquered and annexed to Kazan. In the same year, the Astrakhan Khanate was conquered. On June 30, 1572, a decisive battle took place near Moscow, as a result of which the Tatars were defeated and fled, leaving the famous commander Divey-Murza in captivity. The Tatar yoke was ended forever. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible and the century of his reign are defined as a time of significant changes.

A turning point in the history of Orthodox Rus' recent years During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the death of his son occurred. Historians note that the king killed his son in a fit of anger, inflicting a wound on his temple with a staff. Having recovered from what had happened, Ivan the Terrible realized that he had destroyed the future of his dynasty. The youngest son Fedor was in poor health: he could not lead the country. The loss of the heir due to his own cruelty completely undermined the king's health. The worn-out body could not withstand the nervous shock; three years after the death of his son, on March 18, 1584, Ivan the Terrible died.

Bright personality in Rus'

After the death of the king, a monastic rite of tonsure was performed on him, giving him the name Jonah. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible as king can be briefly described as bright, but at the same time dark spot in the history of Great Orthodox Rus'. The psychological shock he received at a very young age and the burden of fame, power, and responsibility that fell on him determined his personal actions and government decisions.

For history, the crowning of Ivan the Terrible (1547) was the beginning of a significant era in the formation of the Russian state. Thanks to its first king, his reign, there appeared Russian Empire, which exists and develops to this day.

Grand Duke Vasily III died when his son was 3 years old. After the death of the mother, Grand Duchess Elena, Ivan, who was then 8 years old, was left an orphan. The country was ruled by the Boyar Duma. Real power passed from one boyar group to another. As a result of many years of bloody strife, the relatives of the late Grand Duchess, the Glinskys, gained the upper hand. The uncle of the young Grand Duke, Mikhail Glinsky, and his grandmother, Princess Anna, managed to prepare a political act of great national importance.

On January 16, 1547, Ivan IV was crowned king in the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in the Kremlin. Metropolitan Macarius placed the Monomakh cap on his head - a symbol of royal power. Through the lips of the metropolitan, the program of the tsar’s activities was outlined: in alliance with the church, which was henceforth declared the “mother” of royal power, the tsar was supposed to strengthen “court and truth” within the country and fight for the expansion of the state.

Upon completion of the wedding ceremony, the Grand Duke became the first Russian “God-crowned Tsar.”

Addition a short word"Tsar" and in the already magnificent title of the Grand Duke - "Sovereign and Grand Duke of Moscow, Vladimir and other lands" - made its bearer equal in rank to the Emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire", placed him above European kings - English, French and many others , including its closest neighbors and rivals - Polish and Swedish, was equalized with its eastern neighbors - the Kazan, Astrakhan khans - the heirs of the Golden Horde, the recent rulers of Rus' Lannik L.V. Tsar Ivan the Terrible / L.V. Lannik - M.: Third Rome, 2012 - p. 102.

After Ivan’s crowning of the kingdom, the Glinskys seized unlimited power in the country and immediately began to shamelessly plunder the state treasury and impose new unaffordable taxes on the townspeople and peasants.

The appearance of the tsar in Rus' preceded the establishment of the tsarist system. The Russian centralized state had yet to organize itself.

The act of crowning the Grand Duke did not put an end to boyar rule. It was ended by the uprising of 1547, which had a pronounced anti-boyar character. Following the speech of the capital's residents, major unrest occurred in the provinces. The uprising, unprecedented in its scope and organization, mortally frightened feudal lords of all levels and forced them to look for ways to consolidate their forces, ways to further strengthen centralized power.

Metropolitan Macarius was a key figure in the formation of the new ruling group, which took over the leadership of the country from the Boyar Duma. A wise and calm politician, surrounded by the tsar before and after the turbulent events of 1547, the head of the church - a powerful political mechanism that has long supported the unification of Rus' around Moscow - Macarius was a supporter of strengthening autocracy. At the same time, the conservatism and church dogmatism of Macarius constantly had a restraining, limiting influence on the implementation of reforms brought to life by the very social and political situation Froyanov I. Terrible oprichnina/ I. Froyanov - M.: Eksmo, 2009 - p. 66.

With the participation of Macarius, the young king was surrounded by those persons who were destined, in the eyes of their contemporaries and posterity, to symbolize the government, the so-called Elected Rada. This is primarily A.F. Adashev and Sylvester.

It is indisputable that Adashev, Sylvester and other persons close to the court owed their high position and authority in part to the trust and support of the tsar, as well as the metropolitan. But we must not lose sight of the fact that the tsar’s authority was still just taking shape. Even the royal title itself had yet to enter consciousness and become familiar to contemporaries. As for the personal authority of the young king, it most likely did not exist.