Sinusitis

The first Slavic state formation. Briefly about the Eastern Slavs in ancient times: origin, settlement, formation of the state

History claims that the first Slavic states arose in the period dating back to the 5th century AD. Around this time, the Slavs migrated to the banks of the Dnieper River. It was here that they split into two historical branches: eastern and Balkan. Eastern tribes settled along the Dnieper, and Balkan tribes occupied the Slavic states in modern world occupy a vast territory in Europe and Asia. The peoples who live in them are becoming less and less similar to each other, but common roots can be seen in everything - from traditions and language to such a fashionable term as mentality.

The question of the emergence of statehood among the Slavs has been worrying scientists for many years. Quite a few theories have been put forward, each of which may not be devoid of logic. But in order to form your own opinion about this, you need to familiarize yourself with at least the main ones.

How states arose among the Slavs: assumptions about the Varangians

If we talk about the history of the emergence of statehood among the ancient Slavs in these territories, scientists usually rely on several theories, which we would like to consider. The most common version today of when the first Slavic states arose is the Norman or Varangian theory. It originated in late XVIII century in Germany. The founders and ideological inspirers were two German scientists: Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694-1738) and Gerhard Friedrich Miller (1705-1783).

According to them, history Slavic states has Nordic or Varangian roots. The learned men made this conclusion after thoroughly studying “The Tale of Bygone Years,” the oldest opus created by the monk Nestor. There really is a reference, dated 862, to the fact that the ancients (Krivichi, Slovenes and Chud) called for reigns in their lands Varangian princes. Allegedly, tired of endless internecine strife and enemy raids from outside, several Slavic tribes decided to unite under the leadership of the Normans, who were considered at that time the most experienced and successful in Europe.

In the old days, in the formation of any state, the experience of its leadership was a higher priority than economic experience. And no one doubted the power and experience of the northern barbarians. Their combat units carried out raids throughout almost the entire inhabited part of Europe. Probably, based primarily on military successes, according to the Norman theory, the ancient Slavs decided to invite the Varangian princes to the kingdom.

By the way, the name itself - Rus' - was allegedly brought by the Norman princes. In Nestor the chronicler, this moment is quite clearly expressed in the line “... and three brothers got out with their families, and took all of Rus' with them.” However last word in this context, according to many historians, it rather means a fighting squad, in other words, professional military men. It is also worth noting here that among the Norman leaders, as a rule, there was a clear division between the civilian clan and the military clan, which was sometimes called the "Kirch". In other words, we can assume that the three princes moved to the lands of the Slavs not only with military squads, but also with full-fledged families. Since the family will not be taken on a regular military campaign under any circumstances, the status of this event becomes clear. The Varangian princes took the tribes' request seriously and founded the early Slavic states.

“Where did the Russian land come from?”

Another interesting theory says that the very concept of “Varangians” meant professional military men in Ancient Rus'. This once again testifies to the fact that the ancient Slavs relied specifically on militarized leaders. According to the theory of German scientists, which is based on the chronicle of Nestor, one Varangian prince settled near Lake Ladoga, the second settled on the shores of White Lake, and the third in the city of Izoborsk. It was after these actions, according to the chronicler, that the early Slavic states were formed, and the lands collectively began to be called the Russian Land.

Further in his chronicle, Nestor retells the legend of the emergence of the subsequent royal family of Rurikovich. It was the Ruriks, the rulers of the Slavic states, who were the descendants of those same legendary three princes. They can also be classified as the first “political leadership elite” of the ancient Slavic states. After the death of the conventional “founding father,” power passed to his closest relative Oleg, who, through intrigue and bribery, captured Kyiv, and then united Northern and Southern Rus' into one state. According to Nestor, this happened in 882. As can be seen from the chronicle, the formation of the state occurred thanks to the successful “external control” of the Varangians.

Who are the Russians?

However, scientists are still arguing about the real nationality of the people who were called that. Adherents of the Norman theory believe that the word “Rus” itself comes from the Finnish word “ruotsi”, which the Finns used to call the Swedes in the 9th century. Another interesting fact is that most of the Russian ambassadors who were in Byzantium had Scandinavian names: Karl, Iengeld, Farlof, Veremund. These names were recorded in treaties with Byzantium, dated 911-944. And the first rulers of Rus' bore exclusively Scandinavian names - Igor, Olga, Rurik.

One of the most serious arguments in favor of the Norman theory about which states are Slavic is considered to be the mention of Russians in the Western European “Annals of Bertin”. There, in particular, it is noted that in 839, the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy to his Frankish colleague Louis I. The delegation included representatives of the “growing people.” The point is that Louis the Pious decided that the “Russians” were the Swedes.

In 950, the Byzantine emperor in his book “On the Administration of the Empire” noted that some of the names of the famous Dnieper rapids have exclusively Scandinavian roots. And finally, many Islamic travelers and geographers, in their opuses dating back to the 9th-10th centuries, clearly separate the “Rus” from the “Sakaliba” Slavs. All these facts, collected together, helped German scientists build the so-called Norman theory of how the Slavic states arose.

Patriotic theory of the emergence of the state

The main ideologist of the second theory is the Russian scientist Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. The Slavic theory is also called the “autochthonous theory”. Studying the Norman theory, Lomonosov saw a flaw in the reasoning of German scientists about the inability of the Slavs to self-organize, which led to external control by Europe. True patriot of his fatherland, M.V. Lomonosov questioned the entire theory, deciding to study this historical mystery himself. Over time, the so-called Slavic theory of the origin of the state was formed, based on the complete denial of the “Norman” facts.

So, what are the main counterarguments brought by the defenders of the Slavs? The main argument is the assertion that the name “Rus” itself is etymologically not connected with either Ancient Novgorod or Ladoga. It refers, rather, to Ukraine (in particular, the Middle Dnieper region). As evidence, the ancient names of reservoirs located in this area are given - Ros, Rusa, Rostavitsa. Studying Syriac Church History”, translated by Zechariah Rhetor, adherents of the Slavic theory discovered references to a people called Hros or “Rus”. These tribes settled a little south of Kyiv. The manuscript was created in 555. In other words, the events described in it took place long before the arrival of the Scandinavians.

The second serious counterargument is the lack of mention of Rus' in the ancient Scandinavian sagas. There were quite a lot of them, and, in fact, the entire folklore ethnic group of modern Scandinavian countries is based on them. It is difficult to disagree with the statements of those historians who say that at least in the early part of historical sagas there should be minimal coverage of those events. The Scandinavian names of ambassadors, which supporters of the Norman theory rely on, also do not one hundred percent determine the nationality of their bearers. According to historians, the Swedish delegates could well represent Russian princes in distant foreign countries.

Criticism of the Norman theory

The Scandinavians' ideas about statehood are also questionable. The fact is that during the period described, Scandinavian states as such did not exist. It is this fact that causes a fair amount of skepticism that the Varangians are the first rulers of the Slavic states. It is unlikely that the visiting Scandinavian leaders, without understanding how to build their own power, would begin to organize something like this in foreign lands.

Academician B. Rybakov, discussing the origin of the Norman theory, expressed an opinion about the general weak competence of the historians of that time, who believed, for example, that the transition of several tribes to other lands created the prerequisites for the development of statehood, and in just a few decades. In fact, the process of formation and formation of statehood can last for centuries. The main historical basis on which German historians rely is fraught with rather strange inaccuracies.

The Slavic states, according to Nestor the chronicler, were formed over several decades. Often he equates the founders and the power, replacing these concepts. Experts suggest that such inaccuracies are explained by the mythological thinking of Nestor himself. Therefore, a categorical interpretation of his chronicle is highly doubtful.

Variety of theories

Another noteworthy theory of the emergence of statehood in ancient Rus' called Iranian-Slavic. According to it, at the time of the formation of the first state, there were two branches of Slavs. One, which was called the Rus-Obodrits, or Rugi, lived in the lands of what is now the Baltic. The other settled in the Black Sea region and originated from Iranian and Slavic tribes. The rapprochement of these two “varieties” of one people, according to the theory, made it possible to create a single Slavic state of Rus'.

An interesting hypothesis, which was later put forward into theory, was proposed by Academician of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine V. G. Sklyarenko. In his opinion, the Novgorodians turned for help to the Varangians-Balts, who were called Rutenes or Rus. The term “Rutens” comes from the people of one of the Celtic tribes that took part in the formation of the Slavic ethnic group on the island of Rügen. In addition, according to the academician, it was during that time period that the Black Sea Slavic tribes already existed, whose descendants were the Zaporozhye Cossacks. This theory was called Celtic-Slavic.

Finding a compromise

It should be noted that from time to time compromise theories of the formation of Slavic statehood appear. This is exactly the version proposed by the Russian historian V. Klyuchevsky. In his opinion, the Slavic states constituted the most fortified cities at that time. It was in them that the foundations of trade, industrial and political formations were laid. Moreover, according to the historian, there were entire “urban regions” that were small states.

The second political and state form of that time were those same warlike Varangian principalities that are mentioned in the Norman theory. According to Klyuchevsky, it was the merger of powerful urban conglomerates and military formations of the Varangians that led to the formation of Slavic states (the 6th grade of the school calls such a state Kievan Rus). This theory, which was also insisted on by Ukrainian historians A. Efimenko and I. Kripyakevich, was called Slavic-Varangian. She somewhat reconciled the orthodox representatives of both directions.

In turn, Academician Vernadsky also doubted the Norman origin of the Slavs. In his opinion, the formation of the Slavic states of the eastern tribes should be considered on the territory of the “Rus” - modern Kuban. The academician believed that the Slavs received this name from ancient name"Roksolans" or light Alans. In the 60s of the 20th century, the Ukrainian archaeologist D. T. Berezovets proposed to consider the Alan population of the Don region as Rus. Today, this hypothesis is also being considered by the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences.

There is no such ethnic group - Slavs

American professor O. Pritsak proposed a completely different version of which states are Slavic and which are not. It is not based on any of the above hypotheses and has its own logical basis. According to Pritsak, the Slavs as such did not exist at all based on ethnic and state characteristics. The territory where it was formed Kievan Rus, was the crossroads of trade and commercial routes between East and West. The people who inhabited these places were a kind of warrior-merchants who ensured the safety of trade caravans of other traders, and also equipped their carts on the road.

In other words, the history of the Slavic states is based on a certain trade and military community of interests of representatives different nations. It was the synthesis of nomads and sea robbers that subsequently formed the ethnic basis of the future state. A rather controversial theory, especially considering that the scientist who put it forward lived in a state whose history goes back barely 200 years.

Many Russian and Ukrainian historians sharply criticized it, who were offended by even the name itself - “Volga-Russian Kaganate”. According to the American, this was the first formation of the Slavic states (the 6th grade should hardly be familiar with such a controversial theory). Nevertheless, it has the right to exist and was called Khazar.

Briefly about Kievan Rus

After considering all the theories, it becomes clear that the first serious Slavic state was Kievan Rus, formed around the 9th century. The formation of this power took place in stages. Until 882, the merger and unification under a single authority of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Slovenians, Dregovets and Polochans takes place. The Union of Slavic states is marked by the merger of Kyiv and Novgorod.

After the seizure of power in Kyiv by Oleg, the second, early feudal stage of the development of Kievan Rus began. Previously unknown areas are being actively incorporated. So, in 981, the state expanded across the East Slavic lands right up to the San River. In 992, the Croatian lands lying on both slopes of the Carpathian Mountains were also conquered. By 1054, the power of Kyiv extended to almost everything, and the city itself began to be called in documents the “Mother of Russian Cities.”

It is interesting that by the second half of the 11th century the state began to disintegrate into separate principalities. However, this period did not last long, and in the face of a common danger in the form of the Polovtsians, these trends ceased. But later, due to the strengthening of feudal centers and the growing power of the fighting nobility, Kievan Rus still breaks up into appanage principalities. In 1132, a period of feudal fragmentation began. This state of affairs, as we know, existed until the Baptism of All Rus'. The idea of a single state became popular precisely then.

Symbols of Slavic states

Modern Slavic states are very diverse. They are distinguished not only by nationality or language, but also by state policy, and the level of patriotism, and the degree of economic development. Nevertheless, it is easier for the Slavs to understand each other - after all, the roots going back centuries form the very mentality that all known “rational” scientists deny, but which sociologists and psychologists confidently speak about.

After all, even if we look at the flags of the Slavic states, we can see some pattern and similarity in the color palette. There is such a concept - pan-Slavic colors. They were first talked about in late XIX century at the First Slavic Congress in Prague. Supporters of the idea of uniting all Slavs proposed to adopt a tricolor with equal horizontal stripes of blue, white and red as their flag. Rumor has it that the banner of the Russian merchant fleet served as a model. Whether this is actually true is very difficult to prove, but the flags of Slavic states are often distinguished by the smallest details, and not by color scheme.

^What did the Romans call the ancient Slavic tribes? What do you know about the life of the Slavs in the first centuries of our era?

Three branches of the Slavs

|?“X: Determine the geographical location of the settlement territories of each of the groups of Slavs.

Which Slavs took part in the invasion of the Balkan Peninsula? Why? 1.

Settlement of the Slavs. Since ancient times in the Baltic, Central and Eastern Europe Slavs lived next to the Germans. During the Great Migration, in the 6th and 7th centuries, they moved far to the east and south. The Slavs occupied vast areas from the Laba (Elbe) in the west to the middle reaches of the Dnieper in the east, from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Danube and the Black Sea in the south. Later, numerous Slavic tribes were divided into three branches: western, southern and eastern.

Western Slavs are Czechs, Poles, Slovaks. These also included Polabian tribes who lived east of Laba, and Pomeranian tribes who settled in the south- east coast Baltic Sea.

Some Slavic tribes settled part of Balkan Peninsula, and here the southern Slavic peoples were formed: Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.

The Eastern Slavs are the ancestors of three related peoples: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. 2.

Occupations and lifestyle of the Slavs. The Slavs have long been engaged in agriculture, livestock breeding and crafts. In the middle of the first millennium AD, the Slavs were divided into many tribes. All important issues in the tribe it was decided by the people's assembly - the veche (from the word “broadcast” - to speak, announce, teach).

Hand mill axe, sickle, clay vessels of the Slavs

The tribes were led by military leaders - princes. They had horse squads under their command. Carrying out raids and attacks on neighbors, the princes and their warriors captured captive slaves, livestock, and various valuables. The threat of enemy attacks forced the Slavs to unite into tribal unions. Usually these alliances were fragile and quickly disintegrated. But some of them served as the basis for the Slavic states.

Border of the Bulgarian state in UIV.

1 Territory of the Bulgarian Kingdom

Under Simeon at the end of the 9th century. 3.

Bulgarian state. In the second half of the 7th century, the Slavs, who settled in the lands along the lower Danube, north of the Balkan Range, were conquered by the nomadic Bulgarians, Turkic in origin. The ancestors of the Bulgarians (or Bulgars) first lived in Western Siberia, but in the first centuries of our era migrated to the Middle Volga; from here some of them came to the Balkan Peninsula.

Bulgarian state in the 7th-10th centuries.

How did the territory of the Boghar state increase from the 7th to the 9th centuries? What lands did King Simeon conquer?

The Bulgarian state arose here. Gradually, the Bulgarians dissolved among the Slavs they conquered, adopted their language, but gave them their own name. In the north, Bulgaria's neighbors were the ancestors of modern Romanians, and in the south, Bulgaria bordered the Byzantine Empire. In the middle of the 9th century, Bulgaria adopted Christianity from Byzantium, but at the same time it waged wars with Byzantium; at times Byzantium was forced to pay tribute to the Bulgarians.

The outstanding ruler of Bulgaria was Prince Simeon (893-927). Educated, energetic and ambitious, Simeon waged war with Byzantium for about 30 years and besieged its capital more than once. He managed to conquer part of the lands inhabited by the Slavs and subjugate the Serbs. Simeon called himself “king of the Bulgarians and Greeks.”

Byzantine military treatise of the 6th-7th centuries on the Slavs

(excerpt)

The Slavic tribes are numerous, hardy, and easily tolerate heat, cold, rain, and lack of food. They treat foreigners who come to them kindly and, showing them signs of their affection, protect them. They do not keep those in captivity in slavery, like other tribes, for an unlimited time, but, limiting (the duration of slavery) certain time, offer them a choice: do they want to return home for a certain ransom or remain there as free people?

They have large number various livestock and fruits of the earth lying in heaps, especially millet and wheat. They settle in forests, near impassable rivers, swamps and lakes. They bury the things they need in hiding places and do not openly possess anything unnecessary... They courageously withstand their stay in the water, so that often some, being caught by a sudden attack, plunge into the abyss of the waters. At the same time, they hold in their mouth specially made reeds hollowed out inside, reaching the surface of the water, and themselves, lying supine at the bottom, breathe with the help of them; and they can do this for many hours.

Having no leader over them and being at enmity with each other, they do not recognize the military system, are not able to fight in the right battle, to show themselves in open and level places... Having great help in the forests, they head towards them, since among the gorges they know how to fight well.

1. Based on the text, list the activities of the ancient Slavs. How highly developed was their economy? 2. What can the document tell us about the society and government of the Slavic tribes at that time? 3. Compare the text of the document and the textbook: how did the fate of the Slavic peoples and their relations with Byzantium develop in the future? Meanwhile, long wars exhausted the country. After the death of Simeon, Bulgaria weakened, and Serbia separated from it.

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Manuscript page in Glagolitic alphabet.

Bulgaria. X century

At the beginning of the 11th century, the Byzantine Emperor Vasily II, nicknamed the Bulgarian Slayer, almost every year, at the head of his army, made campaigns in Bulgaria. He destroyed cities and villages, evicted Bulgarians from their homes. Having defeated the Bulgarian army, Vasily II ordered the blinding of 14 thousand prisoners, leaving one one-eyed guide for every hundred blind, and to intimidate he sent them home. The Bulgarian king, at the sight of such a mass of his blinded warriors, died of a heart attack.

Using the discord of the Bulgarian nobility in the struggle for power, Byzantium completely subjugated Bulgaria in 1018, depriving it of independence for more than a century and a half. 4.

The Great Moravian Empire and the creators of Slavic writing. In the first half of the 9th century, a state of the Western Slavs arose in the valley of the Morava River - the Great Moravian Empire. At first it was subordinate to the Franks, and after the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne - to Germany. The princes paid her tribute and accepted Christianity from the German bishops. But then the Great Moravian Power achieved independence and entered into the fight with Germany.

One of the Moravian princes entered into an alliance with Byzantium against her. To free the church from the influence of the German clergy, he asked to send missionaries to Moravia to preach Christianity in the native language of the Slavs.

The first Slavic enlighteners were learned monks - Bulgarians from Byzantium, brothers Cyril and Methodius. Kirill taught philosophy and knew the languages of different nations. Methodius ruled one of the Byzantine regions for about 10 years. Then he

Cyril and Methodius

Why are Cyril and Methodius depicted with halos above their heads?

Which letters from the scroll have been preserved in the Russian alphabet?

became a monk and soon headed the monastery.

In 863, the brothers were sent to the Great Moravian Empire as missionaries. Before leaving, Cyril created Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet. With the help of Methodius, he translated into Slavic language several liturgical books.

In Moravia, the brothers built churches and opened a school to train priests from local residents. They created a church independent of the German bishops.

After the death of the brothers, the German clergy began persecuting their students. Some students found shelter in Bulgaria. Here they continued to translate Greek religious books and contributed to the development of Bulgarian literature. From Bulgaria Slavic writing switched to Rus'.

The long struggle with the kings of Germany weakened the Great Moravian Empire. Taking advantage of this, the Hungarians defeated her in 906 and captured part of her lands. The Great Moravian Empire collapsed. 5.

Formation of Slavic states. IN last quarter In the 9th century, a state of the Eastern Slavs was formed with its center in Kyiv, a strong Old Russian state. Baptized according to the Byzantine rite, the ancient Russians adopted a lot from this country.

The Czech state emerged from the collapsed Great Moravian Empire. In the first half of the 10th century, the princes of the Czech tribe, which lived near the city of Prague, united other tribes under their rule. In 1085, the Czech prince took the title of king - the influence of the Czech Republic in Europe increased.

In the second half of the 10th century, the Polish prince Mieszko I (960-992) subjugated the tribes that settled along the Vistula River. Together with a 3,000-strong squad, he accepted Christian faith and this greatly strengthened

State borders by the end of the 11th century.

Borders of the Slavic states (Bulgarian kingdom in the 7th century, Great Moravian state in the 9th century)

Territories of the Slavic states in the 11th century.

Formation of Slavic states in the 9th-11th centuries.

Name the states formed on the territories of the Western, Eastern and Southern Slavs. Which of the peoples indicated on the map do not belong to the Slavs?

3 - E.V. Agibalova drank her power. He started

Polish state.

Page of a medieval Slavic manuscript book

The unification of Poland was completed during the reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025). He managed to annex the southern Polish lands. The capital of Poland was moved to the city of Krakow - a large shopping center on the way from Kyiv to Prague. Boleslav I temporarily managed to capture the Czech Republic and Prague, he marched on Kyiv, and fought long wars with the Holy Roman Empire. Shortly before his death, Bolesław was proclaimed King of Poland. In the middle of the 11th century, Poland entered a period of feudal fragmentation. 1.What branches are the Slavic peoples divided into? The descendants of which of them predominantly live in our country? 2. What was the merit of Cyril and Methodius in the development of Slavic culture? 3. Which Slavic state arose earlier than the others? In what century did it originate? greatest number Slavic states? 4. Briefly tell us about the famous Slavic rulers, having previously highlighted the questions that need to be presented. 5. How is the history of the Slavic states connected with other medieval states known to you? 6. Make a detailed outline of the paragraph: divide each point into separate, complete parts; then briefly formulate main idea each part and write it down.

E1. What was common in the history of formation and the beginning of the existence of the Slavic states? 2. Prove that it was important for the Czech prince and the Polish ruler Boleslav I the Brave to proclaim them kings. 3.

How did their adoption of Christianity affect the fate of the Slavic peoples? 4.

Tell us about the relations between Bulgaria and Byzantium: a) from the point of view of a medieval Bulgarian; b) from the point of view of the Byzantine. Based on the results of the work, discuss in class why contemporaries may have different views on the same event or historical phenomenon.

Let's sum it up

You learned that:

O The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) was not devastated by barbarians and retained the power of emperors, developed science and culture;

ABOUT highest development Byzantium reached in the 6th century under Emperor Justinian;

O Byzantine architecture became famous for its temples various types, the most famous was the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople;

# V VII-X centuries the first Slavic states were formed; f Byzantium had a huge cultural influence on the Slavic countries;

9 in the 9th century, the Slavs acquired their own written language, created by the enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

Questions and assignments for Chapter II

1. What role did Emperor Justinian play in the history of the Byzantine Empire? 2. What was the influence of ancient traditions on the Byzantine oblast; education and science? 3. What achievements of Byzantium in the early Middle Ages do you consider the most important? 4. In the history of which Slavic states, Comt. Do you and Byzantium occupy a special place in the early Middle Ages and why? 5. Arrange in chronological order the events of the history of Byzantium and the Slavs in the VI-XI centuries: a) the proclamation of Boleslav as king of Poland; b) reforms of Emperor Justinian; c) creation of Slavic pi. minorities Cyril and Methodius; d) the emergence of the Eastern Roman Empire. 6. What glorified the culture of Byzantium (choose the correct answers a) Aachen Chapel; b) Church of Hagia Sophia; c) the invention of “Greek? nya"; d) "Palace Academy"?

Creative works and projects

Creative project " Byzantine mosaic" Using art albums and Internet resources, find examples of Byzantine mosaics, find out the features of this technique, the techniques used to achieve a visual effect. Prepare a presentation on this topic.

Information project “Creation of the Slavic alphabet”. Using additional reference books and Internet resources, collect information about Cyril and Methodius, the history of their creation of Slavic writing, its relationship with other alphabetic systems, and about two ancient alphabets - Glagolitic and Cyrillic. Illustrate the text with examples of Glagolitic and Cyrillic writing. Logically position collected material and complete the work.

Kievan Rus

Slavic tribes migrated to the Dnieper basin in the 5th century AD, here they split into two branches: the southern, whose tribes went to the Balkan Peninsula, and the eastern.

At the turn of the 8th – 9th centuries, the Eastern Slavs were in the process of forming an Old Russian nation. As a result of the unification of their tribes, Kievan Rus arose in the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the headwaters of the northern Dvina in the north. We learn about its history from ancient Russian chronicles, in particular from "Tales of Bygone Years", in which the chronicler talks in detail about the Slavic tribes, their habitats, the first rulers, and gives his interpretation of the origin of the term Rus'. According to Nestor, the word “Rus” itself has Scandinavian roots and is closely connected with the arrival of the Varangian princes and their tribe in the Old Russian state. The concept of the medieval chronicler was supported in the 18th century G.-F. Miller, V.N. Tatishchev and rejected by M.V. Lomonosov, who connects the term "Rus" with the name of the river Ros, which was southern border the initial settlement of Slavic tribes, and with the ethnonym Roxolans. HE. Trubachev believes that these onyms are based on an Indo-European root, the meaning of which is defined as “light”. The Northern Black Sea region was traditionally called the “white, bright side”. Both concepts had and still have their supporters and opponents. The first of them is defended M.P. Pogodin, Y. Venelin, S.M. Soloviev, A.V. Muravyov, D.A. Machinsky etc.; the second is divided and developed DI. Iloviysky, A.N. Nosov, O.N. Trubachev.

Map 8. Kievan Rus in the 9th century.

Kievan Rus was one of largest states in Europe. Its history goes through several stages. Until 882, the unification of the tribes took place under a single authority. glades, northerners, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polotsk and Slovenian. This stage ends with the merger of Kyiv and Novgorod. The chronicle connected this event with the name of Oleg and his campaign from Novgorod to Kyiv. After Oleg seized power in Kyiv, a new stage in the development of the Old Russian state began - the rise of the early feudal monarchy. In 981, the East Slavic lands up to the San River were annexed to Kievan Rus; in 992, it included the lands of the Croats, which lay on both slopes of the Carpathian Mountains; in 989, Russian warriors went against the Yatvingians, and the Russian population, populating the region right up to the borders of the Prussian possessions, marked the beginning of Black Rus'. In 981, the land of the Vyatichi joined the Old Russian state, although traces of its former independence remained for a long time; three years later, the power of Kyiv extended to the Radimichi. By 1054, Kievan Rus embraced almost all East Slavic tribes, and Kyiv began to be called “ mother city russian" In the second half of the 11th century, there was a tendency towards the collapse of Kievan Rus, but in the first half of the 11th century, the feudal monarchy again strengthened, since in connection with the onslaught of the Polovtsians, the princes sought to unite their forces. Kievan Rus for some time again became a more or less unified state, but the development of feudal centers and the increased role of the boyars strengthened the desire of its individual parts for independence. In 1132, Kievan Rus collapsed, and a period of feudal fragmentation began.
Little evidence has reached our time about the life of the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period. The most common material from which household items, images of gods and goddesses, residential and outbuildings were made was wood - a very malleable and easy-to-process material, durable, but at the same time easily destroyed by fire and dampness. The sculpture of pre-Christian Rus' can be judged only by their small fragments and debris found during excavations in Novgorod, Pskov, Staraya Russa and in other places. Until the 80s of the 20th century, only one complete monument of ancient Russian stone sculpture- Zbruch idol. A monument from the 10th century, it was found in 1848 in the Zbruch River (a tributary of the Dniester) near the village of Gusyatin. After the adoption of Christianity, he, like the idol of Perun in Kyiv, was probably thrown into the water. The idol from the Zbruch River is a high (2.67 m) tetrahedral pillar with three tiers of reliefs. The lower tier depicts underground deities who support the earth and people (middle tier), while the upper tier depicts gods with their main attributes – a sword and a horse. This division of images symbolizes the Slavs’ idea of the structure of the universe. In the upper part of the idol, four gods depicted full-length are crowned with one princely cap. On the main front side is the goddess of fertility. Near the idol there was an altar-circle made of cobblestones. The moat forms eight arched petals, in each of which a ritual fire burned during the holiday. The Zbruch Idol is now kept in the Krakow Museum; a life-size copy is in the Historical Museum in Moscow.

ABOUT ancient culture The pagan temples that are found in the places where the Slavs settled tell a lot about the Slavs. They are small (14-30 m) areas with a ditch or rampart. The temples are located on natural or specially raised elevations. In 1908, on St. Andrew’s Hill, in the very middle of the princely court, the so-called Kiev temple of the 8th – 10th centuries was opened. It was re-explored in 1937. It forms an irregular quadrangle with four rectangular projections and is made of rough stones without mortar. The dimensions of the temple are 4.2 x 3.5 m, height – 0.4 m. A layer of burnt clay with the bones of domestic animals was discovered not far from the site.

Rice. 84. Kiev temple. VIII – X centuries

In 1951-1953, on the left bank of the Volkhv River, 4 km from Veliky Novgorod, the Peryn temple (IX – 10th centuries) was discovered. The sanctuary is a horizontal platform in the form of a regular circle with a diameter of 21 m, surrounded by a ring ditch. Exactly in the center of the site there is a hole from a wooden statue of Perun (according to the first Novgorod chronicle of the older edition, in 988 it was cut down and thrown into the Volkhov). In front of the statue was a round stone altar. The site is surrounded by a moat - an eight-petaled flower formed by eight symmetrically located pits. At the bottom of each of them, during the festivities, a ritual fire was lit, and in one of them, facing Volkhov, the fire burned constantly.

Fig.85. Peryn temple. IX – X centuries

In addition to these temples, in different times sanctuaries were discovered in Northern Bukovina (Rzhavinsky temple, VIII - X centuries), in the Gniloy Kut tract in Podolia (Gnilokutsky temple, V - VII centuries), in the Smolensk region (Krasnogorsk sanctuary, VIII - X centuries), near Zhitomir (Shumskoe sanctuary, VIII – IX centuries). In and near the sanctuaries, fire pits, burnt bones of domestic animals and birds, shards of vessels, arrowheads, and weapons are found. In isolated cases, archaeologists also discover burnt fragments of human skulls. This is, for example, the temple of Golovno (Volyn region, Ukraine).

An archaeological study of the contents of the temples and the ancient settlements located near them shows that pre-Christian Rus' knew casting, chasing, ceramics, embroidery, and mastered the fine art of enamels. Old Russian craftsmen made skillful jewelry items - bronze amulets and jewelry: star-shaped pendants, buckles, kolta and hryvnias, sprinkled with grain, entwined with filigree. Bird, animal and human figures were woven into the patterns of these products.

Like the princes of other Slavic states, Russian rulers seek support for their power and international recognition in religion. Russian chronicles say that around 955, at the court of the Byzantine emperor, Princess Olga was baptized with the Christian name Elena. In 986, Prince Vladimir called representatives of various religious denominations: Catholic ambassadors from the West; Khazars, who professed Judaism; Bulgars who professed Islam; Byzantines. When choosing a faith, the solemnity and splendor of the Byzantine liturgical rite and the church as a whole played a significant role. The envoys of Prince Vladimir, having visited Constantinople, enthusiastically described to the prince the St. Sophia Cathedral and the action that took place during the service. The year 988 became the official year of the baptism of Rus'. Not long before this, in 986, Vladimir himself was baptized in Byzantium. He accepts christian name Vasily, together with baptism, concludes a profitable political agreement: Vladimir will marry the sister of the Byzantine emperor.

Sources report that the baptism of Russians was forced. By order of the prince, all Kievites were driven to the Dnieper and baptized, after which they threw the idol of Perun into the Dnieper and floated it down the river, and chopped up other idols and burned them. In Novgorod, the pagans put up strong resistance to Bishop Joachim who arrived there (991); in Rostov, only the fourth bishop managed to baptize the residents. The Vyatichi preserved paganism the longest of all the Slavic tribes; here, in the north of the Chernigov region, in the eastern part of the Oryol and southern parts Kaluga regions, Christianity established itself only in the 12th century. After Tatar-Mongol invasion Christianity established itself not only in cities, but also in rural areas. However, some elements of paganism remain strong among the Eastern Slavs to this day.

Along with the spread of Orthodoxy, Cyrillic writing penetrated into the Russian land. Archaeological excavations in Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Smolensk and other ancient Russian cities show widespread literacy in Rus' at that time. Researchers find huge amount birch bark letters written not by princes or warriors, but by ordinary townspeople; The birch bark letters of the boy Onfim help establish how children were taught to write. The spread of literacy among the people is also evidenced by inscriptions on household items found during archaeological research: spindle whorls, barrels, vessels, etc. The words of the chronicler Nestor (988) that Vladimir

Prince Vladimir opens schools at monasteries and churches. Prince Yaroslav the Wise creates a huge library, which contains many books, including those translated from Greek into Russian. In 1037, a school for three hundred children from noble families was opened at the St. Sophia Cathedral (Kyiv), and in 1086, Princess Anna Vsevolodovna organized a school for girls at the St. Andrew's Monastery in Kyiv. With the fall of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, the center of Slavic literature moved to Kievan Rus. From Bulgaria and Serbia, scribes flock here, where all conditions are created for the development of Slavic writing and Slavic culture.

The art of Kievan Rus after the adoption of Christianity absorbed Byzantine and South Slavic traditions, while preserving pre-Christian motifs: fairy-tale birds and animals, plant ornaments. Despite the ban on depicting anything other than ornaments and paintings on the walls of temples, master stonemasons managed to carve forbidden sculptures from stone. A striking example such art is Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, built near the city of Vladimir in 1165. On the walls of the church you can see not only pilasters and arcatures, characteristic of Byzantine churches, in the zakomars there are also stucco decorations depicting a human figure with a musical instrument, on the sides of which there are lions, griffins, and below - mysterious female masks. A similar, but richer sculpture completely covers the walls of the Demetrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir. All kinds of creatures - angels, animals, birds, pagan centaurs and griffins - are walking towards the central figure of David on both sides in close rows. Here, as the personification of natural forces, one can also find old deities - fantastic creatures that were found on pre-Christian “animal style” jewelry. And then, centuries later, they are woven into the headpieces and initial letters of handwritten gospels.

The Novgorod cathedrals differ from the Vladimir and Kyiv cathedrals in their squatness and stinginess in decoration. In the Novgorod land, the fresco, located not outside, but inside the temple, received greater development. A small part of the frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (XII century), which was destroyed during the Great Patriotic War, has been preserved. Patriotic War. They represent a kind of gallery of Novgorodians in the vestments of Christian saints - courageous, stocky, stern figures. Among them there are many bearded elders: during the clan system, old men - the founders of a large family - were especially revered. Images of “grandfathers-storytellers” also appeared here, who were later depicted as elders of Russian monasteries, Russian hermits.

Thus, ancient Russian culture not only absorbed the traditions of Byzantine art, but also created its own traditions, combining pagan and Christian motifs. At the stage of the early Middle Ages, Kievan Rus by type of culture and direction historical development was close to other European countries. In the future, very little remains of this closeness. This discrepancy was due to the division of churches into western and eastern, which occurred in 1054.

In the middle of the 12th century, Kievan Rus split into separate principalities. Andrei Bogolyubsky actually transfers the grand-ducal throne from Kyiv to Vladimir (he brought with him the icon of the Mother of God, which later received the name of Vladimir). Kievan Rus is being replaced by a period of feudal fragmentation.

Formation of Slavic states Settlement of the Slavs

In the 6th century, the Slavs occupied vast areas from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Danube and the Black Sea in the south.

3 branches of Slavs

Since ancient times, in the Baltic states, in Central and Eastern Europe, to the east of the Germans, there lived Slavs.

Occupations and lifestyle of the Slavs

The main occupations of the Slavs were:

agriculture (wheat, rye),
cattle breeding (pig breeding),
crafts
beekeeping (collection of wild bees honey and wax)

The Slavs settled along the banks of rivers, which were the best “roads,” and carried on trade.

Occupations and lifestyle of the Slavs

The Slavs were divided into many tribes. All important issues in the tribe were decided by the people's assembly - veche(from the word “broadcast” - speak knowledgeably).

The tribes were led by military leaders - princes. They had horse squads under their command. Carrying out raids and attacks on neighbors, the princes and their warriors captured captive slaves, livestock, and various valuables.

Bulgarian state

In the second half of the 7th century, the Slavs, who settled in the lands along the lower Danube, north of the Balkan Range, were conquered by nomads - Bulgarians, Turkic by origin.

The outstanding ruler of Bulgaria was Prince Simeon. He was educated, energetic, and ambitious, dreaming of subjugating the entire Balkan Peninsula and seizing the imperial throne of Byzantium.

Capture of the Bulgarian state

From the north, Hungarian cavalry raided Bulgaria and Byzantium, and then for a century and a half - nomadic Pechenegs, pushed back to the Northern Black Sea region from the depths of Asia.

At the beginning of the 11th century, the Byzantine Emperor Vasily II, nicknamed the Bulgarian Slayer, made campaigns in Bulgaria almost every year.

Vasily killed about 100 thousand Bulgarians, 14 thousand were blinded and sent home as intimidation.

When the Bulgarian king saw the blind, he died of a broken heart.

In 1018, Byzantium completely subjugated Bulgaria.

Blinded

Great Moravian Empire

In the first half of the 9th century, a state of the Western Slavs arose in the Morava River valley - Great Moravian Empire.

At first it was subordinate to the Franks, and after the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne - to Germany. The princes paid her tribute and accepted Christianity from the German bishops.

But then the Great Moravian Power achieved independence and entered in the fight against Germany. To fight Germany, one of the Moravian princes entered into an alliance with Byzantium against it.

Great Moravian Empire

The first Slavic enlighteners were learned monks - Bulgarians from Byzantium, brothers Cyril and Methodius.

In 863, the brothers were sent to the Great Moravian Empire. Before leaving Kirill based on the Greek alphabet created Slavic writing.

In Moravia, the brothers built churches and opened a school to train priests from local residents.

Collapse of the Great Moravian Empire

The only surviving monument of the Great Moravian Empire

The long struggle with the kings of Germany weakened the Great Moravian Empire. Taking advantage of this, the Hungarians in 906 defeated her and captured part of her lands. The Great Moravian Empire collapsed.

Education in the Czech Republic and Poland

From the collapsed Great Moravian Empire emerged Czech state. In the first half of the 10th century, with the support of the nobility, the princes of the Czech tribe that lived near the city Prague, united other tribes under their rule.

In the second half of the 10th century, the Polish prince Mieszko I(960-992) subjugated the tribes that settled along the river Vistula. He started Polish state.

Education in the Czech Republic and Poland

The unification of Poland ended during the reign Boleslaw I the Brave(992-1025). He managed to annex the southern Polish lands. To the city Krakow The capital of Poland was moved. Boleslav I temporarily managed to capture the Czech Republic and Prague, but soon the Czech Republic was freed from his power.

Coronation

Boleslaw I the Brave

Homework

Preparing for test work under chapter 11

(§ 6-8, pp. 47-66)

1. Settlement of the Slavs. Since ancient times, the Slavs lived in the Baltic states, in Central and Eastern Europe, east of the Germans. During the Great Migration of Peoples, they moved far to the west and south. In the 6th century, the Slavs occupied vast areas from the Laba (Elbe) in the west to the middle reaches of the Dnieper in the east, from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Danube and the Black Sea in the south. From the 7th century they began to move east. Later, numerous Slavic tribes were divided into three branches: western, southern and eastern.

Western Slavs are Czechs, Poles, Slovaks. These also included Polabian tribes who lived east of Laba, and Pomeranian tribes who settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea.

Some Slavic tribes settled part of the Balkan Peninsula, and here the southern Slavic peoples were formed: Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats and others.

The Eastern Slavs are the ancestors of three related peoples: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

2. Occupations and lifestyle of the Slavs. The Slavs have long been engaged in agriculture, livestock breeding and crafts.

In the middle of the first millennium AD, the way of life of the Slavs was similar to that which we know from the history of the ancient Germans. The Slavs were divided into many tribes. All important issues in the tribe were decided by the people's assembly - the veche (from the word ʼʼbroadcastʼʼ - to speak with knowledge of the matter).

The tribes were led by military leaders - princes. They had horse squads under their command. Carrying out raids and attacks on their neighbors, the princes and their warriors captured captive slaves, livestock, and various valuables. The historian of the 6th century reports on the position of slaves among the Slavs: “They do not keep those in captivity in slavery for an unlimited time, but offer them a choice: they wish

whether they return home for a certain ransom or remain in the position of free and friends. The threat of enemy attacks forced the Slavs to unite into tribal unions. Usually these alliances were fragile and quickly disintegrated. But some of them served as the basis for the Slavic states.

3. Bulgarian state. In the second half of the 7th century, the Slavs, who settled in the lands along the lower Danube, north of the Balkan Range, were conquered by nomadic Bulgarians, Turks by origin. The ancestors of the Bulgarians (or Bulgars) first lived in Western Siberia, but in the first centuries of our era migrated to the middle Volga; from here some of them came to the Balkan Peninsula.

The Bulgarian state arose here. Gradually, the Bulgarians dissolved among the Slavs they conquered, adopted their language, but gave them their own name. In the north, Bulgaria's neighbors were the ancestors of modern Romanians, and in the south, Bulgaria bordered on the Byzantine Empire. In the middle of the 9th century, Bulgaria adopted Christianity from Byzantium. This contributed to the development of her connections with the rest of the Christian world. At the same time, Bulgaria waged long wars with Byzantium, and at times Byzantium was forced to pay tribute to the Bulgarians.

The outstanding ruler of Bulgaria was Prince Simeon (893-927). Educated, energetic and ambitious, Simeon dreamed of subjugating the entire Balkan Peninsula and seizing the imperial throne of Byzantium. For about 30 years he waged war with Byzantium and besieged its capital more than once. He managed to conquer part of the lands inhabited by the Slavs and subjugate the Serbs. Simeon called himself “the king of the Bulgarians and Greeks.”

But long wars exhausted the country and ruined the population. After the death of Simeon, Bulgaria weakened, and Serbia separated from it. From the north, Bulgaria and Byzantium were raided by the Hungarian cavalry, and then for a century and a half - by the nomadic Pechenegs, driven to the Northern Black Sea region from the depths of Asia.

4. The Great Moravian Empire and the creators of Slavic writing. In the first half of the 9th century, a state of the Western Slavs arose in the valley of the Morava River - the Great Moravian Empire. At first it was subordinate to the Franks, and after the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne - to Germany. The princes paid her tribute and accepted Christianity from the German bishops. But then the Great Moravian Power achieved independence and entered into the fight with Germany. Several times the German kings invaded and overthrew the unwanted Moravian princes from the throne, replacing them with their own supporters.

To fight Germany, one of the Moravian princes entered into an alliance with Byzantium against it. To free the church from the influence of the German clergy, he asked to send missionaries to Moravia to preach Christianity in the native language of the Slavs.

The first Slavic enlighteners were learned monks - Bulgarians from Byzantium, brothers Cyril and Methodius. Kirill taught philosophy and knew the languages of different nations. Methodius, a good organizer, ruled the Byzantine region for about 10 years. Then he became a monk and soon headed the monastery.

In 863, the brothers were sent to the Great Komoravian Empire. Before leaving, Cyril created Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet. With the help of Methodius, he translated several liturgical books into Slavic.

In Moravia, the brothers built churches and opened a school to train priests from local residents. They created a church independent of the German bishops.

After the death of the brothers, the German clergy began persecuting their students. Some students found shelter in Bulgaria. Here they continued to translate Greek religious books and contributed to the rise of Bulgarian literature. From Bulgaria, Slavic writing passed to Rus'.

5. Education of the Czech Republic and Poland. In the 9th century, the state of the Eastern Slavs was formed - Kievan Rus, which, gradually growing and strengthening, turned into a strong Old Russian state.

The Czech state emerged from the collapsed Great Moravian Empire. In the first half of the 10th century, with the support of the nobility, the princes of the Czech tribe, who lived near the city of Prague, united other tribes under their rule. In 1085, the Czech prince took the title of king - the influence of the Czech Republic in Europe increased.

In the second half of the 10th century, the Polish prince Mieszko I (960-992) subjugated the tribes that settled along the Vistula River. Together with his 3,000-strong retinue, he accepted the Christian faith and thereby greatly strengthened his power. He laid the foundation for the Polish state. While fighting for the unification of the Polish lands, Mieszko entered into an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire against the Polabian Slavs, but at times supported the German feudal lords against the emperor.

In the middle of the 11th century, Poland entered a period of feudal fragmentation.

The formation of Slavic states - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Education of Slavic states" 2017, 2018.