Angina

The entry of the Volga region into the Russian state.

The strengthening of autocratic power in the Russian state and the creation of a more powerful military organization created the conditions for intensifying foreign policy. The primary task in this regard was to eliminate the constant threat of invasions from the Kazan Khanate.

Khanate of Kazan

Originating in the mid-15th century. As a result of the fragmentation of the Golden Horde, the Kazan Khanate united under its rule the peoples of the Middle Volga and Ural regions - Tatars, Udmurts, Mari, Chuvash, and part of the Bashkirs. In the fertile regions of the Volga region, agriculture, beekeeping and hunting were developed. fur-bearing animal. The land belonged to the state. The khans distributed it to their vassals, who collected taxes from the population. Part of the land belonged to mosques. In the economy of the feudal lords, the labor of captive slaves was widely used. The situation of the Mordvins, Chuvash and Mari, who had to pay a large tribute, was more difficult. In the multinational Kazan Khanate, social and national contradictions were intertwined. The Kazan rulers saw a way out of them by organizing attacks on more developed Russian lands with the aim of robbing and capturing slave captives. The lack of developed urban life (except for the large center of transit trade - Kazan) also pushed for attacks on neighbors.

Already in the mid-40s of the 16th century. from the power of the Kazan Khanate the Chuvash and Mari were liberated and became part of Russian state.

Preparing for the trip to Kazan

By the middle of the 16th century. A strong coalition of Muslim states that emerged after the collapse of the Golden Horde and united by the influence and support of Sultan Turkey acted against the Russian state. The fight against external danger again rose as a priority, the most important task, on the resolution of which the existence of the recently emerged unified Russian state depended.

The entire second half of the forties was spent in diplomatic and military attempts to achieve the elimination of the source of aggression in Kazan, either by restoring its vassalage, which could be achieved by establishing a supporter of Moscow in Kazan, or by conquering Kazan. But these attempts were unsuccessful. Moscow's protégé Shah-ali failed to stay in Kazan, and two campaigns of Russian troops in 1547-1548. and 1549-1550. were unsuccessful.

At the turn of the 50s. Preparations began for a decisive strike on Kazan. The preference for military defeat over diplomatic solutions to this problem was associated with the need for land for the nobles. The Kazan Khanate with its “sub-district land” attracted service people. The capture of Kazan was also important for the development of trade - it opened the way along the Volga to the countries of the East, which so attracted Europeans in the 16th century. with your wealth.

Capture of Kazan

In the spring of 1551 On the right bank of the Volga, opposite Kazan, a wooden fortress of Sviyazhsk, which had been cut down in advance and floated down the river, was erected, which became a stronghold for conducting military operations against Kazan.

Russia's attack on Kazan alarmed the Turkish-Tatar coalition. By order of the Sultan, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey struck from the south, intending to invade the central regions of Russia and thereby disrupt Russia's offensive on Kazan. But Moscow foresaw the possibility of such an attack and stationed troops in the Kashira-Kolomna area on the ancient Oka line. The Crimean Khan went back. In the second half of 1552 one hundred and fifty thousandth Russian army, headed by Ivan the Terrible, princes A. M. Kurbsky, M. I. Vorotynsky and others, besieged Kazan. To destroy the walls of the Kazan Kremlin, according to the plans of Ivan Vyrodkov, mine tunnels and siege devices were built. As a result of the assault on October 2, 1552. Kazan was taken.

Mastering the Volga route

This was followed by the annexation of Bashkiria to Russia in 1556. Astrakhan was taken. In 1557 Murza Ismail, the head of the great Nogai Horde, swore allegiance to the Russian state. His opponents migrated with part of the Nogai to Kuban and became vassals of the Crimean Khan. The entire Volga has now become Russian. This was a huge success for the Russian state. In addition to eliminating dangerous hotbeds of aggression in the East, the victory over Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of developing new lands and developing trade with the countries of the East. This victory was the biggest event for contemporaries.

After the annexation of Kazan, Russia’s neighbor in the East became the Khanate of Siberia, with vast territories and expensive, profitable furs.

Indeed, for a beginner, these terms may seem too complicated, and you will have to learn them as you go. In this article we will give detailed description of all existing types of occurrences, so that any copywriter can always check this “cheat sheet”.

Exact occurrence

It is a pure occurrence, there is no difference between these two terms. It is the simplest for insertion, because it cannot be diluted with punctuation marks or at all changed in any way. If the customer gave the key to a “bakery in Moscow”, then in the sentence it will sound like “You are interested in the best bakeries in Moscow? and nothing else. Typically, clients do not require the exact entry of keys like “making gingerbread in Moscow,” but if they want this, then, regardless of the euphony of the sentence, they will have to enter it exactly like that.

Direct entry

But this is already a frequent guest and the main working tool of a copywriter. Direct occurrence leaves the declination, number, tense and order of words unchanged, but they can be separated by punctuation marks. Acceptable characters are: comma, dash and colon. A period and a hyphen will destroy the coherence of the key in the understanding of the search engine, so their use in direct entries is prohibited. If the customer asks for a direct entry of the above-mentioned dissonant key “making gingerbread Moscow”, then it can be presented like this: “It is set on a grand scale gingerbread making: Moscow has already acquired a dozen new confectionery factories.” Or like this: “In the capital there is now in full swing festive gingerbread making, Moscow has already broken all world records for their production.” Agree that it sounds much better this way. Typically, direct entry is used precisely for keys that would look ridiculous if used exactly. If the customer does not indicate which entry he needs, then with a 90% probability it is a direct entry.

Diluted Entry

Customers ask for such keys much less often, but this is not a reason to cross off entries of this type from the list. The diluted entry by its name shows how it is formed. The original phrase can be supplemented not only with punctuation marks, but also with words. Using the same example, a diluted entry may look like this: “If you want to find making delicious gingerbread, Moscow for this it will be the most the best city" Or using the example of a “bakery in Moscow”: “The best bakeries in Moscow, their telephone numbers and addresses can be found on our website.”

Morphological occurrence

It represents the most convenient keys for use. They can be declined or conjugated as you wish, that is, if the key is given for a “bakery in Moscow,” then it can be entered as “The best bakery in Moscow" But it is better to give an example on a key without a proper name. The “ad placement” key can be entered as “For placing an ad call 5-55-55.” Or even like this: “So that post an ad“You need to call us at 5-55-55.” Usually morphological occurrences are required in addition to straight and pure ones, but some customers request exclusively morphological ones.

Synonymous occurrence

Like the morphological, this immediately hints at how to form it. In it, words can be replaced by any synonyms, but the meaning of the phrase should not be lost. A synonymous entry can also become diluted if the key contains an abbreviation or a two-word synonym is used. For example, the key “buy caramel in St. Petersburg” can be entered like this: “With us you can purchase caramel in St. Petersburg and other cities of Russia." It is not necessary to change all the words, you can change only one of your choice. Such occurrences are mainly used in addition to direct and exact ones.

Reverse entry

It is the spelling of a key phrase backwards. If the key “honey nuts” is given, then it can be entered as “Try our honey nuts, filled with the heroic silushka.” Often, due to the rearrangement of words, a phrase begins to sound old-fashioned, so reverse occurrences are rarely used and for those words that will not be greatly affected by the movement. If there are more than two words, then they are rearranged according to the stability of the phrase. “Making gingerbread Moscow” will need to be entered as “Moscow making gingerbread”, and not as “making Moscow gingerbread”.

Entry with a typo

Reception low level copywriting, but sometimes it is in demand. The customer gives a normal key, and the performer is obliged to add life to the text by writing the key with an error, preferably the most common one. “Buy a server” can be included in a sentence as “Looking for where buy a server?. This is done so that even with an erroneous request, people find the right site. True, search engines already automatically correct errors, so the need for erroneous occurrences has noticeably decreased.

Mixed occurrences

But this is an arbitrary hodgepodge of all the above types. For example, there is a morphological diluted occurrence that allows you to do whatever you want with the key. “Making gingerbread Moscow” will look like this: “We all sometimes think about where make delicious gingerbread in Moscow" As you can see, a rather complex key becomes very organic and looks good in a sentence.

There are also reverse synonymous diluted occurrences: “City Moscow offers to buy gingerbread according to the most best prices! There are more complex designs, but they are extremely rarely in demand, because morphological, direct and exact occurrences can completely saturate the text with keys.

That's all for today existing types occurrences, we hope that this article will help you not to get confused in their abundance and always strictly fulfill customer requirements.

Entry into the Russian state of the peoples of the Volga region and Siberia . The process of incorporating different regions and peoples into the Russian state had a heterogeneous typology. In the middle of the 16th century. the main direction was the eastern direction. Russia sought to achieve the annexation of the Kazan Khanate. The proximity to this subsidiary state of the Horde created a constant threat to Russian possessions. Murom, Kostroma, Vologda and other counties were attacked. More than 100 thousand Russian prisoners were in captivity of the Kazan Khanate. Behind the Tatar khanates, including Kazan, stood the powerful Ottoman Porte (Türkiye). The need to annex the Volga region was determined as economic reasons(fertile lands, the mighty Volga River - the most important trade route), and political. Despite the fact that the peoples of the Volga region accepted Russian citizenship, the first campaigns against the Kazan Khanate (1547 - 1548; 1549 - 1550) ended in failure. The siege of Kazan began in August 1552. The Russian army numbered about 150 thousand people, among them there were many archers, and powerful siege artillery was used. The Russian army also included auxiliary Mordovian and Chuvash detachments. The Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey, helping the Kazan people, led the army to Tula. But he was repulsed. The assault on October 2, 1552 ended with the capture of Kazan.

Four years later, Astrakhan shared the fate of Kazan. Khan Derbysh-Ali fled the city. A year later, the Great Nogai Horde accepted Russian citizenship. The fall of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates created the conditions for the voluntary entry into the Russian state not only of the Mari, Mordovians and Chuvash, but also of Bashkiria, previously subject to the Siberian Khanate. The lands of Bashkiria lay on both sides of the “Kamen” - the Ural ridge, from the Volga and Kama to Tobol. The western part of Bashkiria recognized the power of Tsar Ivan in the 1650s.

Against Crimean Khanate Moscow organized a number of actions. To protect against Crimean raids on the southern Russian districts, the Tula notched line was built - a line of fortresses, forts, forest debris (zasek) to the south and southeast of the Oka. Victories in the Volga region and defensive-offensive measures in the south significantly strengthened the state. Russian state was an important step towards moving east - to Siberia, natural resources which has long attracted attention. Here, in Western Siberia, along the Irtysh, Tobol, Ob and their tributaries lived Siberian Tatars, Khanty and other small nationalities. These were cattle breeders (southern regions), hunters and fishermen. But after the Crimean attack on Russia in 1572, the new Khan Kuchum broke relations with the tsar. His warriors began to raid Russian possessions.

The Russian government again set the task of annexing Siberia at the end of the 16th century. Salt industrialists Stroganovs, owners of lands and their own armed detachments, according to the Charter of Ivan the Terrible, began the construction of fortresses in Western Siberia. They equipped detachments of “hunting people”, Cossacks. One of them was headed by Ermak. At the end of 1581 - beginning of 1582, Ermak’s detachment (about 600 people) marched from the Chusovaya River, crossing the Ural ridge, to the Tura River. Then we moved along the Tobol and Irtysh. At the end of October, the detachment approached Kashlyk, the capital of Khan Kuchum, not far from modern Tobolsk. Here the military detachments of Khan Kuchum (from the Tatars, Khanty and Mansi) were defeated and fled. Khan Kuchum migrated to the south, to the steppe. Local residents began to pay tribute to Moscow.

IN next year Ermak's greatly reduced detachment was ambushed, and Ermak himself drowned in the waters of the Irtysh in 1585. The remnants of Ermak and Volkhovsky's detachments went home. But soon new detachments appeared - governor I. Mansurova, V. Sukina and others. They set up fortified forts and strengthened garrisons. Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk (1587), which became the capital of Russian Siberia for a long time, and then other cities were founded. By the end of the century, Kuchum, who attacked Russian troops and forts from the depths of the steppes, suffered a final defeat. The Siberian Khanate ceases to exist. The eastern borders of the state were greatly expanded. Furs, fish and other goods flowed from Western Siberia to European Russia. As they moved east, Russian explorers built fortresses that served as their strongholds for further advancement. This is how the Yenisei fort (1619), Krasnoyarsk fort (1628) and others arose. The agricultural population for Siberia grew from peasants forcibly resettled by the government, and partly as a result of popular colonization of fugitive peasants and townspeople. Towards the end XVII V. Agriculture in Siberia fully met the region's needs for bread. The peasants brought agricultural culture with them, which was beneficial for the local population. Strife between ethnic groups has ceased. This had a positive impact.

Raisa Emelyanova

This year will go down in the history of the West Siberian Federal State Institution medical center", referred to in the old fashioned way by residents of the Omsk region as the "water workers' hospital", as the beginning of a new stage of its development: this year the Center became part of the structure of the Federal Medical and Biological Agency. Our correspondent talks with the director of the Center Vasily Obryvalin.

— Vasily Vasilievich, how do you assess the Center’s entry into the FMBA?

— Our Center became one of the first medical institutions in the Omsk region to receive licenses for the right to use in the treatment of patients high technology. First of all, this is the merit of our department of portal hypertension and the department of orthopedics, on the basis of which an endoprosthetics center was recently opened. By the way, it is headed by a famous orthopedic doctor highest category V.A. Drachevsky. For a long time he headed the department of ballet and sports trauma at the regional traumatology and orthopedic hospital. During this period, together with his colleagues, he developed unique methods recovery of athletes and ballet dancers after injuries. Until now, Vladimir Andreevich’s authority among ballet dancers and athletes is indisputable. Patients come to us from Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Tomsk, Tyumen and even from Moscow. Opening at the base orthopedic department The endoprosthetics center significantly expands the capabilities of doctors in the treatment and recovery of not only athletes, artists, but also, so to speak, ordinary patients. The main emphasis is on endoscopic operations- the most gentle for the patient and giving the greatest effect. Thanks to the development modern methods endoprosthetics of hip, knee and ankle joints even the deepest old men leave us on their own feet.

— I think that for our team, joining the FMBA structure is a great honor. We have great respect for the activities of this federal agency. After all, its divisions and research institutes serve such developed sectors of the economy as the nuclear industry and space. And the head of the FMBA - V.V. Uiba had the most effect on me good impression. Despite being very busy, at the very first meeting he listened carefully to all our problems, suggesting ways to solve them.

— The new status of the institution will not negatively affect those groups of the population that you have traditionally served, since the times when it was called the Irtysh Basin Hospital?

- Vice versa. Our responsibilities in identifying initial stages functional deviations, carrying out corrective medical events aimed at preventing their transition to occupational diseases. This applies primarily to employees water transport. With the transition to the FMBA, the possibilities for expensive treatment of the assigned population in different clinics across the country increase significantly.

At the same time, our Center will constantly seek reserves for additional support medical care territorial population Omsk and region. This will be facilitated by new forms of remuneration, which we are currently working on with our team.

Appeared in the early 50s. the so-called “Valaam conversation” - a journalistic work unknown author, written in the form of a dialogue that allegedly took place in a monastery on the island of Valaam, preached the non-acquisitive idea of the incompatibility of monastic life with the ownership of populated lands. Moreover, the “conversation” accused the monks of forgery of “holy divine books”, of taking away “the original writings of the venerables and holy fathers, and in that place in those books they attribute the best and most useful to themselves.” The author also rejected the claims of the clergy to participate in government.

In this situation, the Church Council of 1551 began, convened on the initiative of the Tsar and the Patriarch. The cathedral received the name “Hundred-Glaved”, since its resolutions consisted of one hundred chapters. At the Council, in addition to the highest clergy, there were service people present. Ivan the Terrible sought, firstly, to enlist support from the church in the reforms he was carrying out, and secondly, to complement these centralizing measures with corresponding reforms in the church, giving the latter a state character. At the beginning of the Council, the tsar made an appeal to approve the Code of Law and other reforms, and also raised a number of questions regarding the “correction” of church affairs. In addition to condemning those who received widespread many vices in the behavior of churchmen and the adoption of measures to restore order in their environment, the Council continued the formation of a new unified pantheon of Russian “saints”, which helped to overcome local separatism in the church organization. On the issue of church land ownership, the matter ended in a compromise: it was decided to give back to the previous owners the lands acquired by the church after 1553, and henceforth to acquire and sell land only with royal permission. “Stoglav” prohibited usury among clergy, both in cash and in kind (“bread for rent”). In practice, the decision of “Stoglava” was often violated; the process of enriching the church continued in the second half of the 16th century. Only during the Livonian War did the government manage to achieve a conciliar verdict in 1581. on the prohibition of the church from acquiring estates.

Entry of the Volga region into the Russian state

Khanate of Kazan

Originating in the mid-15th century. As a result of the fragmentation of the Golden Horde, the Kazan Khanate united under its rule the peoples of the Middle Volga and Ural regions - Tatars, Udmurts, Mari, Chuvash, and part of the Bashkirs. In the fertile regions of the Volga region, agriculture, beekeeping and hunting for fur-bearing animals were developed. The land belonged to the state. The khans distributed it to their vassals, who collected taxes from the population. Part of the land belonged to mosques. In the economy of the feudal lords, the labor of captive slaves was widely used. The situation of the Mordvins, Chuvash and Mari, who had to pay a large tribute, was more difficult. In the multinational Kazan Khanate, social and national contradictions were intertwined. The Kazan rulers saw a way out of them by organizing attacks on more developed Russian lands with the aim of robbing and capturing slave captives. The lack of developed urban life (except for the large center of transit trade - Kazan) also pushed for attacks on neighbors.

Already in the mid-40s of the 16th century. The Chuvash and Mari were liberated from the power of the Kazan Khanate and became part of the Russian state.

Preparing for the trip to Kazan

By the middle of the 16th century. A strong coalition of Muslim states that emerged after the collapse of the Golden Horde and united by the influence and support of Sultan Turkey acted against the Russian state. The fight against external danger again arose as a primary, most important task, on the resolution of which the existence of the recently emerged unified Russian state depended.

Capture of Kazan

Russia's attack on Kazan alarmed the Turkish-Tatar coalition. By order of the Sultan, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey struck from the south, intending to invade the central regions of Russia and thereby disrupt Russia's offensive on Kazan. But Moscow foresaw the possibility of such an attack and stationed troops in the Kashira-Kolomna area on the ancient Oka line. The Crimean Khan went back. In the second half of 1552 A hundred and fifty thousand strong Russian army, led by Ivan the Terrible, princes A.M. Kurbsky, M.I. Vorotynsky and others, besieged Kazan. To destroy the walls of the Kazan Kremlin, according to the plans of Ivan Vyrodkov, mine tunnels and siege devices were built. As a result of the assault on October 2, 1552. Kazan was taken.

Mastering the Volga route

After the annexation of Kazan, Russia’s neighbor in the East became the Khanate of Siberia, with vast territories and expensive, profitable furs.

The internal situation of the state and foreign policy Ivan the Terrible in the 50s-80s. Livonian War.

By the middle of the 16th century. Russia has become a powerful power. The reforms made it possible to begin solving foreign policy problems, the leading of which were:

1. Fight against Turkey and those under influence Ottoman Empire Crimean, Astrakhan and Nogai khanates;

2. Gaining access to the Baltic Sea, the fight against the Livonian Order.