A complete and continuous shell of the earth. Geographical envelope
The geographical envelope of the Earth is the largest natural complex. The atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere are intricately intertwined in it. The most important property The geographical envelope is the presence of water, both in liquid, solid and gaseous states.
The geographical envelope is unique in its kind. None of the planets in the Solar System and Galaxy have it. All processes occurring in it are interconnected and are easily destroyed. Their importance is extremely important for the preservation of the Earth and the survival of all humanity. Different forms of energy are intertwined in the geographical shell. Some of them are of earthly origin, some are of cosmic origin. We can say that there is a confrontation between internal and external forces. They strive to establish balance.
For example, the force of gravity is associated with the leveling of the relief and the flow of water into its depressions. The ebb and flow of tides is associated with the force of gravity. The internal source of energy is, first of all, the decay of radioactive substances, the formation of mountains and the movement of lithospheric plates. The earth, like a huge magnet, forms a magnetic field. This, in turn, affects the processes of attraction and the behavior of electrical discharges in the atmosphere.
Cosmic energy comes to Earth in the form of various radiations. The most important thing is sunny. Some of it is reflected from the Earth's surface and goes back into space. Such important processes as the water cycle and the development of life on the planet are also associated with solar energy. These two processes create a unique and unique shell on Earth.
It is difficult to say what the original geographic envelope of the Earth was like. Its basis was laid by the water cycle in nature. This is the transfer of a large mass of water and energy consumption. The main parts of this process are evaporation, rise of vapor, cooling and condensation into water droplets. Evaporation is associated with the use of large amounts of solar energy and its absorption. On Earth, unique conditions have developed for the existence of water in three states - liquid, gaseous and solid. Without this there would be no water cycle.
The cycle connected the earth's crust, water, and atmosphere in an important way. This laid the foundation for the geographic envelope. Which in turn became the basis for the emergence of life on the surface of the land and the emergence of the biosphere. After the emergence of vegetation, solar energy accumulators appeared in the geographic envelope. They transform the earth's surface, rocks, change the composition of the atmosphere, and create a biological link in the water cycle.
Water in the geographical shell is a powerful chemical agent. They can dissolve rocks and transport suspended sediments. it is the initial component for the formation of primary organic matter and biogenic oxygen. Water connects the geographical envelope with other spheres of the Earth.
Natural gases are an important and active element of the geographical envelope. The atmosphere provides protection from the scorching rays of the sun, ensures the process of respiration, photosynthesis, and participates in the transfer of heat.
The geographic envelope covers the upper part of the earth's crust, the lower part of the atmosphere and includes the hydrosphere, soil and plant covers, and fauna.
The main feature of the geographical shell is its openness. Metabolism occurs both between components and between shells, space, and the internal parts of the Earth.
The author is unaware of more substantiated attempts to criticize the fundamentals of the doctrine of the geographical envelope. Great job, done by Soviet physical geographers, has led to the fact that the concept of “geographical envelope” is now beyond doubt (only a more suitable term is being searched), and it is the geographic envelope that is recognized as the subject of research in physical geography.
A different picture is observed in foreign geographical schools. A. G. Isachenko, who examined in detail various trends in foreign geography, rightly stated that the idea of a geographical envelope is “an idea that is practically alien to Anglo-American geography.” In the field of physical geography, English and American scientists are mainly engaged in the development of branch areas.
Concepts approaching the concept of “geographical envelope” are found in the works of German geographers - here there is a certain convergence with physical geography in the USSR.
In this regard, it is interesting to note the following circumstance. Judging by the article by L. S. Berg “The significance of the works of V. I. Vernadsky for geography” (1946), he recognized, following Vernadsky, the existence of a complex shell near the physical surface of the planet - the biosphere; in any case, he did not deny this fact when analyzing the works of other authors, but for himself such a category remained alien. This can be felt in the structure of L. S. Berg’s article - the complex shell is “scattered” in it into subsections, and he himself, quite rightly discussing the significance of Vernadsky’s works for geography, did not in any way link them with his own concept. In terms of studying the psychology of scientific creativity, this detail perhaps deserves attention. It remains to add that V. I. Vernadsky himself, who extremely highly appreciated the work of such geographers as A. Humboldt, V. V. Dokuchaev and A. N. Krasnov, also did not in any way link his doctrine of the biosphere with the doctrine of the geographical envelope, i.e. . i.e. with the theory of physical geography.
Components of the geographic envelope and their interaction.
Atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere - the four shells of the globe are in complex interaction and interpenetrate each other. All together they make up geographical envelope.
In the geographic shell, life develops, the activity of water, ice, wind manifests itself, soils and sedimentary rocks are formed.
The geographic envelope is an area of complex interpenetration and interaction of cosmic and terrestrial forces. It continues to develop and become more complex as a result of the interaction of living and inanimate nature.
The upper boundary of the geographic envelope corresponds to the tropopause - the transition layer between the troposphere and stratosphere. Above the equator, this layer is located at an altitude of 16-18 km, and at the poles - 8-10 km. At these altitudes, processes generated by the interaction of geospheres fade and cease. There is practically no water vapor in the stratosphere, there is no vertical movement of air, and temperature changes are not associated with the influence of the earth's surface. Life is also impossible here.
The lower boundary on land passes at a depth of 3-5 km, i.e. where the composition and properties change rocks, there is no liquid water and living organisms.
The geographical shell of the Earth is an integral material system, qualitatively different from other geospheres of the Earth. Its integrity is determined by the continuous interaction of solid, liquid and gaseous, and with the emergence of life, living substances. All components of the geographic shell interact using solar energy coming to the Earth and the energy of the Earth's internal forces.
The interaction between the Earth's geospheres within the geographic envelope occurs as a result of the circulation of substances (water, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.).
All components of the geographic envelope are in complex relationships. A change in one component necessarily causes a change in others.
The rhythm of phenomena in the geographical environment. The geographic envelope of the Earth is constantly changing, and the relationships between its individual components are becoming more complex. These changes occur in time and space. In nature there are rhythms of different durations. Short, daily and annual rhythms are especially important for living organisms. Their periods of rest and activity are consistent with these rhythms. Circadian rhythm(change of day and night) is due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis; annual rhythm(change of seasons) - the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. The annual rhythm is manifested in the existence of periods of rest and vegetation in plants, in the molting and migration of animals, in some cases - in hibernation and reproduction. The annual rhythm in the geographic envelope depends on the latitude of the place: in equatorial latitudes it is less pronounced than in temperate or polar latitudes.
Daily rhythms occur against the background of annual rhythms, and annual rhythms occur against the background of perennial ones. There are also centuries-old, long-term rhythms, for example, climate change (cooling - warming, drying - humidification).
Changes in the geographical envelope also occur as a result of the movement of continents, the advance and retreat of seas, during geological processes: erosion and accumulation, the work of the sea, volcanism. In general, the geographical envelope develops progressively: from simple to complex, from lower to higher.
Zoning and sectoring of the geographical envelope.
The most important structural feature geographical shell - its zonality. Zoning Law was formulated by the great Russian natural scientist V.V. Dokuchaev, who wrote that the location of our planet relative to the Sun, its rotation and sphericity affect the climate, vegetation and animals, which are distributed over the earth's surface in the direction from north to south in a strictly defined order .
Zoning is better expressed on vast plains. However, the boundaries of geographical zones rarely coincide with parallels. The fact is that the distribution of zones is influenced by many other natural factors (for example, relief). There may be significant differences within a zone. This is explained by the fact that zonal processes are superimposed on azonal processes caused by internal factors, not subject to the laws of zonation (relief, distribution of land and water).
The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones, they are distinguished by radiation balance (income-expense solar radiation) and the nature of the general circulation of the atmosphere. The following geographic zones exist on Earth: equatorial, subequatorial (north and south), tropical (north and south), subtropical (north and south), temperate (north and south), subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic), polar (arctic and antarctic) .
Geographic belts do not have a regular ring shape; they expand, contract, and bend under the influence of continents and oceans, sea currents, and mountain systems.
On continents and oceans, geographical zones are qualitatively different. On the oceans they are well expressed at depths up to 150 m, weakly - up to a depth of 2000 m.
Under the influence of oceans on continents within geographic zones, longitudinal sectors(in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones), oceanic and continental.
On the plains within geographic zones there are natural areas(Fig. 45). In the continental sector of the temperate zone within the East European Plain, these are zones of forests, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts. Natural zones are divisions of the earth's surface characterized by similar soil, vegetation and climatic conditions. The main factor in the formation of soil and vegetation cover is the relationship between temperature and moisture.
Rice. 45. Main biozones of the Earth
Vertical zonality. Vertically, natural components change at a different rate than horizontally. As you go up in the mountains, the amount of precipitation and light conditions change. These same phenomena are expressed differently on the plain. Different slope exposures are the reason for unequal distribution of temperature, moisture, and soil and vegetation cover. The reasons for latitudinal zonality and vertical zonality are different: zonality depends on the angle of incidence of sunlight and the ratio of heat and moisture; vertical zonality - from a decrease in temperature with height and the degree of moisture.
Almost every mountainous country on Earth has its own characteristics of vertical zonation. In many mountainous countries, the belt of mountain tundra falls out and is replaced by a belt of mountain meadows.
Rice. 46. Changes in vegetation depending on the latitude and altitude of the area
Altitudinal zonation begins with the zone located at the foot of the mountain (Fig. 46). The most important factor in the distribution of belt heights is the degree of moisture.
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§ 40. Cycle of matter and energy in the biosphere§ 42. Natural areas of Russia
The geographic envelope is an integral, continuous near-surface part of the Earth, within which there is intense interaction between four components: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere (living matter). This is the most complex and diverse material system of our planet, which includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower layer of the atmosphere (troposphere), the upper part of the lithosphere and the living organisms inhabiting them. The spatial structure of the geographic shell is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.
Boundaries of the geographical envelope fuzzy. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens and then completely disappears. Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical envelope in different ways. The upper limit is often taken to be the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays, which have a detrimental effect on living organisms, are retained. However, some researchers carry it out along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which interacts most actively with the earth's surface. The lower boundary on land is usually taken to be the base of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick, and in the ocean - the ocean floor.
The geographical envelope consists of structural parts - components. These are rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils. They differ in physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (non-living, living, bio-inert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).
The geographic envelope has a vertical structure consisting of individual spheres. The lower tier is composed of dense material of the lithosphere, and the upper ones are represented by lighter material of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. This structure is the result of differentiation of matter with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth, and lighter matter along the periphery. The vertical differentiation of the geographical shell served as the basis for F.N. Milkov to identify the landscape sphere within it - a thin layer (up to 300 m), where contact and active interaction of the earth’s crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere occurs.
The geographical envelope in the horizontal direction is divided into separate natural complexes, which is determined by the uneven distribution of heat in different parts of the earth's surface and its heterogeneity. I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - aquatic. The geographical envelope is a natural complex of the highest planetary rank. On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and such natural formations as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazon Lowland, etc. The smallest natural-territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered physiographic region. It is a block of the earth's crust connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife. This block must be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and localities.
The geographic envelope has a unique spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical. This is the zone of the most active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens and then disappears altogether. This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographic shell - fuzzy. Therefore, researchers draw its upper and lower boundaries differently. The ozone layer, which lies at an altitude of 25-30 km, is often taken as the upper limit. This layer absorbs ultraviolet rays, so life is possible below it. However, some researchers draw the boundary of the shell lower - along the upper boundary of the troposphere, taking into account that the troposphere interacts most actively with the earth's surface. Therefore, it shows geographical zonality and zonality.
The zone of active transformation of mineral matter on land has a thickness of up to several hundred meters, and under the ocean only tens of meters. Sometimes the entire sedimentary layer of the lithosphere is referred to as the geographic shell.
Lithosphere(from the Greek λίθος - stone and σφαίρα - ball, sphere) - the hard shell of the Earth. It consists of the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle, up to the asthenosphere, where the velocities of seismic waves decrease, indicating a change in the plasticity of the rocks. In the structure of the lithosphere, mobile regions (folded belts) and relatively stable platforms are distinguished.
Lithosphere blocks - lithospheric plates- move along a relatively plastic asthenosphere. The section of geology, plate tectonics, is devoted to the study and description of these movements.
The lithosphere beneath oceans and continents varies considerably. The lithosphere beneath the continents consists of sedimentary, granite and basalt layers with a total thickness of up to 80 km. The lithosphere under the oceans has undergone many stages of partial melting as a result of the formation of the oceanic crust, it is greatly depleted in fusible rare elements, mainly consists of dunites and harzburgites, its thickness is 5-10 km, and the granite layer is completely absent.
Hydrosphere(from ancient Greek Yδωρ - water and σφαῖρα - ball) is the water shell of the Earth.
It forms an intermittent water shell. The average depth of the ocean is 3800 m, the maximum (Mariana Trench of the Pacific Ocean) is 11,022 meters. About 97% of the mass of the hydrosphere is made up of salty ocean waters, 2.2% is glacial waters, and the rest is groundwater, lake and river fresh waters. The total volume of water on the planet is about 1,532,000,000 cubic kilometers.
Atmosphere(from Greek ατμός - “steam” and σφαῖρα - “sphere”) - a gas shell of a celestial body held near it by gravity. Since there is no sharp boundary between the atmosphere and interplanetary space, the atmosphere is usually considered to be the region around a celestial body in which the gaseous medium rotates with it as a single whole. The depth of the atmosphere of some planets, consisting mainly of gases (gas planets), can be very deep. Biosphere(from ancient Greek βιος - life and σφαῖρα - sphere, ball) - the shell of the Earth populated by living organisms, under their influence and occupied by the products of their vital activity; “film of life”; global ecosystem of the Earth.
20 .Living and inanimate nature
The world around us, not created by man, is called nature. It is the main object of study of science. Most natural sciences deal with the study of inanimate objects. Wildlife studies biology (this term translated from Greek means the science of life). Biology is a whole complex of sciences about living nature (botany, bacteriology, zoology, anthropology).
Interest in the study of living nature arose in the primitive era and was associated with human needs for food, medicines, clothing, housing and so on. But only in more developed civilizations were people able to purposefully study living organisms, systematize and describe them. Although, according to various scientists, from 2 to 10 million species of living organisms live on Earth, less than 2 (about 1.9 million) have been discovered and described so far.
Objects of living nature include animals, plants, fungi, bacteria and viruses, as well as humans. Nature can exist without humans. Evidence of this - uninhabited islands and astronomical objects (Sun, Moon).
The world of inanimate nature is characterized by stability and low variability (if we talk about the scale of human life). A person is born, lives and dies, but the mountains remain the same as they were thousands of years ago, and as in the time of Aristotle, the planets still revolve around the Sun.
Inanimate nature is the entire set of objects that appeared without human assistance and consist of a field or matter.
These are air, planets, stones, water, etc.
Living organisms are distinguished from nonliving bodies by a more complex structure. To maintain life, living objects receive energy from the outside and, to one degree or another, use solar energy. In addition, they have the ability to actively move, overcome resistance and respond to their environment. For example, if you push an animal, it will attack or run away, unlike a stone, which will only move passively. All living things can breathe, grow, develop, reproduce and die. Although not all objects of living nature have all of the listed characteristics clearly expressed. For example, plants practically do not move and it is difficult to see with the naked eye how they breathe. And many animals in captivity lose the ability to reproduce. But, nevertheless, they have other signs of representatives of wildlife.
Signs of a living organism:
* The body grows and goes through certain stages in its development, usually changing shape and getting larger.
* They go inside the body life processes, in which alone chemicals turn into others.
* To grow, the body needs nutrients and in the energy that supports life processes.
* The organism reproduces, that is, reproduces its own kind.
Biosphere
The totality of all living organisms forms the living shell of the Earth, or the biosphere. It covers the upper part of the lithosphere ( hard shell Earth), the lower part of the atmosphere (gaseous shell) - the troposphere - and the entire hydrosphere (water shell).
In the biosphere, the vital activity of all living organisms associated with natural processes occurs. Living organisms are a gigantic force that transforms the appearance of the planet.
Green plants have formed the modern atmosphere of the planet and maintain the constancy of its composition. Plants connect us to the cosmos by using the sun's energy through photosynthesis and storing it in the form of chemical energy in organic matter.
Soil is formed from organic residues with the participation of microorganisms. Coal, flammable gases, peat, oil - all this is created by plants and other living organisms.
Factors of inanimate nature and life
For the development of life on our planet we need:
- Oxygen;
- Liquid water;
- Carbon dioxide;
- Sunlight;
- Mineral salts;
- Certain temperature conditions.
Life in different climates
Living organisms have adapted to different climatic conditions. Some bacteria even live in water that is used to cool nuclear reactors. The adaptations of plants are very diverse. Plants in arid regions have long roots. The leaves of the cacti have changed into spines, and they store water in the stem. Temperate climate plants shed their leaves in the winter. Marsh plants have a large evaporative surface.
21.
ATMOSPHERE, a shell of gas surrounding a celestial body. Its characteristics depend on size, weight, temperature, rotation speed and chemical composition of a given celestial body, and are also determined by the history of its formation starting from the moment of its inception. The Earth's atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases called air. Its main components are nitrogen and oxygen in a ratio of approximately 4:1
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, extending to the first thermal minimum (the so-called tropopause).
Stratosphere. The upper layer of the atmosphere is often mistakenly described as a layer with relatively constant temperatures, where winds blow more or less steadily and where meteorological elements change little
The mesosphere, located above the stratosphere, is a shell in which up to a height of 80–85 km the temperature drops to minimum indicators for the atmosphere in general.
The thermosphere is a layer of the atmosphere in which the temperature continuously rises.
The exosphere is the outer layer of the atmosphere, formed based on changes in temperature and the properties of the neutral gas.
Currently, the problem of the greenhouse effect is one of the most global environmental issues facing humanity. The essence of this phenomenon is that solar heat remains at the surface of our planet in the form of greenhouse gases. The main reason The greenhouse effect is the release of industrial gases into the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is created by carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons. All these gases are the result of human activity.
Fuel combustion, automobile emissions, forest fires, the operation of industrial enterprises and widespread industrialization are the causes of acid rain, air pollution, ozone layer depletion and its consequences, and climate warming.
On the other hand, a number of scientists believe that the greenhouse effect has always been inherent in the Earth. But at present its scale has acquired alarming proportions due to the shift in the planet’s orbit. The consequences of the greenhouse effect are much greater.
Increased evaporation of water in the oceans. Increased release of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide as a result of human industrial activity.
Rapid melting of glaciers, changes in climatic zones, which leads to a decrease in the reflectivity of the Earth's surface, glaciers and reservoirs.
Decomposition of water and methane compounds that are located near the poles.
Slowdown of currents, including the Gulf Stream, which can cause a sharp cooling in the Arctic. Disruption of the structure of the ecosystem, reduction in the area of tropical forests, disappearance of populations of many animals, expansion of the habitat of tropical microorganisms.
The role of the atmosphere in the geographical envelope
Throughout Earth's history, the atmosphere has played big role during the weathering process. This process involved atmospheric precipitation, which formed rivers that changed the earth's surface. No less important was the activity of the wind, which transported small fractions of rocks over long distances. Temperature fluctuations and other atmospheric factors significantly influenced the destruction of rocks. Along with this, the atmosphere protects the Earth's surface from the destructive effects of falling meteorites, most of which burn up when entering the dense layers of the atmosphere.
The water cycle in nature (hydrological cycle) is the process of cyclic movement of water in the earth's biosphere. Consists of evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
The seas are losing due to evaporation more water than they receive with precipitation, on land the situation is reversed. Water continuously circulates on the globe, while its total quantity remains unchanged.
Three quarters of the globe's surface is covered with water. The water layer of the Earth is called the hydrosphere. Most of it is salt water from seas and oceans, and a smaller part is fresh water from lakes, rivers, glaciers, groundwater and water vapor.
On earth, water exists in three states of aggregation: liquid, solid and gaseous. Without water, living organisms cannot exist. In any organism, water is the medium in which chemical reactions occur, without which living organisms cannot live. Water is the most valuable and essential substance for the life of living organisms.
The constant exchange of moisture between the hydrosphere, atmosphere and earth's surface, consisting of the processes of evaporation, movement of water vapor in the atmosphere, its condensation in the atmosphere, precipitation and runoff, is called the water cycle in nature. Atmospheric precipitation partially evaporates, partially forms temporary and permanent drains and reservoirs, and partially seeps into the ground and forms groundwater.
24. The physical and geographical position of Crimea as a whole differs in the following most characteristic features. Firstly, the location of the peninsula at 45° north latitude determines its equidistance from the equator and the North Pole, which is associated with a fairly large amount of incoming solar energy and a large number of hours of sunshine. Secondly, Crimea is almost an island. This is connected, on the one hand, large number endems (plant species that are not found anywhere except in a given area) and endemics (similar animal species); on the other hand, this explains the significant depletion of the Crimean fauna; In addition, the climate and other components of nature are significantly influenced by the marine environment. Thirdly, the position of the peninsula relative to the general circulation of the Earth’s atmosphere is especially important, leading to the predominance of westerly winds in Crimea. Crimea occupies a border position between the temperate and subtropical geographical zones. Administratively, the republic includes 14 administrative districts: Bakhchisarai district, Belogorsky district, Dzhankoy district, Kirovsky district, Krasnogvardeysky district, Krasnoperekopsky district, Leninsky district, Nizhnegorsky district, Pervomaisky district, Razdolnensky district, Saki district, Simferopol district, Sovetsky district, Chernomorsky district. 16 cities, including 11 cities of regional subordination, 56 urban-type settlements, 957 rural settlements. Administrative center - the city of Simferopol
The city of Sevastopol has the status of a separate administrative unit of Ukraine of republican subordination, but is an integral part of Crimea. State power in Crimea belongs to the Supreme Council, legislative government.. Supreme Court and local self-government bodies
25 . STATE STRUCTURE
The Autonomous Republic of Crimea is an integral part of Ukraine. It has a government - the Council of Ministers and a parliament - the Verkhovna Rada. The ARC has its own Constitution and its own symbols - the Coat of Arms, the Flag and the Anthem. The capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea is the city of Simferopol.
National flag Autonomous Republic of Crimea - a cloth consisting of three horizontally located colored stripes: the top - blue, constituting 1/6 of the flag’s width, the middle one is white, constituting 4/6 of the flag’s width, the bottom is red, constituting 1/6 of the flag’s width. The three stripes of the flag symbolize the main eras in the life of both the individual and the state. Red bottom stripe - heroic and tragic story Crimea, the top blue is the future, which we hope will be prosperous, the middle white is the present. This is a blank slate on which the history of Crimea is written today. White color includes all other colors and expresses the basic principles of Crimean statehood: equality of all cultures and peoples of the peninsula, the desire for civil peace. The large width of the middle strip expresses the idea of the special significance of what is being done today.
The state emblem of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea represents a silver griffin facing to the right in a scarlet Varangian shield, holding in its right paw an open silver shell with a blue pearl. The shield is topped by a rising sun and surrounded by two white columns connected by a blue, white and red ribbon with the motto: “Prosperity in Unity.” The symbolism of the coat of arms is based on the image of a griffin, traditional for Crimea, which came from the era of antiquity, which, being a unifying symbol, expresses the ideas of interpenetration of cultures, as well as the natural diversity of Crimea. A griffin holding a pearl in its paw is a symbol of Crimea, a unique corner of the planet, and is perceived as the guardian of the republic. The Varangian shield is a reminder of the crossroads of trade routes, the columns are symbols of past civilizations that left their mark on the peninsula.
On modern administrative map The Autonomous Republic of Crimea has 11 cities and 14 districts. In the republic, on an area of 26 thousand square meters. km as of the beginning of 2005, 1,994,300 people live. The average population density is about 100 people per 1 sq. km. The southern coastal and foothill areas are the most densely populated.
The Anthem of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Ukrainian: Hymn of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Crimean Catholicate: Qırım Muhtar Cumhuriyetiniñ Gimni) was approved by a resolution of the Supreme Council of the Republic on October 18, 2000.
Your fields and mountains are magical, Motherland,
Your sun and sea are healing, Motherland.
We will save this land
And we will leave Crimea blooming like a garden to our grandchildren,
Blooming like a garden, Crimea!
The dawns of freedom have warmed you, Motherland,
Brother-peoples praised you, Motherland.
We will save this land
And together, Crimeans, we will glorify Crimea for centuries,
Let us glorify Crimea for centuries!
Hail, Crimea!
The mineral resources of Crimea are closely related to the history of its geological development, and their distribution is closely related to the structure of the peninsula. Currently, the mineral resources available in Crimea are usually divided into three main groups: metal (ore), which are used for smelting metals; non-metallic (non-metallic), often used in their raw form (building stones, clays, sands, salts, etc.); combustibles (oil, natural gases, coal) (Fig. 9).
The depths of the Crimean peninsula contain industrial deposits of many minerals, but the most great value have iron ores, deposits of building and fluxing limestones, salt riches of Sivash and lakes, as well as gas deposits in the Crimean plain and in the Karkinitsky Bay.
The iron ores of the Kerch iron ore basin, which is part of the huge Azov-Black Sea iron ore province, were formed in the second half of the Neogene period, in the so-called Cimmerian Age, which began approximately 5 million years ago and lasted at least 1.5-2 million years. On the modern territory of ore deposits there was then a shallow Cimmerian Sea, or rather, the delta region of the paleo-Kuban, paleo-Don, paleo-Molochnaya and other rivers. The rivers brought here a large amount of dissolved iron, which they extracted (leached) from the rocks of the drainage area.
Non-metallic minerals
Among non-metallic minerals, various types of limestone are of great economic importance in Crimea, which are used as natural building materials, fluxes, and chemical raw materials. About 24% of Ukraine's building limestone reserves are concentrated in Crimea. They are developed in more than a hundred quarries, the total area of which is 13 thousand hectares (0.5 the area of the peninsula). Among building limestones, several varieties are distinguished primarily by physical and technical properties.
Marble-like limestones are used in road construction as concrete aggregates. Polished slabs of them are used for interior decoration of buildings, and multi-colored chips are used for mosaic products. Limestones often have a delicate reddish or creamy color with beautiful white calcite crack patterns. The original contours of mollusk shells and corals give them a special flavor. Of all the varieties of Crimean limestones, they are chemically the purest. Marble-like Upper Jurassic limestones stretch in an intermittent strip from Balaklava to Feodosia, forming the upper horizons Main ridge Crimean mountains. They are mined near Balaklava, the village of Gaspra, the village of Mramorny, as well as on Mount Agarmysh (near Old Crimea). Their extraction in resort areas violates the soil and water protection, sanitary, hygienic and aesthetic properties of landscapes.
Bryozoan limestones consist of the skeletons of the smallest colonial marine organisms - bryozoans, which lived here at the very end of the Cretaceous period. These limestones are known in Crimea under the name Inkerman, or Bodrak stone. They are easy to saw and are similar in strength to red brick. They are used for the manufacture of wall blocks, facing slabs, and architectural details. Most of the houses in Sevastopol, many buildings in Simferopol and others were built from them. populated areas Crimea and beyond.
Deposits of bryozoan limestone are concentrated in the Inner Ridge of the foothills in the area from the city of Inkerman to the Alma River.
Nummulite limestones consist of the shells of simple organisms (in Greek “nummulus” - coin) that lived in the sea during the Eocene epoch of the Paleogene period. Limestones are used as wall and rubble stones, as well as for burning lime. They form the ridge of the Inner Ridge of the Crimean Mountains along almost its entire length. They are mined mainly in the area of Simferopol and Belogorsk.
Shell limestones consist of cemented whole and crushed mollusk shells. They were formed in the coastal zones of the Sarmatian, Maeotic and Pontic seas, which existed on the site of the foothills and plains of Crimea in the Neogene period. These are light, porous (porosity up to 50%) rocks; they are suitable for producing small wall blocks. Yellow pontic shell rocks are mined in the area of Evpatoria, the village of Oktyabrsky and in many other places of the Crimean plain. At the same time, the land resources used are not always rationally spent and optimally reclaimed.
28. Relief is formed mainly as a result of long-term simultaneous effects on the earth's surface of endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) processes. Relief is studied by geomorphology. Erosion (from Latin erosio - erosion) is the destruction of rocks and soils by surface water flows and wind, including the separation and removal of fragments of material and accompanied by their deposition. Geographic landscape is a territory homogeneous in origin and development, with its specific characteristics natural resources.
I didn’t find anything about life in Crimea
It's complete nonsense
29. Based on the totality of meteorological elements in Crimea, three main types of climates can be distinguished: steppe temperate continental with hot dry summers and cool wet winters, mountain-forest weakly continental with warm, relatively humid summers and cool wet winters, southern coastal sub-Mediterranean weakly continental with hot dry summers and relatively warm , wet winter. There are many intermediate options between these types of climates. For example, in the Foothills (Simferopol, Zuya, Belogorsk) the climate is transitional from steppe to mountain-forest - it can be called foothill forest-steppe. In the lowland Crimea, the climate is steppe, moderate continental, dry: cool winter (average January temperature from -3 to 0 C) and hot summer (average July temperature from +21 to +23 C) Precipitation - 350 - 450 mm/year, most of it falls in the summer in the form of downpours. There are differences between the climates of the coastal areas (Black Sea, Evpatoria, Kerch) and the central parts of the peninsula (Krasnogvardeyskoye, Dzhankoy, Pervomaiskoye, etc.) in the coastal part there is higher relative air humidity, intensity of solar radiation, less cloudiness and amount of precipitation. This climate can be called coastal steppe. In the foothills (Simferopol, Belogorsk), the amount of precipitation increases to 500-600 mm/year, summer temperatures decrease. In the mountains, summer and winter temperatures decrease and the amount of precipitation increases. For every 100 m of altitude, the temperature drops by an average of 0.5...0.6 C, the amount of precipitation increases by 50-70 mm/year. Therefore, on the Yailas, the average monthly winter temperatures are up to -4...-5 C, and the amount of precipitation is 1000-1500 mm/year. The South Coast is of greatest interest in terms of climate. This is the only place in Ukraine with a sub-Mediterranean, in other words, almost Mediterranean climate. Winter here is mild, with positive temperatures.
Air temperature is one of the main indicators of the climate of a particular area. The warmest place in Crimea is the coastal strip of the Southern Coast (and on the Southern Coast the area of the Miskhor resort), the coldest is the peaks of the Yayl. The average annual air temperature here is 12-14° and 3.5-6°, respectively. On the southern coast of Crimea, starting from Miskhor, the air temperature decreases towards the east and west.
30
Based on the totality of meteorological elements in Crimea, three main types of climates can be distinguished:
steppe temperate continental with hot dry summers and cool wet winters,
mountain-forest low-continental with warm, relatively humid summers and cool, wet winters,
southern coastal sub-Mediterranean weakly continental with hot, dry summers and relatively warm, wet winters.
There are many intermediate options between these types of climates. For example, in the Foothills (Simferopol, Zuya, Belogorsk) the climate is transitional from steppe to mountain-forest - it can be called foothill forest-steppe.
In the lowland Crimea, the climate is steppe, moderate continental, dry: cool winter (average January temperature from -3 to 0 C) and hot summer (average July temperature from +21 to +23 C) Precipitation - 350 - 450 mm/year, and Most of them fall in the summer in the form of showers.
There are differences between the climates of the coastal territories (Chernomorskoye, Evpatoria, Kerch) and the central part of the peninsula (Krasnogvardeyskoye, Dzhankoy, Pervomaiskoye, etc.) in the coastal part, relative air humidity, intensity of solar radiation, less cloudiness and amount of precipitation are higher. This climate can be called coastal steppe .mm
Dangerous climate phenomena.
Storms
Strong winds or storms (more than 15 m/s) occur an uneven number of times in different regions of Crimea. During the year, in the foothills they usually last 10-17 days, on the southern coast - 20-24, on the west coast - up to 40, in the central steppe regions - 12-28, and on the peaks - 80-85 days.
Hurricanes
Hurricanes (winds over 34 m/s) are menacing natural phenomena. In Crimea, they usually occur during long storm winds in the north-east direction, less often during south-west storms. Such winds uproot trees, tear off poorly reinforced roofs, break power lines, etc.
Dust storms
Dust storms sometimes occur in the steppe Crimea. They occur during dry and windy weather in almost all months of the year. They worsen the sanitary and hygienic situation in populated areas, damage crops, carry away the upper part of the arable horizon from the fields and fill gardens, vineyards, forest belts, etc. with fine earth.
31
. Surface water
A relatively small amount of precipitation, a long dry summer, and the spread of karst rocks in the mountains have caused the Crimea to be poor in surface water. Due to the unequal conditions for the formation and distribution of surface waters, Crimea is divided into two parts: flat steppe with a very small number of surface watercourses and mountain forest with a relatively dense river network. Almost all the rivers of the peninsula originate here. There are no rivers only on the flat surfaces of the land. The flow of most rivers in Crimea is regulated by the creation of reservoirs, the waters of which are used for irrigation and water supply.
There are no large fresh lakes in Crimea. In the coastal strip of the Crimean plain there are about 50 estuary lakes total area 5.3 thousand km². As a result of the sea filling the widened mouths of ravines and rivers, estuaries were first formed. Subsequently, they were separated from the sea by bars and spits and turned into estuary lakes.
In Crimea there are 1657 rivers and temporary watercourses with a total length of 5996 km. Of these, about 150 are rivers. These are mainly dwarf rivers up to 10 km in length. Only the Salgiri River is more than 200 km long. The river network is developed extremely unevenly on the peninsula. Depending on the direction of surface water flow, it is customary to divide the rivers of Crimea into three groups: rivers on the northwestern slopes of the Crimean Mountains, rivers on the southern coast of Crimea, and rivers on the northern slopes of the Crimean Mountains.
Rivers of the northwestern slopes of the Crimean Mountains
All rivers on the northwestern slopes of the Crimean Mountains flow almost parallel to each other. Until about the middle of their course, they look like typical mountain streams. In places where the limestone rocks of the Inner and Outer cuesta ridges of the foothills break through, they form canyon-like gorges. Their main feeding area is located on the limestone slopes of the Main Mountain Range at altitudes of 1300 - 1400m. The most large rivers of this group - Alma, Kacha, Belbek and Chernaya.
Alma is the longest Crimean river after Salgir (Table 2.5). The river valley in the middle, lower reaches has long been famous for its orchards. The source of the river is in the Central Basin on the territory of the Crimean Mountain Reserve.
The Partizanskoye and Alminskoye reservoirs were created on Alma.
Kacha is shorter, but deeper than Alma. It is formed from the confluence of the rivers Biyuk-Uzen and Pisara. The forested catchments of these rivers are one of the most beautiful corners of the mountainous Crimea. The Zagorsk and Bakhchisarai reservoirs were built on Kach.
Belbek is the most abundant river in Crimea. It is formed from the confluence of two rivers - Biyuk-Uzen-Basha and Managotra. Below, the Kokkozka tributary flows into Belbek on the left, which in turn is formed from the confluence of the rivers Sary-Uzen and Auzun-Uzen, originating in the picturesque Grand Canyon of Crimea. In the upper reaches of Belbek a large hydraulic structure. On the tributary of Managotra, the Schastlivensky reservoir was built, the water of which, together with the waters of Kuchuk-Uzen-Basha and Biyuk-Uzenbasha intercepted by special structures, is directed to a tunnel (more than seven kilometers long) made on the South Coast at the base of the Yalta mountain range.
Chernaya is the second river in Crimea in terms of water flow after Belbek (Table 2.5). It begins in the Baydar Valley, where many turbulent rivers run down from the surrounding mountains. In the center Baydar Valley There is a large Chernorechenskoe reservoir. Below the Chernaya River flows in an amazingly beautiful canyon about 16 km long. Having burst out of it, the river forms the wide Inkerman valley, the lower reaches of which are flooded by the sea. Here two large tributaries flow into the Chernaya - Ai-Todorka and Sukhaya River.
Rivers of the Southern Coast of Crimea
The rivers of the southern coast of Crimea are short, have very steep channel slopes, and are violent during floods with relatively low water flows (Table 2.5). In the west, in addition to the usually dry ravines and the Khastabash stream, the largest is the Uchan-Su River.
Wuchang-Su (Waterfall), rapidly running down to the sea, forms waterfalls in four places. The uppermost and largest of them is Uchan-Su (Flying Water). The river water, directed through pipes, feeds the Mogabinskoye reservoir (volume 300 thousand m³).
Derekoyka (Bystraya) is the most abundant river in the South Coast. It cuts through the Yaila limestones into the picturesque Uch-Kosh gorge, visible from Yalta. Within the city it is called Derekoyka.
Ulu-Uzen is formed from the rivers Sofu-Uzen, originating on the southern slope of Chatyrdag, and Uzen-Bash, flowing from Babugan-yayla. Uzen-Bash in the picturesque Yaman-Dere gorge falls into a cascade of waterfalls. The largest of them is called Golovkinsky waterfall. The Izobilnenskoe reservoir was created on Ulu-Uzen in the Alushta region.
Demerdzhi is one of the low-water rivers of the South Coast. The main food comes from sources in the southeastern part of Chatyrdag and the western part of the Demerdzhi massif.
Eastern Ulu-Uzen begins in the deep Khapkhal gorge, cut into the Tyrke massif. The river flows into the Black Sea near the village of Solnechnogorskoye. The river bed in the upper reaches descends in huge steps formed by strong carbonate sandstones, which are interspersed with thin layers of clayey shale. The relatively powerful waterfall Dzhur-Dzhur (Noisy) is especially picturesque here. The water, rushing in a stream from a height of almost 15 m, crashes with a roar at the foot of the limestone ledge.
In addition to the rivers listed, there are many smaller rivers within the South Coast: At-Bash, Abunda, Uskut, Shelen, Voron, etc. Most of them are very similar to those described above. The main features of the rivers Uskut, Shelen, Vorona and its tributary Ai-Serez are that in the past they were relatively often subject to mudflows, which caused enormous damage to the economy. The danger of their collapse continues even now.
Rivers of the northern slopes of the Crimean Mountains
The rivers of the northern slopes of the Crimean mountains differ from the rivers of other groups in that outside the mountains they deviate to the east and flow into the Sivash lagoon Sea of Azov. In the upper reaches of the river there is always water, and within the plains in summer the riverbeds are often dry.
Salgir is the longest river in Crimea (Table 2.5). Together with the Biyuk-Karasu tributary, it represents the largest water system in Crimea. The upper reaches of the Salgir are formed from the confluence of the Angara and Kizil-Koba rivers. Angara originates on the slopes of Chatyrdag near the Angara Pass, and Kizil-Koba - from the famous Red Caves (Kizil-Koba). Near the village of Zarechnoye, a large tributary, the Ayan, flows into the Salgir. In front of the administrative center of Crimea, Salgir fills the large Simferopol reservoir, built in 1951 -1955. Before its construction in the city, destructive floods often swept through the Salgir valley. Within the city limits, the Small Salgir flows into the Salgir on the right. Below Simferopol, the river receives right tributaries - the rivers Beshterek, Zuya, Burulcha, and 27 km from Sivash - Biyuk-Karasu. The Taiganskoye and Belogorskoye reservoirs were built on Biyuk-Karasu (Table 2.6).
Wet Indol (Su-Indol) begins in the eastern part of the mountainous Crimea, where there are no powerful karst springs. On the right, near the village of Grushevka, the Sala tributary flows into the river. However, Indole remains low in water.
Chorokh-Su (Churuk-Su) is almost completely a steppe river. Its source is formed by the Starokrymskaya and Monastyrskaya gully. The river is partly fed by the karst waters of the Agarmysh massif. The Staro-Crimean Reservoir was built on it.
What many rivers in the mountainous Crimea have in common is their danger of mudflows due primarily to deforestation in the past and the plowing of the slopes of their catchment areas.
Beams of the plain Crimea
The gullies of the Crimean plain are formed by melt and storm water briefly rushing through them. The largest of them look like real river valleys and therefore they are often called dry rivers.
Chatyrlyk is the main dry river of Crimea; in length it is second only to Salgir. Water from the entire central part of the Crimean plain flows through an extensive network of its “tributaries” - side gullies. Now dams have been built at the mouth of the dry river. Fish are bred in the created ponds with an area of over 2000 hectares.
The densest network of gullies and dry rivers is on the Tarkhankutskaya elevated plain. The deepest is the Great Castel, in the far west of the peninsula. In 1969 it was declared a natural monument.
A number of dry rivers and gullies flow into the Sivash: Pobednaya, Mironovskaya, Istochnaya, Stalnaya, Zelenaya, etc.
33 . Groundwater of Crimea 02-04-2009
The Crimean peninsula is poor in fresh groundwater. The conditions for their distribution and formation are determined mainly by climatic and geological factors. The maximum depth of groundwater, reaching 60-75 m, was noted in the central part of the Tarkhankut Peninsula.
Within the Prisivashskaya lowland, groundwater is drained only by the Perekop lakes and the Chatyrlyk gully. In the rest of the territory, groundwater is discharged through evaporation. On the Tarkhankut Peninsula, groundwater is discharged from sources on the coasts of the sea and lakes. Here and on the coast of Sivash, in some places there is significant mineralization of groundwater by sea water. In the Sivash region, groundwater mineralization reaches 60-90 g/l in some areas.
According to the conditions of distribution and formation of groundwater, the Kerch Peninsula is divided into two parts: southwestern and northeastern. In the southwestern part, groundwater is confined to sandy layers in the upper part of the Paleogene clay sequence. Due to the weak water permeability of clays, this area is practically devoid of exploitable groundwater reserves.
The northeastern part of the peninsula is a series of isolated small artesian basins confined to individual synclines. Groundwater recharge of the Neogene deposits developed here occurs on the wings of synclines ( local areas food) and within the Parpach ridge.
36.Vegetation cover of Crimea
The vegetation cover in Crimea is diverse, its flora is rich. About 2,300 species grow on the peninsula, of which more than 1,700 species grow on the South Coast and partly in the overlying plant belts of the southern slope of the Main Mountain Range. Crimea is the only one in Ukraine and one of eight European regions recognized by the “International Union for Conservation of Nature, World Center for Plant Uniformity”
The plain Crimea and the Kerch Peninsula are characterized by grassy steppe vegetation. Its nature changes depending on changes in topography, climate and soils. On the low-lying coast of Sivash, Karkinitsky Bay and in the southwestern part of the Kerch Peninsula, salt-tolerant vegetation is widespread: various saltworts, various cereals.
The hills of the Tarkhankut Peninsula and the northeastern part of the Kerch Peninsula, composed of limestone, are occupied by rocky steppe, in which fescue, coastal brome, Caucasian wormwood, thyme, and white Dubrovnik grow. Closer to the foothills there is a mixed-herb shrub steppe, which is characterized by shrubs: thyme, or thyme, Tauride savory.
The territory of the steppe Crimea is almost completely plowed and developed for grain (wheat, barley, corn, oats), industrial crops (sunflower, essential oil plants), and in irrigated areas for vegetables. Large areas occupied by young vineyards and orchards. IN recent years rice began to be grown here.
The foothills are occupied by forest-steppe with a mosaic alternation of treeless and forested areas. The forest of the foothills is low-growing, sparse, formed by oak, field maple, ash, elm with hazel and dogwood in the undergrowth. The most common shrubs are mackerel, hawthorn, blackthorn, rose hip, buckthorn and others. Treeless areas in their natural state characterized by grassy grass-forb steppe vegetation of feather grass, fescue, wheatgrass, wheatgrass, saffron, sage and other species. The Yaila highlands are, as a rule, treeless and occupied by grassy meadow-steppe vegetation.
Drought-resistant trees and shrubs, as well as dry-loving herbs and subshrubs, grow on the southern coast of Crimea. Low-growing and sparse forests are formed by fluffy oak and tree-like juniper. The parks, especially in the western part of the South Bank, contain cypresses, cedars, spruces, pines, sequoias, fir, magnolias, palms, laurel, cork oak, sycamore and others.
Large areas on the southern coast of Crimea are occupied by vineyards, orchards, and tobacco plantations.
The southern slope of the Main Ridge above the oak-juniper forest of the Southern Bank is occupied by a forest of Crimean pine; its distribution east of Gurzuf is already island in nature, and east of Alushta the pine forest is replaced by a forest of fluffy oak, hornbeam, tree juniper, dogwood
The earth includes several concentric shells. Geographical envelope is called a special shell of the Earth where the upper part of the lithosphere touches and interacts, bottom part atmosphere and hydrosphere, within the boundaries of which living organisms develop. As already noted, Of the planets of the solar system, the geographical envelope is characteristic only of the Earth.
The exact boundaries of the geographical envelope are not precisely defined. It is generally accepted that it extends upward to the “ozone screen”, that is, to a height of 25 km. The hydrosphere is included in the entire geographical envelope, and the lithosphere is included only in its upper layers, to a depth of several kilometers. Thus, within its boundaries, the geographical envelope almost coincides with the biosphere.
The specific features of the geographical envelope are great variety material composition and types of energy, the presence of life, the existence of human society.
The existence and development of the geographical envelope is associated with a number of patterns, the main of which are integrity, rhythm And zoning.
Integrity of the geographical envelope is caused by the mutual penetration of its components into each other. Changing one of them leads to changes in the others. An example is the Quaternary glaciations. The cooling of the climate led to the formation of thick layers of snow and ice that covered the northern parts of Eurasia and North America. As a result of glaciation, new forms of relief arose, soils, vegetation, and fauna changed.
Manifestation integrity of the geographical envelope is a system of gyres. All shells of the Earth are covered by a large water cycle. In the process of biological cycle, green plants convert the energy of the Sun into the energy of chemical bonds. From inorganic substances ( CO2 And H2O) organic (starch) are formed. Animals, not having this ability, use ready-made organic substances by eating plants or other animals. Microorganisms break down the organic matter of dead plants and animals into simple compounds. They will be used again by plants.
The recurrence of certain natural phenomena over time is called rhythmicity. There are rhythms of different durations. The most obvious daily allowance And seasonal rhythm. The daily rhythm is determined by the movement of the Earth around its axis, the seasonal rhythm is determined by the orbital movement. In addition to daily and annual rhythms, longer rhythms also occur, or cycles. Thus, in Neogene-Quaternary times, glacial and interglacial periods repeatedly succeeded each other. There are several cycles of mountain-building processes in the history of the Earth.
Zoning- one of the main laws of geographies 
physical shell. It manifests itself in an orderly pattern of natural components as it moves from the poles to the equator. Zoning is based on the unequal amount of solar heat and light received different areas earth's surface. Many components of nature are subject to zonation: climate, land waters, small forms of relief formed by the action of external forces, soils, vegetation, and fauna. The manifestations of the Earth's external forces, the peculiarities of the movement and structure of the earth's crust and the associated placement of large relief forms do not obey the law of zonality.
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- this is a complex shell of the globe, where they touch and mutually penetrate and interact with each other, and. the shell within its boundaries almost coincides with the biosphere.
The mutual penetration into each other of the gas, water, living and living shells that make up the geographical shell of the Earth and their interaction determines the integrity of the geographical shell. There is a continuous circulation and exchange of substances and energy in it. Each shell of the Earth, developing according to its own laws, experiences the influence of other shells and, in turn, exerts its own influence on them.
The influence of the biosphere on the atmosphere is associated with photosynthesis, which results in intensive gas exchange between them and the regulation of gases in the atmosphere. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into it, which is necessary for breathing for all living beings. Thanks to the atmosphere, the Earth's surface does not overheat during the day sun rays and does not cool down too much at night, which creates conditions for the existence of living individuals. The biosphere also influences the hydrosphere, since organisms have a significant impact on. They take from the water the substances they need, especially calcium, to build skeletons, shells, and shells. The hydrosphere is a living environment for many creatures, and water is essential for many life processes of plants and animals. The impact of organisms is especially noticeable in its upper part. The remains of dead plants and animals accumulate in it, forming organic origin. Organisms participate not only in the formation of rocks, but also in their destruction - in: They secrete acids that act on rocks, destroying them with roots penetrating into cracks. Dense, hard rocks turn into loose sedimentary (gravel, pebbles).
Conditions for education are being prepared. Rocks appeared in the lithosphere and began to be used by humans. Knowledge of the law of the integrity of the geographical shell is of great practical importance. If economic activity a person does not take it into account, it often leads to undesirable consequences.
A change in one of the geographic shells affects all others. An example is the era of the great glaciation in.
The increase in land surface led to the onset of colder weather, which led to the formation of thick snow and ice that covered vast areas in the north and, and this in turn led to changes in the flora and fauna and to changes in soils.
The modern geographical envelope is the result of it long-term development, during which it continuously became more complex. Scientists distinguish 3 stages of its development.
Stage I lasted 3 billion years and was called prebiogenic. During it, only the simplest organisms existed. They took little part in its development and formation. The atmosphere at this stage was characterized by a low content of free oxygen and a high content of carbon dioxide.
Stage II lasted about 570 million years. It was characterized by the leading role of living beings in the development and formation of the geographical envelope. Living beings had a huge influence on all its components. Rocks of organic origin accumulated, the composition of water and the atmosphere changed, where the oxygen content increased, as photosynthesis occurred in green plants, and the carbon dioxide content decreased. At the end of this stage a man appeared.
Stage III- modern. It began 40 thousand years ago and is characterized by the fact that man begins to actively influence different parts of the geographical envelope. Therefore, it depends on man whether it will exist at all, since man on Earth cannot live and develop in isolation from it.
In addition to integrity, the general patterns of the geographical shell include its rhythm, that is, the periodicity and repetition of the same phenomena, and.
Geographical zoning manifests itself in a certain shift from the poles. Zoning is based on the different supply of heat and light to the earth's surface, and they are already reflected on all other components, and above all soils and the animal world.
Zoning can be vertical and latitudinal.
Vertical zoning- a natural change in natural complexes both in height and in depth. For mountains, the main reason for this zonation is the change in the amount of moisture with height, and for the depths of the ocean - heat and sunlight. The concept of “vertical zoning” is much broader than “,” which is valid only in relation to land. In latitudinal zonality, the largest division of the geographical envelope is distinguished -. It is characterized by common temperature conditions. The next step in dividing the geographic envelope is the geographic zone. It is distinguished within a geographical zone not only by the common temperature conditions, but also by moisture, which leads to common vegetation, soils and fauna. Within geographic areas (or natural areas) highlight transition regions. They are formed due to gradual changes
