Theory of influence, gravity.

Passed law Universal gravity does not reflect the essence of the attraction of bodies. This law interprets that all bodies (mass) are attracted to each other with a certain force. IN real world this is not so, there are bodies that attract, repel, or are not affected by the force of gravity. A few examples. Photon is a material particle, according to the law universal gravity a stream of photons emanating from distant sources should turn into a single mass over millions of years of its journey, but this does not happen, i.e. the law does not work. Pieces of the skin of spacecraft and interplanetary stations are not attracted to the body, again the law does not work. Neutrinos and some other elementary particles do not perceive gravity, the law again does not work. We can give many more examples where the law of universal gravitation does not work. The conclusion is that this is the truth or our worldview on the phenomenon of gravity is misinterpreted. Does a gravitational field actually exist or not. This theory answers this question. In the title of the article, I indicated that there are no fields, but there is a local area in which certain forces act. Famous formula expressing the dependence of the force of attraction of masses is correct from the point of view of mathematics, because mathematics operates with numbers without their dimension, from a physical point of view it is absurd. The process of multiplying one mass by another has no physical meaning, it’s like multiplying the mass of a hedgehog by the mass of a snake and getting barbed wire. Physicists have found a way out here, they introduce a coefficient, give it a certain dimension, then according to the rules of mathematics the excess dimension is reduced, i.e. the answer is being adjusted. Similar things are observed in other physical formulas. Any material particle has a certain activity coefficient in relation to other particles (mass). If in this formula, for each mass, we introduce the coefficient activity then at or =0 force F=0, i.e. these masses are not attracted to each other, which is not consistent with the law of universal gravitation (neutrino particles, photons and some others are not affected by the “gravitational field”). Einstein's statement about the influence of the "gravitational field" of the Sun when photons pass through the gaseous shell of the Sun is not true. This is ordinary optical phenomenon- refraction of the path of rays, it is described in detail in physics textbooks. Many people know that warm air, smoke, balloons, etc. rise up, ships float. It is believed that warm air and smoke are lighter than air, which is why it rises, but what does lighter mean, what is the essence of the phenomenon, there is no answer. Here it appears general pattern, valid for liquid and gaseous media, if the specific density of the swept volume (ship, balloon, a local area of ​​warm air) is less than the specific density of the displaced volume of the environment, then this body will be squeezed out of the environment in the opposite direction of the attractive forces under the influence of centrifugal force. Why not the law of Archimedes, who noticed this pattern. When material particles move in space, a spherical turbulent wake is formed, where the density of denium matter is much less than in the surrounding space. This area begins to fill with denim, dragging larger particles with it.

The phenomenon in which an object moves under the influence of dens to an area of ​​lower density is called Denial.

In order to create mass attraction (gravity), it is necessary to have a source that creates a directed flow of denium matter. This figure conventionally shows a part of the sphere of the source (shell) of influence, which has its own axis of rotation and creates a movement of denium matter directed towards the center of the system. The material body is in the flow of denium matter. Part of the flow passes through the body, the other part goes around the surface. At the top point the number of dens is greater than at the bottom (area A), i.e. a difference density of denium matter appears and a resultant effect occurs that moves it in the direction of movement of the denium matter. If this body is located on the surface of the source, then it experiences the resulting effect of the flow of denium matter. We call this quantity body weight. The weight of a body depends on the density coefficient of a given mass and on the flow characteristics of denium matter. By the way, it is necessary to decide in what units to measure body weight, because nowadays it is customary to measure weight and mass in the same units. After some time, a person will begin to explore other planets, where the weight and mass will differ in size, because Mass is a measure of quantity, and weight is force. The magnitude of attraction at various distances from the surface of the source creating the flow of denium matter depends on the curvature of the source surface and the characteristics of the flow of denium matter. I considered the option when the specific density of the body mass is greater than the specific density of the denium matter displaced by it. In this case, the body moves in the direction of the flow of matter, or this is what we call gravity. Is the movement of a body under the influence of air or liquid flows different in the essence of the process, think for yourself. In all movements, the resulting force is created by the flow of matter, be it gaseous, liquid or denium matter, but we continue to come up with a name for the same phenomenon in all its manifestations. There is only one language of physics - this is the LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS. Let's consider another example, when the specific density of the swept volume of a material body is less than the specific density of the denium matter displaced by it. When you find given body in a flow of denium matter created by a spherical source, the density of matter varies in height, in lower area(region A) the density is greater than in the upper region and, based on the phenomenon of density, the body moves upward; in terrestrial conditions, the resulting force is centrifugal (for example, a balloon, warm air, etc.). The next option is equality specific gravity body weight and denium matter. In this case, the force of impact and resistance are equal. The body is in equilibrium at a given point in space (in the absence of additional forces). This phenomenon is called weightlessness.

The impact is of a contact (mechanical) nature, in which the characteristics of the particles involved change.

Gravity - there is an impact of the denium flow of matter on material bodies. The weight of a body is the magnitude of the impact of the denium flow of matter, depending on the speed, direction and density of the denium flow of matter, as well as on the value of the mass density coefficient of a given body.

Currently, there is a debate about “dark, light or some other color of energy”, energy is one - it isENERGY OF DENIUM FLOW OF MATTER, it is also called cosmic energy.

Professor Erik Verlinde from the University of Amsterdam developed new hypothesis gravity. The scientist recently published his findings in several scientific publications. He proposed the main part of the hypothesis back in 2010. Its main message is that gravity is not a fundamental force of nature; rather, it is a random phenomenon.

According to Verlinde, gravity results from changes in the master bits of information stored in the very structure of space and time. He argues that gravity is explained by a certain difference in entropy density in the space between two bodies and in the surrounding space. Thus, he explains the attraction of two macroscopic bodies by an increase in total entropy with a decrease in the distance between the bodies. In other words, the system simply moves into a more probable macrostate.

In his 2010 paper, the scientist showed how Newton's second law can explain apples falling from a tree or a stable orbit artificial satellite The Earth may be a particular manifestation of the interaction of these elementary blocks of matter. “Newton's laws don't work at the micro level, but they work at the level of apples and planets. You can compare this to gas pressure. Gas molecules themselves do not create any pressure, but a certain volume of gas does,” the scientist said in 2010. According to Verlinde, the behavior of stars in galaxies, which, according to many scientists, are not consistent with generally accepted ideas about space-time, can be explained without introducing an additional factor like dark matter.

Dark matter in astronomy and cosmology, as well as in theoretical physics, is a hypothetical form of matter that does not emit electromagnetic radiation and does not directly interact with it. This property of this form of matter makes its direct observation impossible. The conclusion about the existence of dark matter was made on the basis of numerous, consistent with each other, but indirect signs of the behavior of astrophysical objects and the gravitational effects they create. Finding out the nature of dark matter will help solve the problem of hidden mass, which, in particular, lies in the anomalously high speed of rotation of the outer regions of galaxies.

The fact is that the outer regions of galaxies rotate much faster around their center than they should. Scientists have long ago calculated the rotation speed of galaxies if stars, planets, nebulae, that is, visible matter, is all the matter that exists in the Universe. In fact, something is greatly enhancing gravity, which is why the outer regions of the galaxy are spinning faster than they should. To designate this “something,” scientists have suggested the possibility of the existence of invisible matter, which, nevertheless, has a significant impact on all objects in the visible part of the Universe. Moreover, according to calculations, there should be several times more dark matter than ordinary matter. More precisely, it is believed that 80% of the matter in our visible part of the Universe is dark matter.

The first to conduct accurate and reliable calculations that indicated the existence of dark matter were astronomers Vera Rubin of the Carnegie Institution and Kent Ford. The measurement results showed that most stars in spiral galaxies move in orbit at approximately the same angular velocity, which leads to the idea that the mass density in galaxies is the same for those regions where the majority of stars are located and for those regions (at the edge of the disk) where there are few stars.

Despite the fact that the existence of dark matter is accepted by most scientists, there is no direct evidence of its existence. All this evidence is circumstantial.

According to Erik Verlinde, everything can be explained without adding modern model existence of the universe mysterious matter, which cannot be detected. Verlinde says his hypothesis has been tested and accurately predicts the rate of rotation of stars around the center of our galaxy, as well as the rate of rotation of the outer regions of other galaxies around a common center.

“The new vision of the theory of gravity is consistent with the observations of scientists. "By and large, gravity simply doesn't behave as well on large scales as Einstein's theory predicts," Verlinde said.

At first glance, the basic principles of Verlinde's hypothesis are similar to those of other hypotheses, including MOND (modified Newtonian Dynamics). But in fact this is not so: MOND simply modifies the generally accepted theory using its principles and provisions. But the Dutch hypothesis works with new principles, the starting point is different.

The hypothesis found a place for the holographic principle formulated by Verlinde's teacher Gerard 't Hooft (received in 1999 Nobel Prize) and scientist Leonard Susskind (Stanford University). According to this principle, all information in the Universe can be described as a giant imaginary sphere around it. The theory at the boundaries of the region of space under study must contain at most one degree of freedom per Planck area. Verlinde argues that this theory does not take into account the fact that some of the information in our universe is not just a projection, it is very real.

And this one additional information This is precisely the reason for the faster rotation of the outer regions of galaxies compared to calculated values. Real information in our Universe can explain one more additional factor- dark energy, which is now generally believed to be main reason non-stop expansion of the Universe. Moreover, as Nobel laureates Saul Perlmutter, Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess showed in 1998, the rate of expansion of the Universe is not constant, as previously thought, this rate is constantly increasing. The generally accepted theory is that dark energy accounts for about 70% of the contents of the Universe, and scientists are trying to find traces of it in the microwave background radiation.

The professor claims that many physicists are now working on revising the theory of gravity, and some progress in this area has already been made. According to the Dutchman, science is on the verge of a revolution that can change people's ideas about the nature of space, time and gravity.

At the same time, many physicists continue to believe that dark energy and matter are real. Thus, Sesandri Nadathur from the University of Portsmouth (UK) published their work last month in

Gravity [From crystal spheres to wormholes] Petrov Alexander Nikolaevich

Newton's theory of gravity

Newton's theory of gravity

Now let us turn directly to the history of the creation of the theory of gravity. Leaving aside the question of the nature of gravity, we note that from a “practical” point of view (for calculating movements celestial bodies) it was important to know how the strength of gravitational interaction between bodies depends on the distance between them.

In 1684, the English astronomer and physicist Edmund Halley (1656–1742), holding the position of Astronomer Royal, after much reflection, came to the conclusion that the force of gravity varies inversely with the square of the distance. This assumption seemed quite reasonable. Indeed, if a certain influence spreads symmetrically from the source in all directions, then the area “covered” by this influence increases as the square of the distance from the center. It is therefore likely that the effectiveness of this force should decrease in proportion to this area, that is, it should be inversely proportional to the square of the distance. However, Halley and his colleagues were unable to prove mathematically that such a law of attraction implies the movement of planets in elliptical orbits.

In August of the same 1684, Halley went to Cambridge for consultations with mathematics professor Isaac Newton. Halley's question was: “What trajectory should a planet follow under the influence of a force that varies inversely with the square of the distance from the Sun?” To Halley's amazement, Newton immediately replied that such a trajectory was an ellipse. The fact is that Newton began studying the problems of gravitation back in 1665, and already received a solution. He sent his calculations to Halley a few months later and, with his approval, published the results in the book “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.” Let us repeat, among the fundamental scientific works In the history of world science, this book is one of the most significant.

The meeting with Halley revived Newton's interest in the problems of gravity and planetary motion. Let's return to the legend of the falling apple and discuss it. If this did not really happen, then such a legend could not help but arise. Essentially, the question is asked: Is the same force that keeps the Moon in its orbit around the Earth causing the apple to fall? The legend represents a breakthrough in scientific understanding gravity, connects the “low” idea of ​​gravity, the manifestations of which we perceive every day, and the “high” idea, thanks to which the stars move and the entire Universe is controlled.

Newton established that a body moving uniformly in a circle actually moves with acceleration (centripetal) caused by a constant force directed towards the center of the circle: a tss = v 2 /R. Kepler's third law establishes a connection between the periods of revolution of planets around the Sun and their distances from it. Applying this relation to circular motion, Newton easily found the speed of linear motion: v ~ 1/R 1/2 .

Then the force corresponding to the centripetal acceleration and holding the planets in orbits (albeit circular for now) should have the form: F ~ 1/R 2, that is, it should be inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the planet to the Sun. Then Newton decided to find out whether the same force controls the movement of the Moon in orbit and the fall of an apple on the surface of the Earth.

Intuitively, Newton understood that what was important was the distance from the center of the Earth, and not from its surface, although he was able to prove this assumption much later. Knowing the period of revolution of the Moon around the Earth, it was not difficult to calculate using Kepler’s third law that centripetal acceleration Moons towards Earth as shown above a tss ~ 1/ R 2. The acceleration of falling bodies near the Earth's surface was well known from experiments. And since the Moon is 60 times farther from the center of the Earth than the apple on its surface, then the acceleration for the apple should be 60? 60 = 3600 times more. The number 60 is very good for comparison in in this case. Using the laws of accelerated motion, it is easy to calculate that in one second an apple must fly to the center of the Earth the distance that the Moon travels in only one minute. Having made calculations, Newton found that they agreed with observations with an accuracy of ~ 1% and came to the firm conviction that the movement of the planets, the Moon and all bodies falling on the earth is indeed controlled by the same force - gravity.

Newton's successes as a physicist would have been impossible if he had not developed the necessary mathematical apparatus, as we have already discussed. This was actually a completely new area of ​​mathematics - mathematical analysis. With its help, Newton showed that the elliptical shape of orbits is due to motion under the influence of a force directed towards one of the foci of the ellipse, the magnitude of which is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from it. However, only in 1685, using the apparatus of mathematical analysis he created, Newton was able to prove that the gravitational attraction of the Earth can be considered as if all its mass were concentrated in the center. This fact was fundamental; it allowed Newton to justify the previously used method of comparing the accelerations of the Moon and an apple.

With the help of his laws of mechanics, Newton convincingly proved that there is no division into bodies that attract and bodies that attract. All gravitating bodies mutually attract, that is, the laws of gravity have a universal meaning.

Let us briefly repeat his conclusion. At the surface of the Earth, all bodies fall with the same acceleration g regardless of their mass (weight), and the force acting on a body on the surface of the Earth is proportional to its mass (weight), therefore F = mg. Further, according to the third law of mechanics, if a body of mass m from another body of mass M some force acts, then a body of mass m acts on a body of mass M with exactly the same, but oppositely directed force. Let's say that not only the Earth attracts the Moon, but the Moon also attracts the Earth. Consequently, the force of mutual attraction between two bodies must be proportional to each of the masses. The fact that this force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies has already been established. Therefore, the force of mutual attraction between two masses m And M, distant at a distance r from each other, is determined by the expression:

which is the formulation of the law of universal gravitation; Here G is a coefficient of proportionality called the constant of universal gravitation. Magnitude G shows how strong the gravitational interaction is. This is one of the fundamental world constants, numbers whose values ​​determine the behavior of the Universe as a whole and its individual parts.

The concept of “mass”, included in Newton’s second law, has the meaning of inertial mass - a measure of the resistance of a body to any change in the state of its motion. From Newton's second law it follows that if the same force is applied to two bodies with different masses, then the less massive body acquires greater acceleration than the body with more mass. But the concept of “mass” in the law of universal gravitation has a different meaning - it is “gravitating mass”, or a measure of what can conventionally be called the “amount of gravity” inherent in a given body.

There are no logical grounds to consider these two types of mass to be identical. After all, gravitating mass can be thought of as the gravitational equivalent of electric charge; two bodies with the same inertial mass can have completely different electrical charges and, therefore, acquire different accelerations under the influence of the same electric field. In contrast, in the Earth's gravitational field, bodies with both different and equal inertial masses always fall with the same acceleration. And this can only happen if the ratio of gravitational mass to inertial mass is the same for all bodies.

Newton conducted a series of experiments to find out whether this ratio was different for different bodies. He did not find such a difference, and it has not yet been discovered. Since these two types of mass are always in the same proportion to each other, the unit of measurement for them was selected so that their ratio was equal to one. This is expressed in the fact that the formula for the force of gravity on the surface of the Earth has the form of the second law: F = mg.

The fact of equality of inertial and gravitating masses is known as equivalence principle. Below we will see that this principle serves as one of the key provisions of Einstein's general theory of relativity.

The importance of the law of universal gravitation cannot be overestimated. Newton showed that a body moves along any curve of a conic section (circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola) if it is acted upon by a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance and directed towards the focus of this curve. Conversely, the movement of a body under the influence of such a force obeys Kepler's laws. Newton also showed that the action of such a universal force can explain the movement of the Moon and planets, the acceleration of falling bodies, the behavior of Jupiter's satellites and ocean tides.

Other phenomena were explained and predicted. Newton predicted that as a result of rotating on its axis, the Earth should be slightly convex near the equator and flattened at the poles. He explained how this deviation of the Earth's shape from a perfect sphere leads to precession, a phenomenon discovered by Hipparchus almost 2,000 years ago. As a result of precession - the slow rotation of the earth's axis - the pole of the celestial sphere describes a circle in the sky. If the Earth were a perfect sphere, then this would not be observed, but due to the equatorial convexity of the Earth and the tilt of its axis, the gravitational influence on it from the Sun and Moon causes the Earth's axis to rotate, describing a conical surface. The axis of a top rotates in exactly the same way if, when it is launched, the axis is deviated from the vertical direction; here the external force causing precession is the force of gravity of the Earth.

Halley, analyzing data on observations of comets and based on Newton's laws, concluded that some of these observations belonged to the same comet and predicted its next appearance. When the prediction came true, the comet was named after him. Halley's Comet is the only short-period comet (orbital period of about 76 years) that can be observed with the naked eye. Last time it appeared near the Sun and Earth, according to the same calculations using Newton’s formulas, in March 1986. Then Halley's comet was observed not only by numerous amateur astronomers and professional scientists, but also by five international spacecraft.

With the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, it became possible to study the influence of planets on each other, caused by their mutual attraction. Thus, by studying disturbances in the movement of Uranus, it was possible to accurately calculate the orbit of an unknown planet beyond Uranus, which caused these disturbances. Later it was discovered exactly at the calculated location and named Neptune.

In 1803, the English astronomer and optician William Herschel (1738–1822) published his observations, from which it followed that many stars, visible as points, actually consist of a pair of stars slowly revolving around each other under the influence of mutual attraction; Such systems are called double stars. Subsequent observations showed that the motion of double stars obeys Kepler's laws and Newton's law of universal gravitation. In 1842, the famous German astronomer Friedrich Bessel (1784–1846), based on Newton's law, predicted the existence of an invisible satellite near the star Sirius. The satellite was discovered 10 years later!

By the end of the first half of the 19th century century, it was established that Newton's law of universal gravitation is satisfied everywhere in the observable Universe.

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Despite the fact that gravity is the weakest interaction between objects in the Universe, its significance in physics and astronomy is enormous, since it can influence physical objects at any distance in space.

If you are interested in astronomy, you have probably wondered what such a concept as gravity or the law of universal gravitation is. Gravity is the universal fundamental interaction between all objects in the Universe.

The discovery of the law of gravity is attributed to the famous English physicist Isaac Newton. Probably many of you know the story of the apple that fell on the head of the famous scientist. However, if you look deeper into history, you can see that the presence of gravity was thought about long before his era by philosophers and scientists of antiquity, for example, Epicurus. However, it was Newton who first described the gravitational interaction between physical bodies within the framework of classical mechanics. His theory was developed by another famous scientist, Albert Einstein, who in his general theory of relativity more accurately described the influence of gravity in space, as well as its role in the space-time continuum.

Newton's law of universal gravitation says that the force of gravitational attraction between two points of mass separated by a distance is inversely proportional to the square of the distance and directly proportional to both masses. The force of gravity is long-range. That is, regardless of how a body with mass moves, in classical mechanics its gravitational potential will depend purely on the position of this object in at the moment time. The greater the mass of an object, the greater its gravitational field - the more powerful the gravitational force it has. Space objects such as galaxies, stars and planets have greatest strength attraction and, accordingly, sufficiently strong gravitational fields.

Gravitational fields

Earth's gravitational field

The gravitational field is the distance within which gravitational interaction occurs between objects in the Universe. The greater the mass of an object, the stronger its gravitational field - the more noticeable its impact on other physical bodies within a certain space. The gravitational field of an object is potential. The essence of the previous statement is that if you introduce the potential energy of attraction between two bodies, then it will not change after moving the latter along a closed loop. From here comes another famous law of conservation of the sum of potential and kinetic energy in a closed loop.

In the material world, the gravitational field is of great importance. It is possessed by all material objects in the Universe that have mass. The gravitational field can influence not only matter, but also energy. It is precisely due to the influence of gravitational fields of such large space objects, like black holes, quasars and supermassive stars, solar systems, galaxies and other astronomical clusters are formed, which are characterized by a logical structure.

Recent scientific data show that the famous effect of the expansion of the Universe is also based on the laws of gravitational interaction. In particular, the expansion of the Universe is facilitated by powerful gravitational fields, both of its small and largest objects.

Gravitational radiation in a binary system

Gravitational radiation or gravitational wave is a term first introduced into physics and cosmology by the famous scientist Albert Einstein. Gravitational radiation in the theory of gravitation is generated by the movement of material objects with variable acceleration. During the acceleration of an object, a gravitational wave seems to “break away” from it, which leads to oscillations of the gravitational field in the surrounding space. This is called the effect gravitational wave.

Although gravitational waves are predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity as well as other theories of gravity, they have never been directly detected. This is due primarily to their extreme smallness. However, in astronomy there is indirect evidence that can confirm this effect. Thus, the effect of a gravitational wave can be observed in the example of the convergence of double stars. Observations confirm that the rate of convergence of double stars depends to some extent on the loss of energy from these cosmic objects, which is presumably spent on gravitational radiation. Scientists will be able to reliably confirm this hypothesis in the near future using the new generation of Advanced LIGO and VIRGO telescopes.

In modern physics, there are two concepts of mechanics: classical and quantum. Quantum mechanics was developed relatively recently and is fundamentally different from classical mechanics. In quantum mechanics, objects (quanta) do not have definite positions and velocities; everything here is based on probability. That is, an object can occupy a certain place in space in certain moment time. Where he will move next cannot be reliably determined, but only with a high degree of probability.

An interesting effect of gravity is that it can bend the space-time continuum. Einstein's theory states that in the space around a bunch of energy or any material substance, space-time is curved. Accordingly, the trajectory of particles that fall under the influence of the gravitational field of this substance changes, which makes it possible to predict the trajectory of their movement with a high degree of probability.

Theories of gravity

Today scientists know over a dozen different theories of gravity. They are divided into classical and alternative theories. The most famous representative of the former is the classical theory of gravity by Isaac Newton, which was invented by the famous British physicist back in 1666. Its essence lies in the fact that a massive body in mechanics generates a gravitational field around itself, which attracts smaller objects to itself. In turn, the latter also have a gravitational field, like any other material objects in the Universe.

The next popular theory of gravity was invented by the world famous German scientist Albert Einstein at the beginning of the 20th century. Einstein was able to more accurately describe gravity as a phenomenon, and also explain its action not only in classical mechanics, but also in the quantum world. His general theory of relativity describes the ability of a force such as gravity to influence the space-time continuum, as well as the trajectory of movement elementary particles in space.

Among alternative theories In gravity, the relativistic theory, which was invented by our compatriot, the famous physicist A.A., perhaps deserves the greatest attention. Logunov. Unlike Einstein, Logunov argued that gravity is not a geometric, but a real, fairly strong physical force field. Among the alternative theories of gravity, scalar, bimetric, quasilinear and others are also known.

1. For people who have been in space and returned to Earth, it is quite difficult at first to get used to the strength of the gravitational influence of our planet. Sometimes this takes several weeks.
2. It has been proven that human body in a state of weightlessness can lose up to 1% of mass bone marrow per month.
3. Among the planets in the solar system, Mars has the least gravitational force, and Jupiter has the greatest.
4. Salmonella bacteria known to cause intestinal diseases, in a state of weightlessness they behave more actively and are capable of causing to the human body much more harm.
5. Among all known astronomical objects in the Universe, black holes have the greatest gravitational force. A black hole the size of a golf ball could have the same gravitational force as our entire planet.
6. The force of gravity on Earth is not the same in all corners of our planet. For example, in the Hudson Bay region of Canada it is lower than in other regions of the globe.

Between everyone material bodies. In the approximation of low speeds and weak gravitational interaction, it is described by Newton’s theory of gravity, in the general case it is described by Einstein’s general theory of relativity. In the quantum limit, gravitational interaction is supposedly described by a quantum theory of gravity, which has not yet been developed.

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Subtitles

Gravitational attraction

The law of universal gravitation is one of the applications of the inverse square law, which is also found in the study of radiation (see, for example, Light Pressure), and is a direct consequence of the quadratic increase in the area of ​​the sphere with increasing radius, which leads to a quadratic decrease in the contribution of any unit area to area of ​​the entire sphere.

The gravitational field, like the field of gravity, is potential. This means that you can introduce the potential energy of gravitational attraction of a pair of bodies, and this energy will not change after moving the bodies along a closed loop. The potentiality of the gravitational field entails the law of conservation of the sum of kinetic and potential energy and, when studying the motion of bodies in a gravitational field, often significantly simplifies the solution. Within the framework of Newtonian mechanics, gravitational interaction is long-range. This means that no matter how a massive body moves, at any point in space the gravitational potential depends only on the position of the body at a given moment in time.

Large space objects - planets, stars and galaxies have enormous mass and, therefore, create significant gravitational fields.

Gravity is the weakest interaction. However, since it acts at all distances and all masses are positive, it is nevertheless a very important force in the Universe. In particular, the electromagnetic interaction between bodies on a cosmic scale is small, since the total electric charge of these bodies is equal to zero (the substance as a whole is electrically neutral).

Also, gravity, unlike other interactions, is universal in its effect on all matter and energy. No objects have been discovered that have no gravitational interaction at all.

Due to its global nature, gravity is responsible for such large-scale effects as the structure of galaxies, black holes and the expansion of the Universe, and for elementary astronomical phenomena - the orbits of planets, and for simple attraction to the surface of the Earth and the fall of bodies.

Gravity was the first interaction described by mathematical theory. Aristotle (IV century BC) believed that objects with different masses fall at different speeds. And only much later (1589) Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this is not so - if air resistance is eliminated, all bodies accelerate equally. Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation (1687) described the general behavior of gravity well. In 1915, Albert Einstein created the General Theory of Relativity, which more accurately describes gravity in terms of the geometry of spacetime.

Celestial mechanics and some of its tasks

The simplest problem of celestial mechanics is the gravitational interaction of two point or spherical bodies in empty space. This problem within the framework of classical mechanics is solved analytically in a closed form; the result of its solution is often formulated in the form of three Kepler's laws.

As the number of interacting bodies increases, the task becomes dramatically more complicated. Thus, the already famous three-body problem (that is, the movement three bodies with non-zero masses) cannot be solved analytically in a general form. With a numerical solution, instability of solutions with respect to initial conditions. When applied to the Solar System, this instability does not allow us to accurately predict the motion of planets on scales exceeding a hundred million years.

In some special cases, it is possible to find an approximate solution. The most important is the case when the mass of one body is significantly greater than the mass of other bodies (examples: the Solar system and the dynamics of the rings of Saturn). In this case, as a first approximation, we can assume that light bodies do not interact with each other and move along Keplerian trajectories around the massive body. The interactions between them can be taken into account within the framework of perturbation theory and averaged over time. In this case, non-trivial phenomena may arise, such as resonances, attractors, chaos, etc. A good example Such phenomena are the complex structure of Saturn's rings.

Despite attempts to accurately describe the behavior of the system from large number attracting bodies of approximately the same mass, this cannot be done due to the phenomenon of dynamic chaos.

Strong gravitational fields

In strong gravitational fields, as well as when moving in a gravitational field at relativistic speeds, the effects of general relativity (GTR) begin to appear:

• changing the geometry of space-time;
  • as a consequence, the deviation of the law of gravity from Newtonian;
  • and in extreme cases - the emergence of black holes;
• delay of potentials associated with the finite speed of propagation of gravitational disturbances;
  • as a consequence, the appearance of gravitational waves;
• nonlinearity effects: gravity tends to interact with itself, so the principle of superposition in strong fields no longer holds.

Gravitational radiation

One of the important predictions of general relativity is gravitational radiation, the presence of which was confirmed by direct observations in 2015. However, before there was strong indirect evidence in favor of its existence, namely: energy losses in close binary systems containing compact gravitating objects (such as neutron stars or black holes), in particular in famous system PSR B1913+16 (Hulse-Taylor pulsar) - are in good agreement with the general relativity model, in which this energy is carried away precisely by gravitational radiation.

Gravitational radiation can only be generated by systems with variable quadrupole or higher multipole moments, this fact suggests that the gravitational radiation of most natural sources directional, which significantly complicates its detection. Gravity power n-field source is proportional (v / c) 2 n + 2 (\displaystyle (v/c)^(2n+2)), if the multipole is of electric type, and (v / c) 2 n + 4 (\displaystyle (v/c)^(2n+4))- if the multipole is of magnetic type, where v is the characteristic speed of movement of sources in the radiating system, and c- speed of light. Thus, the dominant moment will be the quadrupole moment of the electric type, and the power of the corresponding radiation is equal to:

L = 1 5 G c 5 ⟨ d 3 Q i j d t 3 d 3 Q i j d t 3 ⟩ , (\displaystyle L=(\frac (1)(5))(\frac (G)(c^(5)))\ left\langle (\frac (d^(3)Q_(ij))(dt^(3)))(\frac (d^(3)Q^(ij))(dt^(3)))\right \rangle ,)

Where Q i j (\displaystyle Q_(ij))- quadrupole moment tensor of the mass distribution of the radiating system. Constant G c 5 = 2.76 × 10 − 53 (\displaystyle (\frac (G)(c^(5)))=2.76\times 10^(-53))(1/W) allows us to estimate the order of magnitude of the radiation power.

Since 1969 (Weber's experiments (English)), attempts are being made to directly detect gravitational radiation. In the USA, Europe and Japan there are currently several operating ground-based detectors (LIGO, VIRGO, TAMA (English), GEO 600), as well as the LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna) space gravitational detector project. A ground-based detector in Russia is being developed in Scientific Center Gravitational Wave Research "Dulkyn" of the Republic of Tatarstan.

Subtle effects of gravity

In addition to the classical effects of gravitational attraction and time dilation, the general theory of relativity predicts the existence of other manifestations of gravity, which under terrestrial conditions are very weak and therefore their detection and experimental verification are very difficult. Until recently, overcoming these difficulties seemed beyond the capabilities of experimenters.

Among them, in particular, one can name the drag of inertial reference frames (or the Lense-Thirring effect) and the gravitomagnetic field. In 2005  automatic device NASA's Gravity Probe B conducted an unprecedented precision experiment to measure these effects near Earth. Processing of the obtained data was carried out until May 2011 and confirmed the existence and magnitude of the effects of geodetic precession and drag of inertial reference systems, although with an accuracy somewhat less than originally assumed.

After intensive work to analyze and extract measurement noise, the final results of the mission were announced at a press conference on NASA-TV on May 4, 2011, and published in Physical Review Letters. The measured value of geodetic precession was −6601.8±18.3 milliseconds arcs per year, and the entrainment effect - −37.2±7.2 milliseconds arcs per year (compare with theoretical values ​​of −6606.1 mas/year and −39.2 mas/year).

Classical theories of gravity

Due to the fact that quantum effects of gravity are extremely small even under the most extreme and observational conditions, there are still no reliable observations of them. Theoretical estimates show that in the overwhelming majority of cases it is possible to limit classical description gravitational interaction.

There is a modern canonical classical theory of gravity - the general theory of relativity, and many clarifying hypotheses and theories varying degrees developments, competing with each other. All of these theories make very similar predictions within the approximation in which experimental tests are currently carried out. The following are several basic, most well-developed or known theories of gravity.

General theory of relativity

However, general relativity has been confirmed experimentally until very recently (2012). In addition, many alternatives to Einstein's, but standard for modern physics approaches to the formulation of the theory of gravity lead to a result coinciding with general relativity in the low-energy approximation, which is the only one now available for experimental verification.

Einstein-Cartan theory

A similar division of equations into two classes also occurs in the RTG, where the second tensor equation is introduced to take into account the connection between non-Euclidean space and Minkowski space. Thanks to the presence of a dimensionless parameter in the Jordan-Brans-Dicke theory, it becomes possible to choose it so that the results of the theory coincide with the results of gravitational experiments. Moreover, as the parameter tends to infinity, the predictions of the theory become closer and closer to general relativity, so it is impossible to refute the Jordan-Brans-Dicke theory with any experiment confirming general theory relativity.

Quantum theory of gravity

Despite more than half a century of attempts, gravity is the only fundamental interactions, for which a generally accepted consistent quantum theory has not yet been constructed. At low energies, in the spirit of quantum field theory, the gravitational interaction can be represented as an exchange of gravitons - spin-2 gauge bosons. However, the resulting theory is non-renormalizable, and is therefore considered unsatisfactory.

IN last decades Several promising approaches to solving the problem of quantization of gravity have been developed: string theory, loop quantum gravity, and others.

String theory

In it, instead of particles and background space-time, strings and their multidimensional analogues appear -