Presentation on functional anatomy of the immune system organs. Presentation on the topic "immune system and immunity"

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1.3 Macrophages are cells of the immune system derived from bone marrow stem cells. IN

in peripheral blood they are represented by monocytes. Upon penetration into tissues, monocytes transform into macrophages. These cells make the first contact with the antigen and recognize it potential danger and transmit a signal immunocompetent cells(lymphocytes). Macrophages participate in the cooperative interaction between antigen and T and B cells in immune responses. In addition, they play the role of the main effector cells in inflammation, making up the majority of mononuclear cells in the infiltrates of delayed-type hypersensitivity. Among macrophages, there are regulatory cells - helpers and suppressors, which participate in the formation of the immune response.

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Macrophages include blood monocytes, connective tissue histiocytes, endothelial cells

capillaries of hematopoietic organs, Kupffer cells of the liver, cells of the wall of the alveoli of the lung (pulmonary macrophages) and the wall of the peritoneum (peritoneal macrophages).

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Electron photography of macrophages

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Macrophage

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Fig.2. Immune system

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Immunity. Types of immunity.

• Throughout life, the human body is exposed to foreign microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa), chemical, physical and other factors that can lead to the development of diseases.
• The main tasks of all body systems are to find, recognize, remove or neutralize any foreign agent (either one that came from outside or one’s own, but which changed under the influence of some reason and became “alien”). To fight infections, protect against transformed, malignant tumor cells and maintain homeostasis in the body, there is a complex dynamic system protection. The main role in this system is played by immunological reactivity or immunity.

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Immunity is the body’s ability to maintain a constant internal environment, to create

immunity to infectious and non-infectious agents (antigens) entering it, neutralizing and removing foreign agents and their breakdown products from the body. A series of molecular and cellular reactions that occur in the body after an antigen enters it constitutes an immune response, resulting in the formation of humoral and/or cellular immunity. The development of one or another type of immunity is determined by the properties of the antigen, the genetic and physiological capabilities of the responding organism.

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Humoral immunity is a molecular reaction that occurs in the body in response to exposure to

antigen. The induction of a humoral immune response is ensured by the interaction (cooperation) of three main types of cells: macrophages, T- and B-lymphocytes. Macrophages phagocytose the antigen and, after intracellular proteolysis, present its peptide fragments on their cell membrane to T helper cells. T-helpers cause activation of B-lymphocytes, which begin to proliferate, transform into blast cells, and then, through a series of successive mitoses, into plasma cells that synthesize antibodies specific to a given antigen. An important role in the initiation of these processes belongs to regulatory substances that are produced by immunocompetent cells.

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Activation of B cells by T helper cells for antibody production is not universal

for all antigens. This interaction develops only when T-dependent antigens enter the body. To induce an immune response by T-independent antigens (polysaccharides, protein aggregates of a regulatory structure), the participation of T-helper cells is not required. Depending on the inducing antigen, B1 and B2 subclasses of lymphocytes are distinguished. Plasma cells synthesize antibodies in the form of immunoglobulin molecules. Five classes of immunoglobulins have been identified in humans: A, M, G, D, E. In case of impaired immunity and the development of allergic diseases, especially autoimmune diseases, diagnostics are carried out for the presence and ratio of immunoglobulin classes.

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Cellular immunity. Cellular immunity is cellular reactions, occurring in the body in

response to antigen exposure. T lymphocytes are also responsible for cellular immunity, also known as delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH). The mechanism by which T cells interact with antigen is not yet clear, but these cells best recognize antigen bound to the cell membrane. Regardless of whether the information about antigens is transmitted by macrophages, B lymphocytes or some other cells, T lymphocytes begin to change. First, blast forms of T-cells are formed, then, through a series of divisions, T-effectors are formed, synthesizing and secreting biologically active substances - lymphokines, or DTH mediators. The exact number of mediators, their molecular structure are still unknown. These substances are distinguished by their biological activity. Under the influence of a factor that inhibits the migration of macrophages, these cells accumulate in areas of antigenic irritation.

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Macrophage activating factor significantly enhances phagocytosis and digestion

cell ability. There are also macrophages and leukocytes (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils) that attract these cells to the site of antigenic irritation. In addition, lymphotoxin is synthesized, which can dissolve target cells. Another group of T-effectors, known as T-killers (killers), or K-cells, are represented by lymphocytes that have cytotoxicity, which they exhibit towards virus-infected and tumor cells. There is another mechanism of cytotoxicity, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, in which antibodies recognize target cells and then effector cells respond to these antibodies. Null cells, monocytes, macrophages and lymphocytes called NK cells have this ability.

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Fig. 3 Diagram of the immune response

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Ri.4. Immune response.

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TYPES OF IMMUNITY

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Species immunity is hereditary trait certain type animals. For example, cattle does not suffer from syphilis, gonorrhea, malaria and other diseases contagious to humans, horses do not suffer from canine distemper, etc.

Based on strength or durability, species immunity is divided into absolute and relative.

Absolute species immunity is the type of immunity that occurs in an animal from the moment of birth and is so strong that no influence external environment it cannot be weakened or destroyed (for example, no additional influences can cause polio when dogs and rabbits are infected with this virus). There is no doubt that in the process of evolution, absolute species immunity is formed as a result of the gradual hereditary consolidation of acquired immunity.

Relative species immunity is less durable, depending on the effects of the external environment on the animal. For example, birds under normal conditions are immune to anthrax. However, if the body is weakened by cooling and fasting, they become ill with this disease.

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Acquired immunity is divided into:

• naturally acquired,
• artificially acquired.

Each of them, according to the method of occurrence, is divided into active and passive.

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Occurs after an infection. diseases

When transitioning protective antibodies from the mother's blood through the placenta into the fetus' blood, also transmitted through mother's milk

Occurs after vaccination (vaccination)

Injecting a person with serum containing antibodies against microbes and their toxins. specific antibodies.

Scheme 1. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY.

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The mechanism of immunity to infectious diseases. The doctrine of phagocytosis. Pathogenic microbes

penetrate through the skin and mucous membranes into lymph, blood, nervous tissue and other organ tissues. For most microbes, these “entry gates” are closed. When studying the mechanisms of the body's defense against infection, one has to deal with phenomena of varying biological specificity. Indeed, the body is protected from microbes both by the integumentary epithelium, the specificity of which is very relative, and by antibodies that are produced against a specific pathogen. Along with this, there are mechanisms whose specificity is relative (for example, phagocytosis), and various protective reflexes. The protective activity of tissues that prevents the penetration of microbes into the body is due to various mechanisms: mechanical removal microbes from the skin and mucous membranes; removal of microbes using natural (tears, digestive juices, vaginal discharge) and pathological (exudate) body fluids; fixation of microbes in tissues and their destruction by phagocytes; destruction of microbes using specific antibodies; release of microbes and their poisons from the body.

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Phagocytosis (from the Greek fago - devour and citos - cell) is the process of absorption and

digestion of microbes and animal cells by various connective tissue cells - phagocytes. The creator of the doctrine of phagocytosis is the great Russian scientist - embryologist, zoologist and pathologist I.I. Mechnikov. In phagocytosis, he saw the basis of the inflammatory reaction, expressing the protective properties of the body. Protective activity of phagocytes during infection I.I. Metchnikoff first demonstrated this using the example of infection of daphnia by a yeast fungus. Subsequently, he convincingly demonstrated the importance of phagocytosis as the main mechanism of immunity in various human infections. He proved the correctness of his theory by studying the phagocytosis of streptococci during erysipelas. In subsequent years, the phagocytotic mechanism of immunity was established for tuberculosis and other infections. This protection is carried out by: - ​​polymorphic neutrophils - short-lived small cells with a large number granules containing various bactericidal enzymes. They carry out phagocytosis of pus-forming bacteria; - macrophages (differentiated from blood monocytes) are long-lived cells that fight intracellular bacteria, viruses and protozoa. To enhance the process of phagocytosis in the blood plasma, there is a group of proteins that causes the release of inflammatory mediators from mast cells and basophils; cause vasodilation and increases capillary permeability. This group of proteins is called the complement system.

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Questions for self-test: 1. Define the concept of “immunity.” 2. Tell us about the immune system

system, its composition and functions. 3. What are humoral and cellular immunity? 4. How are the types of immunity classified? Name the subtypes of acquired immunity. 5. What are the features of antiviral immunity? 6. Describe the mechanism of immunity to infectious diseases. 7. Give a brief description of the main provisions of I. I. Mechnikov’s teaching on phagocytosis.

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Immunity

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Updating knowledge
1. What components make up internal environment body? 2. What is homeostasis? 3. What are the main functions of blood? 4. What does blood contain? 5. What is plasma, what is its composition and significance? 6. Characterize blood cells. 7. What is phagocytosis?

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"Protective properties of blood":

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"Protective properties of blood":
Germs await people at every step. How can we explain that when infected with microbes a person does not always get sick, and if he does get sick, then the disease does not develop in the same way for everyone? Infection and disease are different processes. A person can become infected, that is, be a carrier of a wide variety of microbes, including very dangerous ones, but not always get sick. For some diseases, for every 8-10 cases of infection carriers, one case of the disease occurs. People are especially often carriers of the tuberculosis bacillus. The body actively fights the infection, delays its development, and the person does not get sick. Infection turns into a disease if the body is weakened (immunity is reduced from malnutrition, overwork, nervous shock, etc.) The development of colds (flu, sore throat, pneumonia) is facilitated by cooling the body. Alcohol has a detrimental effect on the course of diseases - it suppresses the immune system.

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Immunity is the body’s ability to find foreign substances (antigens) and get rid of them.
Antigens (microbes and the poisons they secrete) cause in the body immune reaction.
In progress historical development developed in the body of humans and animals immune system.

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Organs of the immune system.
Bone marrow - blood cells are formed. Thymus (thymus gland) - lymphocytes and antibodies are formed Lymph nodes - lymphocytes and antibodies are formed, retain and neutralize bacteria and toxins. Spleen – produces antibodies, reproduces phagocytes.

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Lymphoid tissue in digestive system. Lymphocyte maturation. Palatine tonsils. (Lymphoid tissue in respiratory system.) Maturation of lymphocytes.

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Immunity is distinguished:
cellular
The destruction of foreign bodies is carried out by cells, for example phagocytes. Cellular immunity was discovered by I.I. Mechnikov
humoral
Foreign bodies are removed using antibodies - chemicals delivered by blood. Humoral immunity was discovered by Paul Ehrlich.

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Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich 1845 – 1916
Cellular immunity was discovered by I.I. Mechnikov

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Phagocytes can destroy any antigens, antibodies - only those against which they were developed.

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Message. Opening protective function leukocytes belongs to the remarkable Russian scientist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov. Here's how it happened. There is a transparent starfish larva on the microscope stage. Small dark lumps are introduced into it - carcass grains. I. I. Mechnikov observes how amoeboid cells capture them. He goes into the garden and plucks thorns from the rose bush. Sticks them into the body of the larva. On next morning sees many such cells around the spine. So I. I. Mechnikov discovered the devouring function of cells - phagocytosis. Phagocyte cells are capable of devouring, or better yet, absorbing microbes. I. I. Mechnikov also proved the ability of phagocytes to process useless and harmful substances. He noticed that amoeboid cells can perceive and, if possible, digest substances foreign to the body. As a result of his many years of work, Mechnikov came to the conclusion that phagocytosis is a common phenomenon. It has its own evolution. In lower animals, phagocytes perform a digestive function, in higher animals they perform a protective function. Remember, for example, how the hydra digests food. Based on these studies, I. I. Mechnikov explained the essence of inflammation.

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Types of immunity.
Species Hereditary Acquired
The causative agent of canine distemper does not infect humans. Congenital. Appears after the antigen has been identified and identified, and then neutralized.

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The cause of many diseases is pathogenic bacteria. These diseases are usually contagious and can take over entire countries. Epidemics are outbreaks of infectious diseases.

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An excerpt from A. S. Pushkin’s work “A Feast during the Plague”:
Now the church is empty; The school is tightly locked; The cornfield is idly overripe; The dark grove is empty; And the village, like a burnt dwelling, stands - Everything is quiet. (One cemetery) Doesn’t empty, doesn’t remain silent. Every minute they carry the dead, And the groans of the living fearfully ask God to calm their souls! Every minute there is a need for space, And the graves, like a frightened herd, huddle together in a close line.

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Message. The plague has been known since ancient times. In the 6th century, the plague in the Byzantine Empire lasted 50 years and killed 100 million people. The chronicles of the Middle Ages describe terrible pictures of the plague: “Cities and villages were devastated. There was the smell of corpses everywhere, life stood still, only gravediggers could be seen in the squares and streets.” In the 6th century, the plague in Europe killed 1/4 of the population - 10 million people. The plague was called the Black Death. Smallpox was no less dangerous. In the 18th century in Western Europe, 400 thousand people died annually from smallpox. It affected 2/3 of those born and out of 8 people, three died. A special sign of that time was considered to be “No sign of smallpox.” At the beginning of the 19th century, with the development of world trade, cholera began to spread. Six cholera epidemics have been recorded. It was brought to Russia with caravans from Iraq and Afghanistan, and later from Western Europe. In Russia before 1917, during the 59 years of cholera, 5.6 million people fell ill and almost half of them died. Six cholera epidemics have been recorded. The last global epidemic lasted from 1902 to 1926. According to the World Health Organization, there was a seventh cholera epidemic in 1961-1962. In 1965-1966, from Asia and the Middle East, the disease approached southern borders Europe.

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The involvement of microbes in infectious diseases was proven by the French scientist Louis Pasteur.

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He expressed the idea that if you infect a person with weakened microbes that cause a mild illness, then in the future the person will not get sick with this disease. He will develop immunity. This idea was inspired by his work English doctor Edward Jenner.

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What is the merit of E. Jenner.
The English country doctor E. Jenner made the world's first vaccination - a smallpox vaccination. To do this, he rubbed liquid from an abscess on a cow's udder into the wound of an eight-year-old boy. A month and a half later, he infected the child with pus smallpox and the boy did not get sick: he developed immunity to smallpox.

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Monument to Edward Jenner.
The sculptor depicted the first smallpox vaccination of a child. This is how the noble feat of a scientist who has won the recognition of all mankind is immortalized.

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A vaccine is a liquid containing a culture of weakened microbes or their poisons. If a person has become infected with any infectious disease, then he is injected with a healing serum. Therapeutic serum is a preparation of antibodies formed in the blood of an animal that was previously specifically infected with this pathogen.

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Heroism of scientists. The successes of science in the fight against infectious diseases are enormous. Many diseases are a thing of the past and are only of historical interest. Scientists who have made their names famous in the fight against microbes have earned the gratitude of all mankind. The names of E. Jenner, L. Pasteur, I. I. Mechnikov, N. F. Gamaleya, E. Roux, R. Koch and many others are written in golden letters in the history of science. Our domestic scientists have written many bright pages in microbiology. There was so much courage and nobility in their service for the benefit of people’s health! Many heroes of science courageously died for the sake of its interests. An example of selfless heroism can be the act of the doctor I. A. Deminsky, who infected himself with the plague in 1927 for scientific purposes. He gave the following telegram: “...infected with pneumonic plague from gophers... Take the harvested crops. Open my corpse as a case of experimental human infection from gophers..."1. Deminsky's discovery, which cost him his life, confirmed his earlier assumption that gophers are carriers of plague in the steppes.

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Thanks to the heroic efforts of Russian doctors in 1910-1911, an outbreak of plague in Harbin was extinguished and its advance to the East and Siberia was stopped. One of the members of this anti-plague expedition, medical student I.V. Mamontov, wrote in the last hour of his life: “Life now is a struggle for the future... We must believe that all this is not in vain and people will achieve it, even through many suffering, real human existence on Earth, so beautiful that for one idea of ​​it you can give everything that is personal, and life itself.”2 Doctor N.K. Zavyalova herself became infected in 1951 pulmonary form plague, deciding to test for themselves how long immunity lasts after recovery. She sets up a heroic experiment - she again exposes herself to contact with a patient with pneumonic plague. The disease passed in a mild form. So it was found out that immunity exists. Doctor N.I. Latyshev repeatedly infected himself relapsing fever in order to study the course of the disease. His research was of great scientific importance. He installed latent period infections, discovered one of the pathogens named after him.

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Classification of immunity.

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Immunity classification:
Natural Natural Artificial Artificial
Active Passive Active Passive
Species Hereditary Acquired during the course of a disease. Antibodies are passed through mother's milk. Vaccination is the introduction of weakened antigens that cause the formation of one’s own antibodies. Administration of therapeutic serum containing antibodies produced in the donor’s body.

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Vaccination against rabies.
Rabies is caused by a virus that affects dogs, wolves, foxes and other animals. It is also dangerous for humans. The virus infects cells of the nervous system. In a sick animal or person, water causes convulsions of the pharynx and larynx. It is impossible to drink, although I am thirsty. Death can occur from paralysis of the respiratory muscles or from cessation of cardiac activity. If you are bitten by a dog, you should immediately consult a doctor. He will carry out a course of vaccinations against rabies, which were proposed by Louis Pasteur. Remember! Immunity against rabies only lasts for a year, and therefore in case of repeated bites it is necessary to vaccinate again if this period has passed.

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Tetanus.
Particular vigilance must be exercised with injuries sustained in rural areas, as you can become infected with tetanus. The causative agents of tetanus develop in the intestines of domestic animals and enter the soil with manure. If the wound is contaminated with soil, anti-tetanus medicinal serum must be administered. Tetanus is a dangerous incurable disease. It begins like a sore throat - a sore throat. Then convulsions occur, which lead to painful death. The introduction of therapeutic serum, which contains ready-made antibodies, destroys tetanus poison.

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AIDS and allergic reactions.

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AIDS and allergic reactions.
Currently, a fairly common incurable disease is AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). The causative agent of this disease, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), makes the immune system inoperable, and people die from those microbes, bacteria, fungi that are absolutely safe for a healthy person, that is, with a healthy immune system. Prevention of AIDS is compliance with the following rules: - exclusion of casual sexual relations; - use of disposable syringes for injections. Another ailment of the century is allergic reactions to various factors external environment, i.e. allergy - an increased reaction of the body to certain factors external environment. In this case, a person experiences: - sneezing; - lacrimation; - swelling. If you are predisposed to allergic reactions, the following rules should be followed for prevention purposes: - diet; - timely examination and treatment of the disease; - refusal of self-medication.

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Consolidation
Solution to the “Immunity” puzzle (fig) 1. Substances that can cause an immune response in the body. 2. The scientist who discovered cellular immunity. 3. Immunity, in which foreign bodies are removed by chemicals delivered by the blood. 4. Immunity acquired after vaccination or after administration of medicinal serum. 5. Protective proteins of the body that neutralize antigens. 6. A preparation made from killed or weakened microorganisms or their waste products. 7. Immunity is congenital or acquired as a result of a previous disease. 8. The scientist who created the rabies vaccine. 9. A preparation of ready-made antibodies, obtained from the blood of a recovered person or animal specifically infected with one or another pathogen.

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1 I
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3 M
4 U
5 N
6 I
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8 E
9 T