Catherine 2 her life. Just Fike

At birth, the girl was given the name Sophia Frederica Augusta. Her father, Christian August, was the prince of the small German principality of Anhalt-Zerbst, but gained fame for his achievements in the military field. The mother of the future Catherine, Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, cared little about raising her daughter. Therefore, the girl was raised by a governess.

Catherine's education was handled by tutors, and among them, a chaplain who gave the girl religious lessons. However, the girl had her own point of view on many questions. She also mastered three languages: German, French and Russian.

Entry into the Russian royal family

In 1744, the girl travels with her mother to Russia. The German princess becomes engaged to Grand Duke Peter and converts to Orthodoxy, receiving the name Catherine at baptism.

On August 21, 1745, Catherine marries the heir to the throne of Russia, becoming the crown princess. However, family life turned out to be far from happy.

After many childless years, Catherine II finally produced an heir. Her son Pavel was born on September 20, 1754. And then heated debate flared up about who really was the boy’s father. Be that as it may, Catherine hardly saw her first-born: soon after birth, Empress Elizabeth took the child to be raised.

Seizing the throne

On December 25, 1761, after the death of Empress Elizabeth, Peter III ascended the throne, and Catherine became the emperor's wife. However, it has little to do with government affairs. Peter and his wife were openly cruel. Soon, due to the stubborn support he provided to Prussia, Peter became alien to many courtiers, secular and military officials. The founder of what today we call progressive internal state reforms, Peter also quarreled with the Orthodox Church, taking away church lands. And now, just six months later, Peter was overthrown from the throne as a result of a conspiracy that Catherine entered into with her lover, Russian lieutenant Grigory Orlov, and a number of other persons, with the aim of seizing power. She successfully manages to force her husband to abdicate the throne and take control of the empire into her own hands. A few days after his abdication, in one of his estates, in Ropsha, Peter was strangled. What role Catherine played in the murder of her husband is unclear to this day.

Fearing that she herself will be overthrown by opposing forces, Catherine tries with all her might to win the favor of the troops and the church. She recalls the troops sent by Peter to the war against Denmark and in every possible way encourages and rewards those who come over to her side. She even compares herself to her revered Peter the Great, declaring that she is following in his footsteps.

Board

Despite the fact that Catherine is a supporter of absolutism, she still makes a number of attempts to carry out social and political reforms. She issues a document, the “Order,” in which she proposes to abolish death penalty and torture, and also proclaims the equality of all people. However, the Senate responds with a decisive refusal to any attempts to change the feudal system.

After completing work on the “Instruction,” in 1767, Catherine convened representatives of various social and economic strata of the population to form the Statutory Commission. The commission did not produce a legislative body, but its convening went down in history as the first time when representatives of the Russian people from all over the empire had the opportunity to express their ideas about the needs and problems of the country.

Later, in 1785, Catherine issues the Charter of the Nobility, in which she radically changes policy and challenges the power of the upper classes, under which most of the masses are under the yoke of serfdom.

Catherine, a religious skeptic by nature, seeks to subjugate the Orthodox Church to her power. At the beginning of her reign, she returned lands and property to the church, but soon changed her views. The Empress declares the church part of the state, and therefore all her possessions, including more than a million serfs, become the property of the empire and are subject to taxes.

Foreign policy

During her reign, Catherine expanded the borders of the Russian Empire. She makes significant acquisitions in Poland, having previously placed her former lover, the Polish prince Stanislav Poniatowski, on the throne of the kingdom. According to the agreement of 1772, Catherine gives part of the lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to Prussia and Austria, while the eastern part of the kingdom, where many Russian Orthodox Christians live, goes to the Russian Empire.

But such actions are extremely disapproving of Turkey. In 1774, Catherine made peace with the Ottoman Empire, according to which the Russian state received new lands and access to the Black Sea. One of the heroes of the Russian-Turkish war was Grigory Potemkin, a reliable adviser and lover of Catherine.

Potemkin, a loyal supporter of the empress's policies, himself proved himself to be an outstanding statesman. It was he who, in 1783, convinced Catherine to annex Crimea to the empire, thereby strengthening her position on the Black Sea.

Love for education and art

At the time of Catherine’s accession to the throne, Russia was a backward and provincial state for Europe. The Empress is doing her best to change this opinion, expanding opportunities for new ideas in education and the arts. In St. Petersburg, she founded a boarding school for girls of noble birth, and later free schools were opened in all cities of Russia.

Ekaterina patronizes many cultural projects. She is gaining fame as a zealous art collector, and most of her collection is exhibited at her residence in St. Petersburg, in the Hermitage.

Catherine, a passionate lover of literature, is especially favorable towards the philosophers and writers of the Enlightenment. Endowed with literary talent, the empress describes own life in a collection of memoirs.

Personal life

The love life of Catherine II became the subject of much gossip and false facts. Myths about her insatiability have been debunked, but this royal lady actually had many love affairs during her life. She could not remarry, since marriage could undermine her position, and therefore she had to wear a mask of chastity in society. But, away from prying eyes, Catherine showed remarkable interest in men.

End of reign

By 1796, Catherine had already enjoyed absolute power in the empire for several decades. And in the last years of her reign, she showed the same liveliness of mind and strength of spirit. But in mid-November 1796, she was found unconscious on the bathroom floor. At that time, everyone came to the conclusion that she had suffered a stroke. 4.2 points. Total ratings received: 57.

CATHERINE II is one of the most significant figures in history
RUSSIA.
Her reign is one of the most remarkable in RUSSIAN history.

Catherine II was born on April 21, 1729 in Stettin. Born Sophia
Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst came from a poor background
GERMAN princely family. Her mother was the cousin of Peter III's father,
and the mother’s brother was Elizaveta Petrovna’s fiancé, but died before the wedding.

On June 28, 1762, a manifesto was drawn up on behalf of Catherine, saying
about the reasons for the coup, about the emerging threat to the integrity of the fatherland.

On June 29, Peter III signed a manifesto of his abdication. Since accession
to the throne and before her coronation, Catherine II participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed.

She founded the so-called Orphanage. In this house they found a shelter for orphans.
Catherine II, as the Empress of the Orthodox people, has always been distinguished by her piety and devotion to Orthodoxy.

The reign of Catherine II is called the era of “enlightened
absolutism."
The meaning of “enlightened absolutism” is politics
following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in reforms,
destroying some of the most outdated feudal institutions.

Catherine II made a significant contribution to the development of CULTURE and
ART in Russia.

She herself received an excellent education at home: training foreign languages, dancing, political history, philosophy, economics, law and was considered an intelligent and educated woman.

Under Catherine, the Russian ACADEMY and the Free Economic Society were created, many magazines were founded, and a system was created public education, the founding of the HERMITAGE, the opening of public THEATERS, the emergence of Russian opera, the flourishing of PAINTING.

A number of events of the era of “enlightened absolutism” had a progressive
meaning.
Founded on the initiative of Shuvalov and Lomonosov in 1755. Moscow University played a huge role in the development of ENLIGHTENMENT, Russian national science
and culture by releasing large number specialists in various fields of knowledge.

In 1757 The Academy of Arts began training.

The secularization of church land ownership significantly improved the situation of the former monastic peasants, who received arable land, meadows and other lands on which they had previously served corvée, and freed them from everyday punishment and torture, from service in the household and forced marriages.
The Empress spoke out much more decisively in favor of judicial reform. She rejected torture and allowed the death penalty only in exceptional cases.

During the reign of Catherine II, such masters as Vasily created
Borovikovsky, who gained fame for his portraits of the Empress, Derzhavin, and many nobles, Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, an academician in the 60s, taught at the Academy of Arts, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, who worked
together with Lomonosov, painted the coronation portrait of Catherine II.

Domestic and foreign policy second half of the XVIII century, prepared by the events and previous reigns, marked by important
legislative acts, outstanding military events and significant territorial annexations.
This is due to the activities of major government and military figures: A. R. Vorontsov, P. A. Rumyantsev, A. G. Orlov, G. A. Potemkin,
A. A. Bezborodko, A. V. Suvorov, F. F. Ushakov and others.

Catherine II imagined the tasks of the “enlightened monarch” as follows:

1) “You need to educate the nation you are supposed to govern.
2) You need to enter good
order in the state, maintain society and force it to comply
laws.
3) It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4) It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5) It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors. "

Catherine II herself actively participated in public life.
Love for Russia, its people and everything Russian was an essential motive
her activities.

Jokes aside, the greatest contribution to the development of Russia was, of course, made by Catherine II (aka Frederica Sophia Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), who received the title Catherine the Great during her lifetime.
After the victory in the war with Turkey on April 8, 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto on the annexation of Crimea, where the Crimean residents were promised to “holy and unshakably for themselves and the successors of our throne to support them on an equal basis with our natural subjects, to protect and defend their persons, property, churches and their natural faith...”
During the wars with Sweden, the Russian Empire repeatedly found itself in such critical situations that European capitals were already wondering what concessions St. Petersburg would have to buy peace with. But all the circumstances unfavorable for Russia were overcome by the iron will of the empress, based on the unshakable resilience of the Russian troops and the skill of military generals and admirals. The first strategic success was achieved in the war in the Baltic: having exhausted resources and achieved nothing, the Swedes sued for peace in 1791.
After that, it was the turn to deal with Poland. Catherine easily convinced the Prussian king of the need to change priorities, and the Viennese court also joined the alliance of St. Petersburg and Berlin. And, the three of us united, and began to resolve the Polish issue. That is, to the complete division of Poland. Moreover, Catherine showed considerable political wisdom: having annexed Western Ukrainian, Western Belarusian and Lithuanian lands to Russia, she did not take a single piece of the indigenous Polish territories, giving them to Prussian and Austrian partners. Because she understood that the Poles would never come to terms with the loss of their statehood.
As a result of the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia became part of the Russian Empire. This happened after Catherine II signed the manifesto of April 15, 1795. At the same time, the annexation of the territories of the modern Baltic states to Russia was finally completed.
And, in conclusion, I would like to recall the words of the wise Ukrainian (unlike the current ones) A. Bezborodko, who held the post of Russian Chancellor under Catherine the Great, which he told young diplomats: “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us there is not a single gun in Europe did not dare to blurt out without our permission.” width="700" height="458" alt="740x485 (700x458, 278Kb)" /> !}

2.

Catherine II the Great (Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophie Auguste Friederike of Anhalt-Zerbst, German: Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace , St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Holstein-Gottorp family, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was King of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The ancestry of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up a playful, inquisitive, playful and even troublesome girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stetin. Her parents did not burden her with her upbringing and did not stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her in childhood Ficken (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna and her mother were invited to Russia for subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). She soon fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

Marriage to the heir to the Russian throne

Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna with her husband Peter III Fedorovich
On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Catherine will later write about this:

I saw very well that the Grand Duke did not love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the maiden Carr, the maid of honor of the empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divier argued the opposite, and he became angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this man I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be no reason to die of jealousy without any benefit for anyone.

So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who doesn’t love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no choice but not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfilling my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, and mine did not have this.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Pavel (the future Emperor Paul I) and are deprived of the opportunity to raise him, allowing him to be seen only occasionally. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

Catherine after her arrival in Russia, portrait by Louis Caravaque
After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set his house on fire. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Pavel I Petrovich, son of Catherine (1777)
Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands captured by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in early July under unclear circumstances.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

Alexey Grigorievich Bobrinsky is the illegitimate son of the Empress.
In her memoirs, Catherine characterized the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

Finances were depleted. The army did not receive pay for 3 months. Trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the sea barely held on, being in extreme neglect. The clergy was dissatisfied with the taking of lands from him. Justice was sold at auction, and laws were followed only in cases where they favored the powerful.

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.
The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. Territory Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populated European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

Grigory Orlov, one of the leaders of the coup. Portrait by Fyodor Rokotov, 1762-1763
The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenues from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, it more than quadrupled, successes foreign trade: Baltic - in increasing imports and exports, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal circulation was indicated by the issue of coins worth 148 million rubles in the 34 years of his reign, while in the previous 62 years only 97 million were issued.”

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1200 in the country large enterprises(in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic policy

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the character of her domestic policy and directions for reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, extensive Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was a critique of the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government.

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Palace in Ropsha, where Peter III died
Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

Virgilius Eriksen. Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great
More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (viceroy) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces united under his authority were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers; all military units and commands located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - stood at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was in charge of land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as class judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Justice for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chambers judged all classes and were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Portrait of Catherine II in Russian attire by an unknown artist
Captain police officer - stood at the head of the district, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government. In counties, as in provinces, there are class institutions: for nobles (district court), for townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower reprisal). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This trial was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since there were clearly not enough cities and district centers. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements as cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.

In a separate administrative unit the city was withdrawn. Instead of the governor, a mayor was placed at its head, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarterly overseer.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky
Thus, there was no further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders. At the same time they traditional image life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s aimed at strengthening the state, it was decided to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

Moscow Orphanage
This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 60s, crisis phenomena intensified in the Khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn this aggravated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church in Christianizing nomads, as well as with the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, which were roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Plague Riot 1771
Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account ethnic composition population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

What was introduced by the empress was of great importance government regulation prices for salt, which was one of the country's most vital commodities. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product.

The role of Russia in the world economy has increased - England has become large quantities Russian sailing fabric was exported; the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social policy

Vasily Perov “The Court of Pugachev” (1879), Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. It began under Catherine system development female education, in 1764 the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens and the Educational Society of Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading ones in Europe scientific bases. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Educational homes for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by Military Academy them. Peter the Great), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Catherine: “The rejected one has returned”
In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726 there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In con. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. In rural areas, 54% are privately owned and 40% are state-owned

Legislation on estates

21 Apr In 1785, two charters were issued: “Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” and “Charter granted to cities.”

Both charters regulated legislation on the rights and duties of estates.

Letter of grant to the nobility:

Catherine II and Grigory Potemkin at the Monument “1000th Anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod
Already existing rights were confirmed.
the nobility were exempt from the poll tax
from the quartering of military units and commands
from corporal punishment
from compulsory service
the right to unlimited disposal of the estate was confirmed
the right to own houses in cities
the right to establish enterprises on estates and engage in trade
ownership of the subsoil of the earth
the right to have their own class institutions
The name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; the estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs.
nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles.
a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote.
Only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.
Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire:

The right of the top merchant class not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
replacement of conscription with a cash contribution.
Division of the urban population into 6 categories:

Nobles, officials and clergy (“real city dwellers”) can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
artisans registered in workshops.
foreign and out-of-town merchants.
eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as the city intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
townspeople, who “support themselves by fishing, handicrafts and work” (do not have real estate in the city).
Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called “philistines” (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meaning “city dweller” or “citizen”, from the word “place” - city and “shtetl” - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempt from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for conferment of nobility.

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under Catherine
Serf peasantry:

The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
The peasants could not take an oath, take farm-outs or contracts.
Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage.
The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left-Bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine from passing from one owner to another.
The widespread idea of ​​Catherine distributing state peasants to landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine extended to Ukraine. At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

The clergy lost their autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.

Religious politics

Catherine II - legislator in the Temple of Justice (Levitsky D. G., 1783, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow)
In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on tolerance of all religions was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other faiths; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. In 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, the persecution of Old Believers ceased. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free migration of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

The Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice its faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II, in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, the complete Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication differed significantly from European ones, primarily in that it was Muslim in nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the Empress commanded “to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has under its authority all the spiritual ranks of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region.” Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the system of government of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

Buddhism also received government support in regions where it was traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Hambo Lama - the head of Buddhists Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and her humane rule.

Domestic political problems

Portrait by Lampi the Elder, 1793
At the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne, the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI continued to remain alive and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg Fortress. In 1764, Second Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

Peasant War of 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms and conservatism increased.

Main stages:

Sep. 1773 - March 1774
March 1774 - July 1774
July 1774-1775
17 Sep. 1773 The uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments went over to the side of 200 Cossacks, going to suppress the rebellion. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize factories in the Urals and Bashkiria. The rebels are defeated near the Trinity Fortress. On July 12, Kazan was captured. On July 17, they were defeated again and retreated to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sep. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and dominance English system(Elagin Freemasonry).

In the 60s and especially in the 70s. XVIII century Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges increases several times, despite even the skeptical (if not to say semi-hostile) attitude towards Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises: why did a significant part of Russian educated society become so interested in Masonic teaching? The main reason In our opinion, a certain part of the noble society began to search for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for obvious reasons. During Peter's state reforms, the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.

That is why the order of free masons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

Portrait of Princess Anhalt-Zerbst, future Catherine II
And finally, the magnificent rituals, attire, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of the meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, primarily military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, veneration of rank, etc.

In the 1760s A large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, who, as a rule, were in opposition to the political regime of Catherine II, entered Freemasonry. It is enough to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and the famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most Russian lodges were part of the system of English or St. John's Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with elected leadership. The main goal was declared to be the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilyevich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Masons) as the Grand Provincial Master of Russia. After his name, the entire system is partly called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of lodges operated under various systems of Strict Supervision, which recognized higher degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (German branch of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority joined (albeit at different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union turned out to be extremely short-lived. Elagin himself, despite the fact that he denied the highest degrees, nevertheless reacted with sympathy to the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing to the Swedish royal house about the new wedding of the heir, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin’s mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ABOUT THE PERSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND INVESTIGATION

Novikov's investigative case includes huge amount documents - letters and decrees of Catherine, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Catherine, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case ended up in the archives at one time and is now stored in the funds Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TSGADA, category VIII, case 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in Novikov’s file, since they remained in the hands of those who led the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky and others. These originals subsequently passed into private ownership and remained forever lost to us. Fortunately, some of them turned out to be published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of materials from the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature, published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative case conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In those same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study “Novikov and the Moscow Martinists,” published a number of new documents taken from the “Novikov Case” and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation case. Thus, Longinus’s book contained the first and most complete set of documents, which before today, as a rule, were used by all scientists when studying Novikov’s activities. But this Longinian arch is far from complete. Many essential materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. A year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in volume II of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society" Popov published a number of the most important papers given to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner of Radishchev and Novikov - Sheshkovsky. From Popov’s publication, for the first time, the questions asked by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovsky himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of the comments made by Ekaterina to the answers of Novikov, whose case she was personally involved in. Among the questions asked to Novikov was question No. 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (in the text of the question Pavel’s name was not indicated, and the question was about a “person”). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

Catherine II on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park. Painting by artist Vladimir Borovikovsky, 1794
A year later - in 1869 - Academician Pekarsky published the book “Addition to the history of Freemasons in Russia in the 18th century.” The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry; among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov’s investigative case. Pekarskaya’s publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes in detail Novikov’s educational publishing activities. In particular, the papers characterizing the history of Novikov’s relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention; from them we learn about Novikov’s most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, given the general paucity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian educator. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, he was imprisoned in a dungeon in the Shlisselburg fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for enormous educational activities independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and place hopes in "royal mercy", must be understood historically correctly by the modern reader, with a clear understanding not only of the era, but also of the circumstances under which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom contemporaries called the “domestic executioner” of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned matters that Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the “special one” - Pavel. Therefore, he testified that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act,” and pleaded “guilty.” It is worth recalling that under similar conditions Radishchev did exactly the same thing when, forced to admit that he really called on the serfs to revolt or “threatened the kings with the scaffold,” he showed: “I wrote this without consideration” or: “I admit my error,” etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were of an officially binding nature. So in Radishchev’s answers to Sheshkovsky we will find appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the revolutionary’s actual attitude towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity forced Novikov to “throw himself at the feet of Her Imperial Majesty.” A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the consciousness that not only his entire life’s work had been destroyed, but also his name had been tarnished by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from the behavior of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical correctness, based his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, which called for openly going towards danger, and if necessary, then death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and, sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov made excuses.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, people have resorted to him only for information. Systematic study was undoubtedly hampered by the following two circumstances: a) the extreme dispersion of documents from publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents from Novikov’s investigative case surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case itself was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the increase in Catherine’s persecution of Novikov, and him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with the arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of a leading public figure hated by the empress, but also the destruction of the entire educational cause (a decree prohibiting the rental of a university printing house to Novikov, the closure of a bookstore, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Russian foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming with a steady foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', upstream Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The federal Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772, the 1st partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793, the 2nd partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place, approved at the Grodno Sejm. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov.

In 1795, the 3rd partition of Poland took place. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important direction foreign policy Catherine II also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (Battle of Kozludzhi, Battle of Ryabaya Mogila, Battle of Kagul, Battle of Larga, Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented and thereby an attempt to unleash new war, after which Türkiye recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Treaty of Georgievsk 1783
Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Irakli II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, and its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. The Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading trends in social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, a small Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russian military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanisi, ravaged Tbilisi.

The history of the relationship between the Russian Empress Catherine II and men is no less than her state activities. Many of Catherine's favorites were not only lovers, but also major statesmen.

Favoritism and Catherine's childrenII

The development of relationships between the rulers of European countries and the opposite sex in the 17th – 18th centuries created the institution of favoritism. However, you need to distinguish between favorites and lovers. The title of favorite was practically a court one, but was not included in the “table of ranks.” In addition to pleasures and rewards, this brought the need to fulfill certain state duties.

It is believed that Catherine II had 23 lovers, and not every one of them can be called a favorite. Most European sovereigns changed sexual partners much more often. It was they, the Europeans, who created the legend about the depravity of the Russian Empress. On the other hand, you can’t call her chaste either.

It is generally accepted that the future Catherine II, who came to Russia at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth, was married in 1745 to Grand Duke Peter, an impotent man who was not interested in the charms of his young wife. But he was interested in other women and periodically changed them, however, nothing is known about his children from his mistresses.

More is known about the children of the Grand Duchess, and then Empress Catherine II, but there are even more unconfirmed rumors and assumptions:

There are not that many children, especially given that not all of them necessarily belonged to Catherine the Great.

How Catherine diedII

Versions of death (November 17, 1796) great empress there are several. Their authors never cease to mock the sexual irrepressibility of the empress, as always “not seeing the beam in their own eye.” Some of the versions are simply full of hatred and clearly fabricated, most likely, by revolutionary France, which hates absolutism, or by its other enemies:

1. The Empress died during sexual intercourse with a stallion raised above her on ropes. Allegedly, it was he who was crushed.
2. The Empress died while having an affair with a wild boar.
3. Catherine the Great was killed in the back by a Pole while relieving herself in the toilet.
4. Catherine, with her own weight, broke a toilet seat in the toilet, which she had made from the throne of the Polish king.

These myths are completely baseless and have nothing to do with the Russian Empress. There is an opinion that unflattering versions of death could have been invented and spread at court by the son who hated the empress, the future Emperor Paul I.

The most reliable versions of death are:

1. Catherine died on the second day after she suffered a severe heart attack.
2. The cause of death was a stroke (apoplexy), which found the empress in the restroom. In painful agony, without regaining consciousness for about 3 hours, Empress Catherine died.
3. Paul organized the murder (or untimely provision of first aid) of the empress. While the empress was in her death throes, her son Paul found and destroyed the will transferring power to his son Alexander.
4. An additional version of death is the gallbladder ruptured during a fall.

The official and generally accepted version when determining the causes of the empress’s death is a stroke, but what actually happened is not known or has not been conclusively proven.

Empress Catherine II the Great was buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress in the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul.

The personal life and death of people of great importance for the history of the state always gives rise to a lot of speculation and rumors. The corrupted “free” Europe, as soon as it saw the results of European “enlightenment” in Russia, tried to prick, humiliate, and insult the “wild” one. How many favorites and lovers there were, how many children Catherine the Great had are not the most important questions for understanding the essence of her reign. What is more important for history is what the empress did during the day, not at night.

Empress of All Russia (June 28, 1762 - November 6, 1796). Her reign is one of the most remarkable in Russian history; and its dark and light sides had a tremendous influence on subsequent events, especially on the mental and cultural development of the country. The wife of Peter III, nee Princess of Anhalt-Zerbt (born April 24, 1729), was naturally gifted with a great mind and strong character; on the contrary, her husband was a weak man, poorly brought up. Not sharing his pleasures, Catherine devoted herself to reading and soon moved from novels to historical and philosophical books. A select circle formed around her, in which Catherine’s greatest trust was enjoyed first by Saltykov, and then by Stanislav Poniatovsky, later the King of Poland. Her relationship with Empress Elizabeth was not particularly cordial: when Catherine’s son, Paul, was born, the Empress took the child to her place and rarely allowed the mother to see him. Elizabeth died on December 25, 1761; with the accession of Peter III to the throne, Catherine’s position became even worse. The coup of June 28, 1762 elevated Catherine to the throne (see Peter III). The harsh school of life and enormous natural intelligence helped Catherine herself to get out of a very difficult situation and to lead Russia out of it. The treasury was empty; the monopoly crushed trade and industry; factory peasants and serfs were worried about rumors of freedom, which were renewed every now and then; peasants from the western border fled to Poland. Under such circumstances, Catherine ascended the throne, the rights to which belonged to her son. But she understood that this son would become a plaything on the throne, like Peter II. The regency was a fragile affair. The fate of Menshikov, Biron, Anna Leopoldovna was in everyone’s memory.

Catherine's penetrating gaze stopped equally attentively on the phenomena of life both at home and abroad. Having learned, two months after her accession to the throne, that the famous French Encyclopedia had been condemned by the Parisian parliament for atheism and its continuation was prohibited, Catherine invited Voltaire and Diderot to publish the encyclopedia in Riga. This one proposal won over the best minds, who then gave direction to public opinion throughout Europe, to Catherine’s side. In the fall of 1762, Catherine was crowned and spent the winter in Moscow. In the summer of 1764, Second Lieutenant Mirovich decided to elevate to the throne Ioann Antonovich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, who was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress. The plan failed - Ivan Antonovich, during an attempt to free him, was shot by one of the guard soldiers; Mirovich was executed by court verdict. In 1764, Prince Vyazemsky, sent to pacify the peasants assigned to the factories, was ordered to investigate the question of the benefits of free labor over hired labor. The same question was proposed to the newly established Economic Society (see Free Economic Society and Serfdom). First of all, the issue of the monastery peasants, which had become especially acute even under Elizabeth, had to be resolved. At the beginning of her reign, Elizabeth returned the estates to monasteries and churches, but in 1757 she, along with the dignitaries around her, came to the conviction of the need to transfer the management of church property to secular hands. Peter III ordered that Elizabeth's instructions be fulfilled and the management of church property be transferred to the board of economy. Inventories of monastery property were carried out, under Peter III, extremely roughly. When Catherine II ascended the throne, the bishops filed complaints with her and asked for the return of control of church property to them. Catherine, on the advice of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, satisfied their desire, abolished the board of economy, but did not abandon her intention, but only postponed its execution; She then ordered that the 1757 commission resume its studies. It was ordered to make new inventories of monastic and church property; but the clergy was also dissatisfied with the new inventories; The Rostov Metropolitan Arseny Matseevich especially rebelled against them. In his report to the synod, he expressed himself harshly, arbitrarily interpreting church historical facts, even distorting them and making comparisons offensive to Catherine. The Synod presented the matter to the Empress, in the hope (as Solovyov thinks) that Catherine II this time will show her usual gentleness. The hope was not justified: Arseny's report caused such irritation in Catherine, which had not been noticed in her either before or since. She could not forgive Arseny for comparing her with Julian and Judas and the desire to make her out to be a violator of her word. Arseny was sentenced to exile to the Arkhangelsk diocese, to the Nikolaev Korelsky Monastery, and then, as a result of new accusations, to deprivation of the monastic dignity and lifelong imprisonment in Revel (see Arseny Matseevich). Characteristic of Catherine II next case from the beginning of her reign. The matter of allowing Jews to enter Russia was reported. Catherine said that to begin her reign with a decree on the free entry of Jews would be a bad way to calm minds; It is impossible to recognize entry as harmful. Then Senator Prince Odoevsky suggested looking at what Empress Elizabeth wrote in the margins of the same report. Catherine demanded a report and read: “I do not want selfish profit from the enemies of Christ.” Turning to the prosecutor general, she said: “I wish this case to be postponed.”

The increase in the number of serfs through huge distributions to the favorites and dignitaries of the populated estates, the establishment of serfdom in Little Russia, completely remains a dark stain on the memory of Catherine II. One should not, however, lose sight of the fact that the underdevelopment of Russian society at that time was evident at every step. So, when Catherine II decided to abolish torture and proposed this measure to the Senate, senators expressed concern that if torture was abolished, no one, going to bed, would be sure whether he would get up alive in the morning. Therefore, Catherine, without abolishing torture publicly, sent out a secret order that in cases where torture was used, judges would base their actions on Chapter X of the Order, in which torture is condemned as a cruel and extremely stupid thing. At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, an attempt was renewed to create an institution that resembled the Supreme Privy Council or the Cabinet that replaced it, in new form, under the name of the permanent council of the empress. The author of the project was Count Panin. Feldzeichmeister General Villebois wrote to the Empress: “I don’t know who the drafter of this project is, but it seems to me as if, under the guise of protecting the monarchy, he is subtly leaning more towards aristocratic rule.” Villebois was right; but Catherine II herself understood the oligarchic nature of the project. She signed it, but kept it under wraps and it was never made public. Thus Panin's idea of ​​a council of six permanent members remained just a dream; Catherine II's private council always consisted of rotating members. Knowing how Peter III's defection to Prussia irritated public opinion, Catherine ordered Russian generals to remain neutral and thereby contributed to ending the war (see Seven Years' War). The internal affairs of the state required special attention: what was most striking was the lack of justice. Catherine II expressed herself energetically on this matter: “extortion has increased to such an extent that there is hardly the smallest place in the government in which a court would be held without infecting this ulcer; if anyone is looking for a place, he pays; if anyone is defending himself from slander, he defends himself with money; Whether anyone slanderes anyone, he backs up all his cunning machinations with gifts.” Catherine was especially amazed when she learned that within the current Novgorod province they took money from peasants for swearing allegiance to her. This state of justice forced Catherine II to convene a commission in 1766 to publish the Code. Catherine II handed this commission an Order, which it was to be guided by when drawing up the Code. The mandate was drawn up based on the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria (see Mandate [ Big] and the Commission of 1766). Polish affairs, the first Turkish war that arose from them, and internal unrest suspended the legislative activity of Catherine II until 1775. Polish affairs caused the divisions and fall of Poland: under the first partition of 1773, Russia received the current provinces of Mogilev, Vitebsk, part of Minsk, i.e. most of Belarus (see Poland). The first Turkish war began in 1768 and ended in peace in Kucuk-Kaynarji, which was ratified in 1775. According to this peace, the Porte recognized the independence of the Crimean and Budzhak Tatars; ceded Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn to Russia; opened free passage for Russian ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean; granted forgiveness to Christians who took part in the war; allowed Russia's petition in Moldovan cases. During the first Turkish war, a plague raged in Moscow, causing a plague riot; In eastern Russia, an even more dangerous rebellion broke out, known as the Pugachevshchina. In 1770, the plague from the army entered Little Russia; in the spring of 1771 it appeared in Moscow; the commander-in-chief (currently the governor-general) Count Saltykov left the city to the mercy of fate. Retired General Eropkin voluntarily took on the difficult responsibility of maintaining order and easing the plague through preventive measures. The townsfolk did not follow his instructions and not only did not burn the clothes and linen of those who died of the plague, but they hid their very death and buried them in the outskirts. The plague intensified: in the early summer of 1771, 400 people died every day. The people crowded in horror at the Barbarian Gate, in front of the miraculous icon. The infection from crowding of people, of course, intensified. The then Moscow Archbishop Ambrose (q.v.), an enlightened man, ordered the icon to be removed. A rumor immediately spread that the bishop, together with the doctors, had conspired to kill the people. The ignorant and fanatical crowd, mad with fear, killed the worthy archpastor. Rumors spread that the rebels were preparing to set fire to Moscow and exterminate doctors and nobles. Eropkin, with several companies, managed, however, to restore calm. In the last days of September, Count Grigory Orlov, then the closest person to Catherine, arrived in Moscow: but at this time the plague was already weakening and stopped in October. This plague killed 130,000 people in Moscow alone.

The Pugachev rebellion was started by the Yaik Cossacks, dissatisfied with the changes in their Cossack life. In 1773, the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev (q.v.) took the name of Peter III and raised the banner of rebellion. Catherine II entrusted the pacification of the rebellion to Bibikov, who immediately understood the essence of the matter; It’s not Pugachev that’s important, he said, it’s the general displeasure that’s important. The Yaik Cossacks and the rebellious peasants were joined by the Bashkirs, Kalmyks, and Kyrgyz. Bibikov, giving orders from Kazan, moved detachments from all sides to more dangerous places; Prince Golitsyn liberated Orenburg, Mikhelson - Ufa, Mansurov - Yaitsky town. At the beginning of 1774, the rebellion began to subside, but Bibikov died of exhaustion, and the rebellion flared up again: Pugachev captured Kazan and moved to the right bank of the Volga. Bibikov's place was taken by Count P. Panin, but did not replace him. Mikhelson defeated Pugachev near Arzamas and blocked his path to Moscow. Pugachev rushed to the south, took Penza, Petrovsk, Saratov and hanged nobles everywhere. From Saratov he moved to Tsaritsyn, but was repulsed and at Cherny Yar was again defeated by Mikhelson. When Suvorov arrived to the army, the impostor barely held on and was soon betrayed by his accomplices. In January 1775, Pugachev was executed in Moscow (see Pugachevshchina). Since 1775, the legislative activity of Catherine II resumed, which, however, had not stopped before. Thus, in 1768, the commercial and noble banks were abolished and the so-called assignat or change bank was established (see Assignations). In 1775, the existence of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was already heading towards collapse, ceased to exist. In the same 1775, the transformation of provincial government began. An institution was published for the management of provinces, which was introduced for twenty whole years: in 1775 it began with the Tver province and ended in 1796 with the establishment of the Vilna province (see Governorate). Thus, the reform of provincial government, begun by Peter the Great, was brought out of the chaotic state by Catherine II and completed by her. In 1776, Catherine ordered the word in petitions slave replace with the word loyal. By the end of the first Turkish war he received especially important Potemkin, who strived for great things. Together with his collaborator, Bezborodko, he compiled a project known as the Greek one. The grandeur of this project - having destroyed the Ottoman Porte, restore the Greek Empire, to the throne of which Konstantin Pavlovich would be installed - pleased E. An opponent of Potemkin’s influence and plans, Count N. Panin, tutor of Tsarevich Paul and president of the College of Foreign Affairs, in order to distract Catherine II from the Greek project , presented her with a project of armed neutrality in 1780. Armed neutrality (q.v.) was intended to provide protection to the trade of neutral states during the war and was directed against England, which was unfavorable for Potemkin’s plans. Pursuing his broad and useless plan for Russia, Potemkin prepared an extremely useful and necessary thing for Russia - the annexation of Crimea. In Crimea, since the recognition of its independence, two parties were worried - Russian and Turkish. Their struggle gave rise to the occupation of Crimea and the Kuban region. The Manifesto of 1783 announced the annexation of Crimea and the Kuban region to Russia. The Last Khan Shagin-Girey was sent to Voronezh; Crimea was renamed the Tauride province; Crimean raids stopped. It is believed that as a result of the raids of the Crimeans, Great and Lesser Russia and part of Poland, from the 15th century. until 1788, it lost from 3 to 4 million of its population: captives were turned into slaves, captives filled harems or became slaves in the ranks of female servants. In Constantinople, the Mamelukes had Russian nurses and nannies. In the XVI, XVII and even in the XVIII centuries. Venice and France used shackled Russian slaves purchased in the markets of the Levant as galley laborers. The pious Louis XIV tried only to ensure that these slaves did not remain schismatics. The annexation of Crimea put an end to the shameful trade in Russian slaves (see V. Lamansky in the Historical Bulletin for 1880: “The Power of the Turks in Europe”). Following this, Irakli II, the king of Georgia, recognized the protectorate of Russia. The year 1785 was marked by two important pieces of legislation: Charter granted to the nobility(see nobility) and City regulations(see City). The charter on public schools on August 15, 1786 was implemented only on a small scale. Projects to found universities in Pskov, Chernigov, Penza and Yekaterinoslav were postponed. In 1783, the Russian Academy was founded to study the native language. The founding of the institutions marked the beginning of women's education. Orphanages were established, smallpox vaccination was introduced, and the Pallas expedition was equipped to study the remote outskirts.

Potemkin's enemies interpreted, not understanding the importance of acquiring Crimea, that Crimea and Novorossiya were not worth the money spent on their establishment. Then Catherine II decided to explore the newly acquired region herself. Accompanied by the Austrian, English and French ambassadors, with a huge retinue, in 1787 she set off on a journey. The Archbishop of Mogilev, Georgy Konissky, met her in Mstislavl with a speech that was famous by her contemporaries as an example of eloquence. The whole character of the speech is determined by its beginning: “Let us leave it to the astronomers to prove that the Earth revolves around the Sun: our sun moves around us.” In Kanev, Stanislav Poniatovsky, King of Poland, met Catherine II; near Keidan - Emperor Joseph II. He and Catherine laid the first stone of the city of Yekaterinoslav, visited Kherson and inspected the Black Sea fleet that Potemkin had just created. During the journey, Joseph noticed the theatricality in the situation, saw how people were hastily herded into villages that were supposedly under construction; but in Kherson he saw the real deal - and gave justice to Potemkin.

The Second Turkish War under Catherine II was fought in alliance with Joseph II, from 1787 to 1791. In 1791, on December 29, peace was concluded in Iasi. For all the victories, Russia received only Ochakov and the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper (see Turkish wars and the Peace of Jassy). At the same time, there was, with varying success, a war with Sweden, declared by Gustav III in 1789 (see Sweden). It ended on August 3, 1790 with the Peace of Verel (see), based on the status quo. During the 2nd Turkish War, a coup took place in Poland: on May 3, 1791, a new constitution was promulgated, which led to the second partition of Poland, in 1793, and then to the third, in 1795 (see Poland). Under the second section, Russia received the rest of the Minsk province, Volyn and Podolia, and under the 3rd - the Grodno Voivodeship and Courland. In 1796, in the last year of the reign of Catherine II, Count Valerian Zubov, appointed commander-in-chief in the campaign against Persia, conquered Derbent and Baku; His successes were stopped by the death of Catherine.

The last years of the reign of Catherine II were darkened, from 1790, by a reactionary direction. Then the French Revolution broke out, and the pan-European, Jesuit-oligarchic reaction entered into an alliance with our reaction at home. Her agent and instrument was Catherine’s last favorite, Prince Platon Zubov, together with his brother, Count Valerian. European reaction wanted to drag Russia into the struggle with revolutionary France - a struggle alien to the direct interests of Russia. Catherine II spoke kind words to the representatives of the reaction and did not give a single soldier. Then the undermining of the throne of Catherine II intensified, and accusations were renewed that she was illegally occupying the throne that belonged to Pavel Petrovich. There is reason to believe that in 1790 an attempt was being made to elevate Pavel Petrovich to the throne. This attempt was probably connected with the expulsion of Prince Frederick of Württemberg from St. Petersburg. The reaction at home then accused Catherine of allegedly being excessively free-thinking. The basis for the accusation was, among other things, permission to translate Voltaire and participation in the translation of Belisarius, Marmontel's story, which was found anti-religious, because it did not indicate the difference between Christian and pagan virtue. Catherine II grew old, there was almost no trace of her former courage and energy - and so, under such circumstances, in 1790 Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” appeared, with a project for the liberation of the peasants, as if written out from the published articles of her Order. The unfortunate Radishchev was punished by exile to Siberia. Perhaps this cruelty was the result of the fear that the exclusion of articles on the emancipation of peasants from the Order would be considered hypocrisy on the part of Catherine. In 1792, Novikov, who had served so much in Russian education, was imprisoned in Shlisselburg. The secret motive for this measure was Novikov’s relationship with Pavel Petrovich. In 1793, Knyazhnin suffered cruelly for his tragedy "Vadim". In 1795, even Derzhavin was suspected of being in a revolutionary direction, for his transcription of Psalm 81, entitled “To Rulers and Judges.” Thus ended the educational reign of Catherine II, which raised the national spirit, great man(Catherine le grand). Despite the reaction of recent years, the name of educational activity will remain with him in history. From this reign in Russia they began to realize the importance of humane ideas, they began to talk about the right of man to think for the benefit of his own kind. had a great influence on the general course of affairs." Under Catherine, Zubov’s influence was harmful, but only because he was an instrument of a harmful party.].

Literature. The works of Kolotov, Sumarokov, Lefort are panegyrics. Of the new ones, Brickner's work is more satisfactory. Bilbasov's very important work is not finished; Only one volume was published in Russian, two in German. S. M. Solovyov in the XXIX volume of his history of Russia focused on peace in Kuchuk-Kainardzhi. The foreign works of Ruliere and Custer cannot be ignored only because of undeserved attention to them. Of the countless memoirs, Khrapovitsky's memoirs are especially important (the best edition is by N.P. Barsukova). See Waliszewski's newest work: "Le Roman d"une impératrice". Works on individual issues are indicated in the corresponding articles. The publications of the Imperial Historical Society are extremely important.

E. Belov.

Gifted with literary talent, receptive and sensitive to phenomena surrounding life Catherine II also took an active part in the literature of her time. The literary movement she excited was dedicated to the development of educational ideas of the 18th century. Thoughts on education, briefly outlined in one of the chapters of “Instruction,” were subsequently developed in detail by Catherine in allegorical tales: “About Tsarevich Chlor” (1781) and “About Tsarevich Fevey” (1782), and mainly in “Instructions to Prince N. Saltykov" given upon his appointment as tutor to the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich (1784). Catherine mainly borrowed the pedagogical ideas expressed in these works from Montaigne and Locke: from the first she took a general view of the goals of education, and she used the second when developing particulars. Guided by Montaigne, Catherine II put the moral element in first place in education - the rooting in the soul of humanity, justice, respect for laws, and condescension towards people. At the same time, she demanded that the mental and physical aspects of education be properly developed. Personally raising her grandchildren up to the age of seven, she compiled a whole educational library. Catherine also wrote “Notes on Russian History” for the Grand Dukes. In purely fictional works, which include magazine articles and dramatic works, Catherine II is much more original than in works of a pedagogical and legislative nature. Pointing out actual contradictions to the ideals that existed in society, her comedies and satirical articles were supposed to significantly contribute to the development public consciousness, making the importance and feasibility of the reforms it undertakes clearer.

The beginning of Catherine II's public literary activity dates back to 1769, when she became an active collaborator and inspirer of the satirical magazine "Everything and Everything" (see). The patronizing tone adopted by "Everything and Everything" in relation to other magazines, and the instability of its direction, soon armed almost all the magazines of that time against it; her main opponent was the brave and direct “Drone” of N. I. Novikov. The latter's harsh attacks on judges, governors and prosecutors greatly displeased "Everything"; It is impossible to say positively who conducted the polemics against “Drone” in this magazine, but it is reliably known that one of the articles directed against Novikov belonged to the empress herself. In the period from 1769 to 1783, when Catherine again acted as a journalist, she wrote five comedies, and between them her best plays: “About Time” and “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day.” The purely literary merits of Catherine's comedies are not high: they have little action, the intrigue is too simple, the denouement is monotonous. They are written in the spirit and model of French modern comedies, in which servants are more developed and intelligent than their masters. But at the same time, in Catherine’s comedies, purely Russian social vices are ridiculed and Russian types appear. Hypocrisy, superstition, bad education, the pursuit of fashion, blind imitation of the French - these are the themes that Catherine developed in her comedies. These themes had already been outlined earlier in our satirical magazines of 1769 and, by the way, “Everything and Everything”; but what was presented in magazines in the form of separate pictures, characteristics, sketches, in the comedies of Catherine II received a more complete and vivid image. The types of the stingy and heartless prude Khanzhakhina, the superstitious gossip Vestnikova in the comedy "About Time", the petimeter Firlyufyushkov and the projector Nekopeikov in the comedy "Mrs. Vorchalkina's Name Day" are among the most successful in Russian comic literature of the last century. Variations of these types are repeated in other comedies of Catherine.

By 1783, Catherine’s active participation in the “Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word,” published at the Academy of Sciences, edited by Princess E. R. Dashkova, dates back. Here Catherine II placed a number of satirical articles entitled “Fables and Fables.” The initial purpose of these articles was, apparently, a satirical depiction of the weaknesses and funny sides of the society contemporary to the empress, and the originals for such portraits were often taken by the empress from among those close to her. Soon, however, “Were and Fables” began to serve as a reflection of the magazine life of “Interlocutor”. Catherine II was the unofficial editor of this magazine; as can be seen from her correspondence with Dashkova, she read many of the articles sent for publication in the magazine while still in manuscript; some of these articles touched her to the quick: she entered into polemics with their authors, often making fun of them. For the reading public, Catherine’s participation in the magazine was no secret; Articles of letters were often sent to the address of the author of Fables and Fables, in which rather transparent hints were made. The Empress tried as much as possible to maintain composure and not give away her incognito identity; only once, enraged by Fonvizin’s “impudent and reprehensible” questions, she so clearly expressed her irritation in “Facts and Fables” that Fonvizin considered it necessary to rush with a letter of repentance. In addition to “Facts and Fables,” the empress placed in “Interlocutor” several small polemical and satirical articles, mostly ridiculing the pompous writings of random collaborators of “Interlocutor” - Lyuboslov and Count S.P. Rumyantsev. One of these articles (“The Society of the Unknowing, a daily note”), in which Princess Dashkova saw a parody of the meetings of the then newly founded, in her opinion, Russian Academy, served as the reason for the termination of Catherine’s participation in the magazine. In subsequent years (1785-1790), Catherine wrote 13 plays, not counting dramatic proverbs in French, intended for the Hermitage theater.

The Masons have long attracted the attention of Catherine II. If you believe her words, she took the trouble to familiarize herself in detail with the vast Masonic literature, but did not find anything in Freemasonry other than “stupidity.” Stay in St. Petersburg. (in 1780) Cagliostro, whom she described as a scoundrel worthy of the gallows, armed her even more against the Freemasons. Receiving alarming news about the increasingly increasing influence of Moscow Masonic circles, seeing among her entourage many followers and defenders of the Masonic teaching, the Empress decided to fight this “folly” with literary weapons, and within two years (1785-86) she wrote one the other, three comedies ("The Deceiver", "The Seduced" and "The Siberian Shaman"), in which Freemasonry was ridiculed. Only in the comedy "The Seduced" are there, however, life traits reminiscent of the Moscow Freemasons. "The Deceiver" is directed against Cagliostro. In “The Shaman of Siberia,” Catherine II, obviously unfamiliar with the essence of Masonic teaching, did not think to bring it on the same level with shamanic tricks. There is no doubt that Catherine's satire had no effect long action: Freemasonry continued to develop, and in order to deal a decisive blow to it, the empress no longer resorted to meek methods of correction, as she called her satire, but to drastic and decisive administrative measures.

In all likelihood, Catherine’s acquaintance with Shakespeare, in French or German translations, also dates back to this time. She remade “The Godmothers of Windsor” for the Russian stage, but this rework turned out to be extremely weak and bears very little resemblance to the original Shakespeare. In imitation of his historical chronicles, she composed two plays from the life of the ancient Russian princes - Rurik and Oleg. The main significance of these “Historical Representations,” which are extremely weak in literary terms, lies in the political and moral ideas that Catherine puts into the mouths of the characters. Of course, these are not the ideas of Rurik or Oleg, but the thoughts of Catherine II herself. In comic operas, Catherine II did not pursue any serious goal: these were situational plays in which the main role was played by the musical and choreographic side. The empress took the plot for these operas, for the most part, from folk tales and epics known to her from handwritten collections. Only "The Woe-Bogatyr Kosometovich", despite its fairy-tale character, contains an element of modernity: this opera exposed the Swedish king Gustav III, who at that time opened hostile actions against Russia, in a comic light, and was removed from the repertoire immediately after the conclusion of peace with Sweden. Catherine's French plays, the so-called "proverbs" - small one-act plays, the plots of which were, for the most part, episodes from modern life. They do not have any particular significance, repeating themes and types already introduced in other comedies of Catherine II. Catherine herself did not attach importance to her literary activity. “I look at my writings,” she wrote to Grimm, “as trifles. I love to do experiments in all kinds, but it seems to me that everything I wrote is rather mediocre, which is why, apart from entertainment, I did not attach any importance to it.”

Works of Catherine II published by A. Smirdin (St. Petersburg, 1849-50). Exclusively literary works Catherine II was published twice in 1893, edited by V. F. Solntsev and A. I. Vvedensky. Selected articles and monographs: P. Pekarsky, “Materials for the history of the journal and literary activities of Catherine II” (St. Petersburg, 1863); Dobrolyubov, st. about the “Interlocutor of lovers of the Russian word” (X, 825); "Works of Derzhavin", ed. J. Grota (St. Petersburg, 1873, vol. VIII, pp. 310-339); M. Longinov, “Dramatic works of Catherine II” (M., 1857); G. Gennadi, “More on the dramatic writings of Catherine II” (in “Biblical Zap.”, 1858, No. 16); P. K. Shchebalsky, “Catherine II as a Writer” (Zarya, 1869-70); his, “Dramatic and morally descriptive works of Empress Catherine II” (in “Russian Bulletin”, 1871, vol. XVIII, nos. 5 and 6); N. S. Tikhonravov, “Literary trifles of 1786.” (in the scientific and literary collection, published by "Russkie Vedomosti" - "Help to the Starving", M., 1892); E. S. Shumigorsky, “Essays from Russian history. I. Empress-publicist” (St. Petersburg, 1887); P. Bessonova, “On the influence of folk art on the dramas of Empress Catherine and on the integral Russian songs inserted here” (in the magazine “Zarya”, 1870); V. S. Lebedev, “Shakespeare in the adaptations of Catherine II” (in the Russian Bulletin) (1878, No. 3); N. Lavrovsky, “On the pedagogical significance of the works of Catherine the Great” (Kharkov, 1856); A. Brickner, “Comic Opera Catherine II "Woe-hero" ("J. M. N. Pr.", 1870, No. 12); A. Galakhov, "There were also Fables, the work of Catherine II" ("Notes of the Fatherland" 1856, No. 10).

V. Solntsev.

It was not for nothing that she was called the Great during her lifetime. During the long reign of Catherine II, almost all areas of activity and life in the state underwent changes. Let's try to consider who Catherine II really was and how long she ruled in the Russian Empire.

Catherine the Great: years of life and results of her reign

The real name of Catherine the Great is Sophia Frederica Augustus of Anhalt - Zerbska. Born on April 21, 1729 in Stetsin. Sophia's father, the Duke of Zerbt, rose to the rank of field marshal in the Prussian service, laid claim to the Duchy of Courland, was the governor of Stetsin, and did not make a fortune in Prussia, which was impoverished at that time. The mother is from the poor relatives of the Danish kings of the Oldenburg dynasty, a great-aunt to Sophia Frederica's future husband.

Not much is known about the period of life of the future empress with her parents. Sophia received a good, at that time, home education, which included the following subjects:

• German;
• French;
• Russian language (not confirmed by all researchers);
• dancing and music;
• etiquette;
• needlework;
• basics of history and geography;
• theology (Protestantism).

The parents did not raise the girl, only occasionally showing parental severity with suggestions and punishments. Sophia grew up as a lively and inquisitive child, easily communicated with her peers on the streets of Stetsin, and, to the best of her ability, learned to lead household and participated in household chores - the father could not support the entire necessary staff of servants on his salary.

In 1744, Sophia Frederica, together with her mother, as an accompanying person, was invited to Russia for a bride-show, and then married (August 21, 1745) to her second cousin, heir to the throne, Holsteiner by birth, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. Almost a year before the wedding, Sophia Frederika accepted Orthodox baptism and became Ekaterina Alekseevna (in honor of the mother of the reigning Empress Elizaveta Petrovna).

According to the established version, Sophia - Catherine was so imbued with her hopes for a great future in Russia that immediately upon her arrival in the empire she rushed to frantically study Russian history, language, traditions, Orthodoxy, French and German philosophy, etc.

The relationship with my husband did not work out. What the real reason was is unknown. Perhaps the reason was Catherine herself, who before 1754 suffered two unsuccessful pregnancies without having a marital relationship, as the generally accepted version claims. The reason could be Peter, who is believed to have been attracted to rather exotic (those with some external flaws) women.

Be that as it may, in the young grand-ducal family, the ruling Empress Elizabeth demanded an heir. On September 20, 1754, her wish came true - her son Pavel was born. There is a version that S. Saltykov became his father. Some believe that Saltykov was “planted” in Catherine’s bed by Elizabeth herself. However, no one disputes that outwardly Paul is the spitting image of Peter, and the subsequent reign and character of Paul serve as further evidence of the latter’s origin.

Immediately after birth, Elizabeth takes her grandson from her parents and raises him herself. His mother is only occasionally allowed to see him. Peter and Catherine are moving away even more - the meaning of spending time together has been exhausted. Peter continues to play “Prussia - Holstein”, and Catherine develops connections with the Russian, English, and Polish aristocracies. Both periodically change lovers without a shadow of jealousy towards each other.

The birth of Catherine's daughter Anna in 1758 (it is believed that from Stanislav Poniatovsky) and the opening of her correspondence with the English ambassador and disgraced field marshal Apraksin puts the Grand Duchess on the brink of being tonsured into a monastery, which did not suit her at all.

In December 1762, Empress Elizabeth died after a long illness. Peter takes the throne and removes his wife to the far wing of the Winter Palace, where Catherine gives birth to another child, this time from Grigory Orlov. The child would later become Count Alexei Bobrinsky.

Within a few months of his reign, Peter III managed to alienate the military, nobles and clergy with his pro-Prussian and anti-Russian actions and desires. In these same circles, Catherine is perceived as an alternative to the emperor and hope for changes for the better.

On June 28, 1762, with the support of the guards regiments, Catherine carried out a coup and became an autocratic ruler. Peter III abdicates the throne and then dies under strange circumstances. According to one version, he was stabbed to death by Alexei Orlov, according to another, he escaped and became Emelyan Pugachev, etc.

• secularization of church lands - saved the empire from financial collapse at the beginning of the reign;
• the number of industrial enterprises has doubled;
• treasury revenues increased 4 times, but despite this, after the death of Catherine, a budget deficit of 205 million rubles was revealed;
• the army doubled in size;
• as a result of 6 wars and “peacefully” the south of Ukraine, Crimea, Kuban, Kerch, partly the lands of White Rus', Poland, Lithuania, and the western part of Volyn were annexed to the empire. The total area of ​​acquisitions is 520,000 sq. m. km.;
• The uprising in Poland under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko was suppressed. Led the suppression of A.V. Suvorov, who eventually became a field marshal. Was it just a rebellion if such rewards are given for its suppression?
• uprising (or full-scale war) led by E. Pugachev in 1773 - 1775. The fact that it was a war is supported by the fact that the best commander of that time, A.V., was again involved in the suppression. Suvorov;
• after the suppression of the uprising of E. Pugachev, the development of the Urals and Siberia by the Russian Empire began;
• more than 120 new cities were built;
• the territorial division of the empire into provinces was carried out according to population (300,000 people - province);
• elected courts were introduced to try civil and criminal cases of the population;
• noble self-government was organized in cities;
• a set of noble privileges was introduced;
• the final enslavement of the peasants took place;
• a secondary education system was introduced, schools were opened in provincial cities;
• the Moscow Orphanage and the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens were opened;
• paper money was introduced into monetary circulation and the Assignation Office with eagle owls was created in large cities;
• Vaccination of the population began.

In what year did Catherine die?IIand her heirs

Long before her death, Catherine II began to think about who would come to power after her and be able to continue the work of strengthening the Russian state.

Son Paul as the heir to the throne did not suit Catherine, as an unbalanced person and too similar to her ex-husband Peter III. Therefore, she devoted all her attention in raising the heir to her grandson Alexander Pavlovich. Alexander received an excellent education and married at the request of his grandmother. The marriage confirmed that Alexander was an adult.

Despite the wishes of the empress, who died of a cerebral hemorrhage in mid-November 1796, insisting on her right to inherit the throne, Paul I comes to power.

How much of the rules of Catherine II should be assessed by descendants, but for a true assessment it is necessary to read the archives, and not repeat what was written a hundred to one hundred and fifty years ago. Only in this case is a correct assessment of the reign of this extraordinary person possible. Purely chronologically, the reign of Catherine the Great lasted 34 eventful years. It is known for certain and confirmed by numerous uprisings that not all inhabitants of the empire liked what was done during the years of its enlightened rule.