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Goals and stages of political reform. Changes in the spiritual life of society

IN modern Russia spiritual life is a reflection of the same processes that occur in other areas social development.

Reformatting the economy into a market economy, updating social structures, restructuring political system and complex relationships with the rest of the world - all this greatly influences the spirituality and culture of society.

What features characterize the spiritual life of modern Russia?

In the Russian spiritual tradition, which was preserved and cultivated during the Soviet era, there was a priority of selflessness and honesty. Working exclusively for money and material goods, without moral incentives, was considered an unworthy occupation. It was indecent to praise yourself, shout about your achievements and good results in any field. In the current capitalist conditions, each person must present himself favorably in his resume as an excellent specialist, briefly and vividly display his professional successes. That is, sell yourself at a higher price.

Careerism, which was condemned during the Soviet Union, is now presented as the basis for the success of every person. And also the attitude towards material motivation in work has changed. The pinnacle of prestige and success in modern society are those professions that can give a person maximum profit. Such changes in the consciousness of society greatly influence all aspects of spiritual and cultural life.

Changing cultural vector

There has been complete commercialization in art. The author creates a product, expecting only financial profit from it, and not setting the task to create piece of art, as it was before. The sphere of true art is moving further and further away from the perception of the masses. She becomes inaccessible to perception ordinary person due to its complex aesthetics. Today, many people talk about the absence of the spiritual component of the modern generation of our citizens, about the influence of cliches of Western culture.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, this is a true statement, since, thanks to globalization and the speed of dissemination of any information among a wide mass of people, so-called cultural universals are created, which are most often aimed at an intellectually limited “connoisseur.” The current culture in Russia is being reformatted due to changes in our society and under outside influence. The dynamics of cultural life in our country, as well as its instability, rapid changes in cultural guidelines create certain trends in spiritual values in modern Russia.

What determines the trends in the spiritual life of modern society

The level of development of culture and spirituality of society can be determined:

by the volume of cultural values created in it;
according to the boundaries of their prevalence;
according to the degree to which people perceive them.

One of key features development of cultural and spiritual life in our country is colossal social and cultural gap between the capital and big cities with the province, which should cause serious concern among policymakers and scientists.

Constantly evaluate the level of cultural and spiritual change is extremely important. Necessary know how many research institutes, universities, libraries, theaters, museums there are in the country etc. But quantity does not mean quality; it is necessary to control the richness and content of the spiritual and cultural component in these institutions. That is evaluate quality scientific works, level of education, books and films. Together, these indicators reflect the very goal of cultural and spiritual education of society.

Dubious projects

It is necessary to take into account not only what has been created in the sphere of culture and spirituality, but also how society uses it. The most important criterion of cultural dynamics is the achieved level of social equality of people, including in introducing a person to spiritual values.

Nowadays, the media deliberately try to direct people's attention to the problems of other states, while keeping silent about the catastrophic internal situation in the country. The Russian Ministry of Culture often provides large-scale material support to, to put it mildly, dubious projects, without paying attention to truly necessary and important work. All this together in many cases leads to a split in society and destabilization of spirituality and culture.

Moving Down

Another important aspect of the development of society is considered the possibility of the necessary conditions for the realization of creative abilities and talents. Today, the situation of the spiritual and cultural component in Russian society is rightfully assessed as catastrophic, since:

Such a depressing state in the cultural sphere of our country is primarily associated with the ineffective distribution of finances and theft of funds in one form or another. The crisis state of the economy itself is a secondary factor, since the crisis itself is a consequence of the ineffective work of the cabinet of ministers and the deliberate destruction of almost all sectors from industry to culture.

The socio-cultural sphere is financed on a residual basis, while huge sums are allocated for pseudo-cultural events and projects.

When the Ministry allocates funds The main task of the authorities is to make a profit, rather than supporting culture in the country.

To cultivate spirituality in society, it is unacceptable to skimp on cultural development, just as its commercialization is unacceptable. This leads to the impoverishment of the spirit of society and its degeneration as a civilization in the broad sense.

Spiritual life in the 21st century in Russia - other features

The peculiarities of the spiritual life of modern society in Russia are also characterized by a sharp decline in the socio-economic condition of ordinary cultural workers. A large number of specialists are moving to other areas, some are leaving the country.

In the modern so-called cultural and spiritual sphere, two directions have emerged:

Lack of spirituality, hypocrisy and falsehood.
Manifestation of dissatisfaction and protest for almost any reason.
Imposing immoral, meaningless directions.

All this forms a soulless, intellectually limited society, which over time begins to consider vulgarity and stupidity the norm, while ridiculing nobility, honesty and decency.

Negative phenomena in the Russian Orthodox Church

The spiritual cleansing of society has ceased, and there is a slide into the abyss of ignorance and moral ugliness. Those who are responsible for the creation and dissemination of spirituality and culture are actually on the sidelines of culture itself.

The church has turned into a kind of closed joint stock company for the elite. Instead of bringing spirituality to people, she actually just makes money from faith. The Russian Orthodox Church is busy acquiring ownership of lands and architectural monuments and increasing its capital.

Classical culture is being replaced by a Western surrogate, which is based on the humiliation of those who have low social status and admiration for those who are rich. In fact, spirituality and humanity are being replaced by the cult of money. The personality itself is not important, the main thing is getting benefits.

Revival as the main task

The revival of classical culture is the most important task for society both in Russia and in the rest of the world. Lack of spirituality is a problem for all humanity, which these days almost all have turned into ordinary consumers of one type of product or another. Necessary preserve and revive classical and folk cultural heritage, left to us by our ancestors, in which the dominant ones are human values. Honor, kindness, honesty and integrity are some classic spiritual and cultural components.

In modern Russia, spirituality is degrading, the merits of people who lived during Soviet times are belittled and distorted. The achievements of Soviet society, be it colossal industrial, construction or cultural achievements, are being tried to either be silenced or declared a failure. This happens for various reasons, one of which is limited knowledge and critical thinking.

there is hope

Despite the fact that the state of spiritual and cultural life in modern Russia can be called catastrophic, there is still hope for its revival. Against the backdrop of the total dominance of our media and Internet space by Western surrogates of culture (low-quality films, meaningless performances and exhibitions, programs that broadcast stupidity to society), the human need for real, true spiritual culture is increasingly manifested. The terms spirituality and culture themselves again acquire the meaning that was originally inherent in them.

Most of society has become fed up with the mediocre culture with which they tried to replace our classical spirituality. Interest in one's own history, culture, literature, and national traditions is being revived. Universities and schools are beginning to pay more and more attention to this area; students and schoolchildren study history in comparative tables, write term papers and essays on the topic of the spiritual life of Russia in the past, present and future.

What phenomena characterize modern Russian culture - conclusions

A person of the 21st century cannot be outside of culture and spirituality, like society as a whole. After all, spirituality is that area in the life of society that is associated with the creation and dissemination of spiritual and cultural values and the satisfaction of human spiritual needs.

The features of spiritual development in the 21st century in Russia include the following factors, which are contradictory:

Internationalization of culture, which can more accurately be called ersatz culture.
The removal of censorship, in which one is allowed to say and show whatever the author wants.
Growing interest in the origins of spirituality.
Search for real cultural trends in society.

What do we have to do

I would like to hope that the Ministry of Education realizes its mistakes and blunders made in the nineties and zeros, when an attempt was made to abandon its spiritual and cultural origins, replacing them with the so-called progressive Western novelty. At that time, educational material was massively replaced with new ones, the basis of which were texts created with funds from the Soros Foundation.

It should be understood that without a foundation consisting of spirituality and culture inherited from our ancestors, further development of society is impossible. It is necessary to reject pseudo-cultural Western values, revive and spread true spirituality in society. At the same time, it is necessary to establish a new cultural and spiritual component in society, based on morality, art, science and religion.

During the Second Five-Year Plan, major changes took place in the spiritual life of Soviet society and ideology. They are marked by the growth of two trends. On the one hand, the establishment of “Stalinism” in society, that is, Marxism-Leninism in the Stalinist interpretation, the ideology of leaderism and cult consciousness. On the other hand, the strengthening, as the economic and political power of the USSR strengthens, of state-patriotic principles and the corresponding design of state traditions and symbols. The Marxist thesis about the withering away of the state was condemned as Trotskyist. Instead, the thesis about the comprehensive strengthening of the socialist state and the need to protect it from external and internal attacks was actively introduced.

In 1934-1935 a campaign to revise the country's history began. History departments in universities were reopened. Continuity in the development of the Russian Empire and the USSR was restored. If previously everything related to the pre-revolutionary past was subject to reproach and reproach, now it was presented in a slightly different light. The history of Russia was now considered in the context of the country's movement towards revolution and socialism. Names and events that contributed to strengthening the power of the state were noted (Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan the Terrible, Minin and Pozharsky, Peter I, Catherine II, etc.). If earlier, according to the same Stalin, Russia was a country that was constantly beaten for its economic backwardness, now it is beginning to be increasingly presented as a victorious power. Anniversaries dedicated to the Patriotic War of 1812, the liberation of Moscow from Polish invaders in 1612 and other events were celebrated with great pomp. Many scientific and cultural figures who contributed to the progress of Russia and its glorification were “rehabilitated.” The position on the colonial policy of Russia was subjected to a complete revision; now it became “civilizational and progressive” in relation to the peoples that became part of it. The history of the Soviet state and the ruling party was built into the same context. The idea of the identity of Marxism-Leninism and state patriotism, personified by the personality of Stalin, was introduced into the public consciousness. In this spirit, “A Short Course in the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)” and “The History of the Civil War in the USSR” were created.

Similar trends were reflected in literature, art, and cinema. Writers started writing historical novels. Pompous painting and architecture were established, designed to glorify the power and greatness of the state and its leaders in a rather primitive and naturalistic manner, accessible to the still culturally underdeveloped Soviet society. Creative searches that lay outside this were subjected to criticism and condemnation as a manifestation of formalism and degeneration. Poets, writers, artists, etc. who insisted on creative freedom found themselves in the “risky zone” and were either doomed to oblivion or persecuted.

The return to state-patriotic principles to some extent contributed to the consolidation of public opinion in the country and reconciliation with the regime. In this regard, even in emigrant circles, increased attention to the USSR became noticeable. At the same time, there was a revival of traditional norms of behavior and morality. The experiments of the first five-year plan in this area were rejected. A course was taken to strengthen the family, which was now officially recognized as the primary unit of Soviet society. In 1936, a resolution was adopted banning abortion and assistance to mothers of many children. The fight against divorce, crime, and homelessness has intensified. These actions, carried out through administrative and repressive measures, sometimes brought unexpected effects, giving rise to new problems and difficulties, which will be discussed further.

Along with the spread of the previous ideals of universal equality and sacrifice in the name of a bright future as essential features of the “socialist way of life,” the idea of personal well-being and career begins to acquire its value in society, which affected primarily the ruling party-state nomenklatura and resulted in the creation of a hierarchy of positions and privileges , folding into one of distinctive features Soviet regime.

Along with the spread of the previous ideals of universal equality and sacrifice in the name of a bright future as essential features of the “socialist way of life,” the idea of personal well-being and career begins to acquire its value in society, which affected primarily the ruling party-state nomenklatura and resulted in the creation of a hierarchy of positions and privileges , which formed one of the distinctive features of the Soviet regime.

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Sokolov A.K.
Course of Soviet history, 1917-1940: Textbook. manual for university students. - M.: Higher. school, 1999. - 272 p.

The first in Russian historiography
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Second stage of the civil war
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War communism
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Polish-Soviet War
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End of the civil war and transition to peace
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The apogee of war communism
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Economic devastation
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Food appropriation crisis
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Population losses
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Bureaucratization of the Soviet apparatus
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Management crisis
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Crisis in the Soviets and other bodies
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Crisis in the party
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Awareness of the crisis
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Kronstadt mutiny
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NEP assessment
The history of Soviet society in the 1920s is usually associated with the new economic policy that the Bolsheviks began to pursue after the end of the civil war. Literature usually narrows the meaning

Origins of NEP
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The meaning of NEP
True, here we encounter two trends that are still characteristic of the literature on the NEP. The first is his idealization, exaggeration of the successes and achievements of that time. Introduction

Transition to NEP
At the height of the military-communist fever in February 1920, one of its main standard-bearers, Trotsky, unexpectedly came up with a proposal to replace surplus appropriation with a fixed cash tax. However

Economic reform 1921-1923 in industry
According to this reform, a group of the largest and most efficient enterprises, more or less provided with fuel, raw materials, etc., was allocated in the public sector. They were directly subordinate to

Famine of 1921
The very first measures within the framework of the NEP began to have a beneficial effect, if not for the famine that gripped 25 grain-producing provinces of the Volga region, Don, North Caucasus and Ukraine in 1921. Donkey

Small industry and trade
By the mid-1920s, light and Food Industry The country has largely restored pre-war production volumes. Here, the restoration of small and handicrafts played a significant role.

Cooperation
With the transition to NEP, the state provided an opportunity for development various forms cooperation. It became most quickly consumer cooperation, closely connected with the village. However, other

Results of the transition to NEP
Since 1924, the situation in heavy industry began to “dissolve,” and the reactivation of large factories began. However, recovery here proceeded at a slower pace and the pre-war level was b

Workers' situation
For the class in whose name the dictatorship was carried out, i.e. the workers, the situation, compared to the pre-revolutionary one, undoubtedly improved. However, the changes that took place in it can be assessed

Peasantry
There were some positive changes in the Russian village of the 1920s. The inertia of the Stolypin reform also had an effect, the eviction of owners on farmsteads began to occur more often, the erosion of

Changes in the political structure
Often in the literature one can find the statement that the tragedy of the NEP was that economic measures were not supported by political reforms. This is not entirely true. Compared to the military

Comintern and international organizations
The period of the end of the civil war and the transition to the NEP was marked by the growing activity of Russian communists in the international arena. Created in 1919 on the initiative of Lenin, the Communist Interna

Ideology and culture
Elements of pluralism were observed in ideological and cultural life in the 1920s. At the beginning of the NEP, censorship was somewhat weakened. There were various scientific schools and directions. Enough god

Fighting religion
Anti-religious propaganda was especially violent and intolerant. Most of the country's population, especially the older generations, remained believers. The fight against religion was a kind of

Bolshevik national policy
There has been no consensus among the Bolshevik leadership about what it should be like since the pre-revolutionary party discussions on the national question. Almost all party leaders with

Prerequisites for the formation of the USSR
In the territory where Soviet power was established by 1922, the ethnic composition, despite the change in borders, remained very diverse. 185 nations and nationalities lived here (according to the population census

The struggle for forms of unification
To determine the most appropriate and rational forms of uniting the Soviet republics into a single state, a special commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was created, which from the very beginning had differences

Education of the ZSFSR
Transcaucasia was a complex set of national relations and contradictions that had persisted since ancient times. This region required particularly subtle and balanced approaches. Period of existence

"Kuibyshev Commission" and Lenin's intervention
In August 1922, to resolve the issue of unifying the Soviet republics, a special commission was formed under the chairmanship of V.V. Kuibyshev, but the most active role in it belonged to him

Education USSR
On December 30, 1922, at the Congress of Soviets, where delegations from the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus and the Trans-SFSR were represented, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. Union Stro

National-state demarcation of Central Asia
One of the first events carried out within the Union was the “national-state delimitation of Central Asia.” In the region until 1924 there existed, in addition to the Turkestan AS

Creation of new national entities
The creation of new republics and autonomous regions also took place in other regions of the country. In 1922, the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Okrug, the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Okrug (from 1923 - ASSR), Kabardino-Ba

Administrative-territorial transformations
The reform of the administrative and state structure of the country is closely related to the issues of nation-state building. The need for it was pointed out even during the revolution. But

Lenin's legacy as a weapon of political struggle
The struggle in the highest echelons of the party and state leadership initially unfolded around the “Leninist legacy” and resulted primarily in the problem of leadership in political and ideological

The essence of differences in the party leadership
Much of the literature on the history of the 1920s examines it exclusively in the context of personal struggles for power. This is a one-dimensional view. Political struggle "at the top"

Formation of nomenclature
The essence of the discussions of the 1920s is easier to understand in connection with the process of bureaucratization of Soviet society and the formation of its new ruling layer - the nomenklatura. The prerequisite for this process was the transformation

Stalin's role in the creation of the nomenklatura
Stalin was not one of the most famous Bolshevik leaders at the time; as the leader of the revolution and civil war he was exalted by later tradition. Trotsky called Stalin "you

Composition of the nomenclature
The date of birth of the nomenklatura can be considered the resolution of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) dated November 8, 1923, which arose in the bowels of the party apparatus, which determined the tasks of selecting leading party workers, all

The process of formation and reproduction of nomenclature
Personnel for the nomenclature and the “reserve” were obtained mainly through promotion. At first, unconditional priority was given to Bolsheviks with pre-revolutionary experience, but in the ranks of the RCP(b) there were only such people.

Nomenclature functioning system
Party congresses, congresses of Soviets, trade unions, etc. turn into mass gatherings of nomenklatura, with each body assigned its own role. The main thing is the party congress, which approves

Results of the restoration of the national economy
Within the framework of the NEP, the Soviet government managed to achieve some successes. However, it should be noted that they were in line with the restoration of the national economy, which by the middle of the decade

Contradictions of Soviet reality
Being on the rails of the NEP, the political leadership failed to solve a number of problems. Economic methods of managing the national economy were not fully introduced into the state mechanism,

NEP crisis
In the winter of 1927/28 Another NEP crisis broke out, leading to an adjustment in all directions of the internal and external policies of the country's leadership. "Socialist industrialization" acquired

Peasants
The social structure of the village in the 1920s, as the figures show, has undergone quite significant changes compared to the pre-revolutionary one. The clear predominance of the middle peasants, it would seem, should

Dismantling of the NEP
Just a month after the XV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, the Politburo in January 1928 voted for the use of emergency measures on grain procurements. About 30 thousand emissaries dispersed throughout the country - special

Socialist competition
At the beginning of 1929, a campaign began to launch mass socialist competition in factories, factories, transport, and construction. For several months the entire press, led by

XVI Party Conference
Following the plenum, the XVI Party Conference was convened, which was held under the sign of condemnation of the “right” in all areas of current politics. The conference rejected any attempts to

The plan becomes the “law” of life in Soviet society
The defeat of the “right” occurred to the accompaniment of the landslide collapse of the NEP in all areas of economic and social policy. The V All-Union Congress of Soviets in May 1929 adopted the first five

Speeding up industrialization and collectivization
In the summer of 1929, despite passed law about the five-year plan, a stir began around its target figures, and the movement came both from below and from above. There was a kind of exploitation of the revolution

Changes in international politics
Extremism in domestic politics also affected the actions of the Stalinist leadership in international life. In the second half of 1929, signs of a severe crisis became increasingly clear, engulfing

Establishment of the Stalinist dictatorship
On the eve of the 12th anniversary of the October Revolution, Stalin appeared in Pravda with an article “The Year of the Great Turning Point,” in which he spoke about laying the foundations for the construction of socialism and solving the problem of internal

Industrialization, collectivization, cultural revolution in the USSR
In Soviet literature, and not only in it, it was argued that in the 1930s a socialist society was basically built in the USSR. This means that the question of socialism is central

Problems of industrialization of the country
The first thing that deserves serious analysis is the problem of industrialization of the country. There is a large group of historians who prove that industrialization in the USSR essentially never happened.

Features of industrialization in the USSR
For many reasons, both objective and subjective, which will be discussed later, the implementation of industrialization in the USSR took place according to a slightly different scenario than was envisaged in theory.

The price of industrialization
With the extensive cost mechanism that characterizes the planning and distribution system, the question of the “price” that was paid for industrialization becomes especially acute. This one with

Collectivization of agriculture
Putting forward a course towards the “socialist transformation of agriculture,” the Bolsheviks in Russia, of course, counted on positive changes in agricultural sector and did not set their goal at all

Modernization of other sectors of the national economy
A systematic view of the modernization of the entire national economy requires paying attention to such sectors as transport, construction, trade, public utilities. By m

Difficulties of forced industrialization
The inflation of the first five-year plan targets led to devastating consequences for the economy, although at first the situation on the “industrialization front” suggested some grounds for opportunism.

"Culprits" of difficulties
Economic difficulties were attributed to the machinations of “saboteurs,” “saboteurs,” which included “old” or “bourgeois” specialists. Their calls are real

Implementation of the collective farm system
A number of new factors appeared that forced the peasants who remained in the countryside to reconcile with the collective farms. According to the charter of the agricultural artel, its property was indivisible funds,

Escape from the village
Nevertheless, despite this barrier, the outflow of residents from the village continued. For this purpose they used different ways, which formed unique “channels” of social movements in Soviet

Attempts to overcome crisis phenomena
Catastrophic consequences During the first years of the “socialist offensive,” the chaos and disorder in the country required the Stalinist leadership to take some steps. First symptoms changed

Famine of 1932 and its causes
The implementation of forced collectivization had a strong impact on the results of agricultural production. According to official data in 1930 (a year with exceptionally favorable weather conditions

Results of the first five-year plan
The winter of 1932/33 was one of the most difficult in the history of the 1930s. The time has just come to sum up the results of the first five-year plan. By most indicators it failed, including by industry

Growing public discontent
Nevertheless, it was not possible to completely drown out the voice of truth. Numerous sources of that time, which are stored in archives, indicate an increase in public discontent, expressed in

Position in the party
At the same time, the size of the party during the years of the first five-year plan, due to massive recruitment campaigns, more than doubled and reached 3.7 million members in 1932. The CPSU(b) was increasingly losing its features

Life, culture, ideology
With the beginning of the “socialist offensive,” the everyday and spiritual aspects of society’s life undergo significant changes in accordance with the emerging new arrangement of social and

Second Five Year Plan
The Second Five-Year Plan (1933-1937) was marked by the struggle of several trends. On the one hand, the continuation of the policy of assault, the “great leap”, designed to be built in the shortest possible time with

Tightening of domestic policy
The years of the Second Five-Year Plan were characterized by increased administrative, police and ideological pressure in all areas of policy, shackling society with iron hoops, and increasingly

Murder of Kirov
On December 1, 1934, Kirov was killed in Leningrad. The killer, a young communist L. Nikolaev, managed to get into Smolny and carry out his terrorist act. This murder is still widely discussed

Completion of the industrial breakthrough and its significance
The new five-year plan came at a time when most of the previously planned facilities were to be put into operation. And indeed, if the first five-year plan provided for the introduction of

Changes in economic management
Gradually, there was a change in the methods of managing the national economy, their adaptation to the planning and distribution system. The so-called "socialist" system was being introduced everywhere.

Curtailment of foreign economic relations
Throughout the second five-year plan, the USSR's foreign trade was curtailed. On average, compared to the first, its volume decreased by more than 2 times. Thus, oil exports decreased in 1937.

Signs of stabilization
After a number of years of chaos, the life of the country, outwardly, seemed to begin to acquire signs of stability. On January 1, 1935, food cards were abolished. Money and the opportunity to earn more

Stakhanov movement
The Stakhanov movement became an extremely controversial phenomenon of that time. In August 1935, miner Alexei Stakhanov cut down 102 tons of coal, many times exceeding the daily norm. Following the example of Stakhanov mouth

Sphere of forced labor
During the Second Five-Year Plan, the sphere of forced labor received its organizational design and became important factor economic development, acquiring enormous proportions. A significant part of her sucks

Results of the second five-year plan
The second five-year plan was completed in 1937. Like the previous one, it was not met in most respects, although its production targets were much closer to reality. Official

Foreign policy and international relations
Internal changes in the country were inextricably linked with the change in the role of the USSR in the international arena, with the processes taking place in the world workers', communist and national liberation countries.

Socialism in theory and practice
First of all, it is necessary to clarify what socialism is and how the main features of Soviet society of the 1930s relate to its provisions. This is the most difficult question, since they have to be proportionate

Property relations
It is from these positions that we must look at the theory and practice of Stalinist “socialism.” Its economic basis is the concept of socialist, i.e., public property, which supposedly exists

Soviet state
That state uniform property is not fully public, as has already been said. It does not overcome the alienation of workers from the means of production. In the employee’s mind it is

The role and place of nomenklatura in Soviet society
The greatest power and influence in Soviet society belonged to the party-state apparatus - the nomenklatura. She was entitled to the greatest privileges and benefits. Sometimes this was interpreted as

Public expenditures and public consumption funds
The theory of socialism provides for higher productivity of social labor, higher rates of growth of production and a more equitable distribution of the produced product among members.

Socialism as creativity of the masses
The classics of Marxism argued that socialism without political freedoms is not socialism. To talk about the existence of such freedoms under the conditions of “Stalinist socialism” would be hypocrisy, although dir.

Totalitarianism
It seems to many, especially young researchers, that turning to this theory, borrowed from Western social thought, allows us to understand and explain all the vicissitudes of quite complex problems.

Advantages and disadvantages of the totalitarian model
The attractiveness of this theory also lies in the fact that it has a certain plausibility, just like the previous official history of Soviet society. Moreover, as presented

Constitution of 1936
The decision to develop a new Constitution was made in 1935 at the VII Congress of Soviets. Some authors believe that it occurred at a time when the political leadership swung towards whether

Interpretation of mass repressions in literature
There is a huge literature on mass repressions in the USSR in the 1930s. A large group of authors connect them with the general repressive nature of the Soviet regime. The dimensions of the Gulag grow in their works

Intensifying mass repressions
The flywheel of repression was gaining momentum. An important milestone was the February-March plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. A study of his materials shows that the hysteria associated with repression and the “execution psychologists

Rollback of mass repression
In January 1938, the plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution condemning the mistakes of party organizations in expelling communists from the party and the formal bureaucratic attitude towards the appeals of those expelled. Condemning

USSR on the eve of the war
By the end of the 1930s, new, rather complex problems and trends emerged in the development of Soviet society, inherited from the period of the “socialist offensive.”

International situation
Meanwhile, events in the world, indeed, were becoming more and more menacing and had an impact on the life of Soviet society. The feeling of an impending war that was getting closer and closer

Soviet-German Pact
At the XVIII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in March 1939, Stalin said that the USSR would not allow itself to be fooled and was not going to “pull chestnuts out of the fire for the warmongers.” Under the "arsonists"

Beginning of World War II
On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland. England and France immediately declared war on Germany. The Second World War began, in which everything was involved larger number states and territories

Soviet-Finnish War
Over time Soviet Union made a number of claims against Finland. They contained demands for the demilitarization of the border zone, moving the border 70 km from Leningrad, eliminating fi

Politics in the annexed territories
Thus, within a year since the conclusion of the Soviet-German Pact, the territory of the USSR increased significantly (by approximately 300 thousand sq. km), and its population grew by approximately 23 ml

Growing military threat
Perhaps, Hitler took advantage of the fruits of the Soviet-German pact to a much greater extent. It was the pact that opened the way for the victorious march of the Wehrmacht armies across Europe. Busy with his own affairs, Hitler's

The situation in the USSR
Events in the international arena, as already mentioned, most directly influenced the situation in the USSR, much more than in previous years, but still the main thing is that must be accepted

Shortages and queues
A special position remained for heavy industry (group "A"). The lion's share of capital investments continued to be directed here to the detriment of light industry sectors (group "B"

Defense activities
The position of the emerging military-industrial complex (MIC) was rapidly strengthening in the country, the maintenance of which placed a heavy burden on all National economy. The course to "strengthen the defense

Village
The further expansion of military production also affected agriculture. The increase in the “motorization” of the armed forces led to the fact that there were fewer trucks arriving in the villages and MTS.

Control system
By the end of the 1930s, a system of economic and state management had finally taken shape, which was called in our literature administrative-command and, in its main features, existed for quite some time.

Population of the USSR
First, we must say about the dynamics of the total population of the USSR in the 1930s. It was undoubtedly influenced by many factors that are not easily taken into account together. These include

Composition of the population of the USSR
For a long time it was almost impossible to carry out a detailed analysis of the composition of the population of the USSR at the end of the 1930s, since practically the only source for this was the materials of the 1939 census.

Social structure of Soviet society
However, the social structure of Soviet society experienced the most dramatic change. Speaking at the XVIII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Stalin argued that Soviet society after the liquidation of capitalist

Literacy and education
Before moving on to the analysis of individual social groups, a few words should be said about the indicators characterizing changes in the level of literacy and education of Soviet society. Number of certificates

Management personnel
Education, party affiliation, professional experience are the three main objective factors that contributed to the movement of Soviet people along the social ladder, their careers and career advancement, which

Nomenclature
The upper layer of management personnel who occupied nomenklatura positions, or simply the nomenklatura, but as a social group, which included people's commissars, their deputies and members of collegiums, bosses

Contradictions within the ruling elite
There is a tradition to portray the CPSU(b) of that time as a political organization welded together by the unity of thoughts and actions, especially after the “deviations” were defeated in it and the

Social structure of the village
Instead of individual peasants, the main social group In the countryside, as well as throughout Soviet society, collective farmers became the class that was at the bottom rung of the social ladder. Already in those years

Public sentiment
Typically, social consciousness in the literature of the pre-war period is characterized in terms of unity and one-dimensionality. However, this is far from true, especially if you analyze it lower floors- everyday

Of course, no changes in society are possible without changes in spiritual life. What is expected in this area? If the possession of information turns into the most important social value, then it should increase value of education. It is possible that the priorities in the education system will change. After all, the development of the service sector, especially the humanitarian ones, requires the development of relevant branches of knowledge.

As we remember, one of the problems of modern spiritual and social life is scientism. Now it becomes obvious that science, left to its own devices, easily turns from a creative force into a destructive force. The reason is not only that it is deliberately directed towards evil. Science is neutral because its goal is to obtain knowledge. But knowledge does not and cannot say anything about how the world should be. Therefore, the growth of knowledge in itself and even its application in practice do not yet guarantee the achievement of the public good. After all, we cannot predict what consequences will lead us to scientific discoveries and their implementation in life. This is why many modern thinkers believe that it is necessary connecting science with worldview. This is called "culture orientation." If the 20th century was characterized by increased specialization and separation of all spheres of spiritual life, then the 21st century may become the century of integration. This means that scientific discoveries must be determined by value guidelines, and, above all, by a clear awareness of the consequences that scientific research can entail.

Change of place and character scientific research impossible without changing the value guidelines themselves. After all, the development of science was and is largely determined by the desire for an uncontrolled growth of needs, and these needs were reduced to material ones. As a result, production is carried out at maximum capacity. And this leads to unprecedented pressure on nature, which remains the main source of all created benefits. That is why modern thinkers talk about the need to change the nature of needs. The speech must go about orientation towards the production and consumption of cultural and environmental goods.

One of the reasons global problems And international conflicts there was and is a stable idea that there are cultures that are higher and lower in terms of their level of development. This often led to industrial civilizations seeking to impose their way of life, which they considered progressive, on other peoples and cultures. Therefore, many thinkers believe that the post-industrial world should be built on principles of tolerance, openness and dialogue of cultures. The existence of a new world must be based on the value of diversity. It allows you to take into account and harmonize the interests of different cultures, as well as enrich your world and your way of life with original achievements from other worlds.

The processes taking place in the modern world require not only the coordination of interests, but also integration at the level of the world community. The fact is that existing global problems cannot be solved by individual states. Therefore there is a need creation of intergovernmental and non-governmental world public organizations that could coordinate their efforts at the international level. And this is only possible when the value of any culture is recognized.

2. Researchers believe that characteristic features of the new civilization are: in the economy - globalization, the transition from the production of goods to the production of services, the individualization of consumption, the transformation of information into the main resource for economic development; in social life - the growth of telecommunication systems, possession and control of information as a condition of high status, growth social differentiation, the transition from a status-role system to an orientation towards the implementation of individual biographies and life style, the transition from hierarchy to a network society; in political life - the search for new forms of the world community to solve global problems; the struggle for equality of various social minorities in societies; in spiritual life - increasing the value of education; refusal to consume to the limit of possibilities, overcoming the isolation of science from the forms of worldview, growing tolerance and openness to dialogue with various types crops

Control questions

1. What is the significance and features of information for the development of economics and social life?

2. What is “lifestyle orientation” and when does it become possible?

3. What are the features of the “network society”?

(answer only “yes” and “no”)

1. In a post-industrial society crucial will have services aimed at an individual circle of consumers.

2. Disadvantage natural resources is and will be the main obstacle to the growth of abundance of goods.

3. In a post-industrial society, the value will be on the individuality and originality of a person and culture as a whole, and not on compliance with the standards of even the most developed countries in the world.

4. Post-industrial society is characterized by a solution to the problem of survival as freedom from hunger and disease.

5. Post-industrial society represents a quantitative increase in all the basic properties of industrial society.

The major changes that took place in the East in the 19th century could not but affect the spiritual life and culture of Eastern society.
One of the main changes in the spiritual life of eastern countries at this time was the emergence of new ideas and values that went beyond traditional ideas. This process began under the influence of the colonialists and was especially strengthened by the modernization of traditional society. New model development, which began to be established in the East, objectively required the emergence of a new person - an active personality, aware of his human dignity, free from inertia in thoughts and actions, appreciating freedom.
The modernization movement of the national intelligentsia became a kind of “generator” of new ideas. In the colonies, it arose largely thanks to foreigners who, in an effort to expand their social base, began to create European-style schools and encouraged local youth to leave to study at European universities. A similar policy was also pursued in Japan after the Meiji Revolution, in the Ottoman Empire during the Tazimat years, and partly in China during the “self-strengthening” policy. Representatives of the modernization movement sought to overcome the backwardness of their countries by eliminating those negative phenomena of traditional society that hindered the movement of eastern countries along the path of progress. Modernizers considered one of their main tasks to be the dissemination in the minds of people of new ideals and principles of life, which were mainly borrowed from the West, but objectively met the needs of the forward movement of eastern countries.
The modernization movement was divided into two directions: religious and secular. The religious direction was represented by a reform movement, whose representatives sought to adapt religious doctrines to the new realities of eastern countries. Reformism affected mainly Hinduism and Islam. The beginning of the reform of Hinduism was laid by R. M. Roy and K. Sen, and in the second half of the 19th century. was developed in the works of Ramakrishna and S. Vivekananda. The largest reformers of Islam in the 19th century. there were al-Afghani and M. Ik-bal. What the reformers had in common was the call to overcome outdated dogmas and traditions, condemnation of the obedience, inactivity and inequality of people. They emphasized the outstanding role of the human mind and human activity in transforming society, and put forward ideas of struggle for the dignity of the human person.
Enlightenment became the secular direction of the modernization movement. Its emergence is directly related to the cultural influence of the West, primarily with the ideas of the French enlighteners of the 18th century. Initially, the central place in the activities of educators was occupied by the propaganda of the ideas of the human mind, the dignity of the individual, its active participation in public life. In the second half of the 19th century. these ideas were supplemented by the propaganda of the values of freedom, constitution, parliamentarism, and a call for the elimination of feudal relations and traditional political institutions. IN late XIX V. The ideas of the nation and fatherland came first in the enlightenment of the East, and a call was made for a decisive struggle against the colonialists and for national liberation.
This rise of the national idea was also characteristic of reformism. For example, al-Afghani actively promoted the ideas of pan-Islamism, calling for the unification of all Muslims in the struggle for the liberation of the Islamic world from the colonialists, for the creation of a single Muslim state built on the principle of a constitutional monarchy. In India, S. Vivekananda also spoke out against colonial oppression and called for a decisive struggle to change the existing order.
The activities of the enlighteners influenced not only philosophical thought, but also cultural development in general. In the most developed eastern countries, educators established the publication of newspapers, translated the works of many Western authors into local languages, and contributed to the opening of new schools, for which they sometimes wrote textbooks themselves. Important role belongs to educators in development national language and in the formation of new literature. For example, in India, educators abandoned the use of dead Sanskrit and switched to using living languages (Bengali, Urdu, Hindi) in which they wrote whole line works that are new in form and content. In Arab countries, educators launched widespread propaganda of the Arabic language and history and laid the foundations of a new Arabic literature. It is no coincidence that the activities of the enlighteners coincided with the beginning of a cultural upsurge in the Arab world, called “Nahda” (renaissance).
In the second half of the 19th century. in all eastern countries, the question of attitude towards Western achievements and Western culture generally. The emergence of this problem
consciousness, which gave rise to the desire to preserve the cultural identity of the East, to prevent the development in Eastern society of a number of negative phenomena inherent in the Western way of life (extreme selfishness and individualism, the cult of money, the priority of material values over spiritual ones).
In relation to this issue, three approaches have emerged among the national intelligentsia:
1) “Westerners” were sharply critical of Eastern traditions and believed that only the complete adoption of the Western way of life and Western culture would ensure progress for the peoples of the East;
2) conservatives believed that it was necessary to isolate themselves from the West or as a last resort go for partial borrowing of those of his achievements that are vitally necessary for Eastern society;
3) supporters of the organic approach advocated the creative combination of the best achievements of two civilizations in the life and culture of eastern countries.
“Westernism” in the East prevailed in the first half of the 19th century, when foreign penetration was just beginning. Of the eastern countries, it was most widespread in India, where it was supported by the colonial administration. In China, on the contrary, for a long time the conservative movement, based on the support of the feudal state, prevailed. In addition, the emergence of “Westernism” was significantly restrained by the belief, developed over many centuries, that China is the leader of the entire world. It was only during the First World War that Western philosophy began to penetrate widely in China, and the “new culture” movement arose, within which an attempt was made to move away from traditional ideas and cultural norms.
In general, by the beginning of the 20th century. The “Westernizing” trend is relegating to second place in most eastern countries. This is clearly seen in the example of Japan, which after the Meiji Revolution took the path of extensive borrowing from Western movements. In the 70s - 90s. XIX century In Japanese society, a wide debate has unfolded on the issue of attitudes towards Western culture. Ultimately, the victory was won by supporters of the preservation of cultural identity,
received the support of the state, which declared Shinto, the national Japanese religion, to be the state religion of Japan. Shinto has largely become a means of preserving the identity of Japanese society. It did not have a detailed doctrine, which made it possible to fill its ritual side with new content. Shinto introduced the ideas of the nation as a large family, the moral and ethical principles of Confucianism, the cult of ancestors, and the idea of the national uniqueness of the Japanese. The state obliged the entire population of the country to study Shinto and closely monitored that the priests did not deviate from the dogma developed by the government. As a result, Japan has become a unique country that has managed to organically combine the technical achievements of the West and its experience in organizing economic life with the traditional moral values and family principles existing in the country.
It should be borne in mind that all these new phenomena in the spiritual sphere, changes in consciousness affected the beginning of the 20th century. only the educated part of Eastern society. The consciousness of the broad masses was still based on traditional values and norms. This was clearly demonstrated by the national liberation movement of the early 20th century.

At the same time, the West influenced not only social thought, but also the culture of eastern countries in general. This influence was especially evident in literature. Here, new themes, prompted by reality, gradually began to supplant traditional religious and mythological subjects. Many writers from Eastern countries turned to historical themes, trying to better understand the present and look into the future through history. In the literature of the East, traditional forms began to be overcome. New literary genres appeared: short story, drama, new poetry and the European-style novel. Prominent writers - representatives of the new Eastern literature were Lu Xun in China and R. Tagore in India - laureate Nobel Prize in literature (1913).
European influence also affected the architecture of eastern countries, where in the architecture of large forms (mainly for public purposes), the European style increasingly replaced the local one. In a number of countries, attempts have been made to combine Western canons and national traditions. However, in most cases such attempts were unsuccessful.
A more fruitful synthesis of traditional norms and European rules occurred in painting, where oriental technology gradually combined with European rules of perspective and volumetricity. Realistic approaches appeared in the works of some Eastern artists, but in general, realism in the visual arts of the East did not become widespread during this period.
At the same time, the formation of a new national art in the East took place in the 19th century. So slow. Traditional canons generally retained a dominant position, especially in those types of art that were intended for the broad masses. In fact, the process of cultural renewal in the East was just beginning.
DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS
Rabindranath Thagor (1861 - 1941)
TO CIVILIZATION
Give us back the forest. Take your city, full of noise and smoky haze. Take your stone, iron, fallen trunks. Modern civilization! Soul Eater! Give us back shade and coolness in the sacred silence of the forest. These evening baths, the sunset light over the river, A herd of cows grazing, the quiet songs of the Vedas, Handfuls of grains, grass, clothes from the bark, Conversations about the great truths that we have always had in our souls, These days that we spent are immersed in thoughts. I don’t even need royal pleasures in your prison. I want freedom. I want to feel like I'm flying again. I want the strength to return to my heart again. I want to know that the shackles are broken, I want to break the chains. I want to feel the eternal trembling of the heart of the universe again.
(Rabindranath Tagore. Selected. M., 1987. P. 33).
HINDUSTAN
MOAN OF HINDUSTAN
I constantly hear, Since childhood, a quiet call has been drawing me to the West: There, the fate of India dances among funeral pyres...
The master and the slave agreed that
So that the country turns into a gambling house, -
Today it is from edge to edge -
One grave is solid. They put an end to the infamy and glory of past times. The legs of the former power were broken. To old dreams
and true to visions,
She lies in the shallow Jamuna, And her speech is barely audible: “New shadows have thickened, the sunset has faded, This is the last hour of a bygone century.”
(Rabindranath Tagore. Selected. M., 1987. P. 70 - 71).
SLOGANS OF THE “NEW CULTURE” MOVEMENT IN CHINA
(from an editorial article in the magazine “Xin Qingnian” (“New Youth”))
“In order to defend democracy, one cannot but fight against Confucianism, against its etiquette and rituals, against its concepts of honesty and chastity, against the old morality and the old politics. In order to defend science, one cannot but fight against religion and old art. The struggle for democracy and science is impossible without a struggle against the old traditional school and against the old literature” (Qu Qiubo. Journalism of different years. M., 1979. P. 151).
ASSESSMENT OF THE MOVEMENT “FOR A NEW CULTURE” BY HISTORIANS
“The content of the movement “for a new culture” went far beyond the scope of the struggle in the field of culture. It was about the struggle for bourgeois-democratic transformations in the country, for bourgeois educational ideology, against the feudal ideology of Confucianism and medieval superstitions. Fierce debate took place around the main issues: political transformation and the democratic rights of the people; superstitions, prejudices, Confucianism and old dogmas; ideological emancipation of the people; personal freedom and individual development; reform Chinese language and the creation of new literature; new worldview and scientific method thinking, etc. The ideological struggle was waged with representatives of the feudal-landowner ideology, with proteges of monarchical parties and militaristic cliques, representatives of the Buddhist and Taoist religions and Christian missionaries" ( New story China. M., 1972. P. 575).
FRAGMENT OF A PROSE POEM BY CHINESE WRITER LU XIN (1881 - 1936)
Such a fighter
“...Here he passes through the ranks of ethereal beings; everyone he meets nods to him... Above the heads of ethereal creatures flutter banners with loud titles embroidered on them: “philanthropist”, “scientist”, “writer”, “eldest in the family”, “young man”, “aesthete” ... Below are all kinds of robes with beautiful words embroidered on them: “learning”, “morality”, “purity of the national spirit”, “will of the people”, “logic”, “public duty”, “civilization of the East”...
But he raises his spear.
He smiles, throws his spear and hits him right in the heart.
All of them, wilted, fall to the ground. But it turns out that these are only robes, underneath them there is nothing. The ethereal creatures managed to escape and are celebrating victory, for now he has become a criminal who has stabbed the philanthropist and others like him to death.
But he raises his spear...
Finally, he grows old and dies among the ethereal beings. Now he is no longer a fighter, but ethereal beings are winners.
Now no one hears the cry of war: great peace...
But he raises the spear” (Lu Xin. Selected. M., 1989. P. 343 - 344).
QUESTIONS
1. Can the emergence of new ideas and values be called a modernization of the spiritual life of the East?
2. What factors influenced changes in the spiritual life and culture of the countries of the East?
3. How natural was the emergence of religious reformation in the East?
4. Trace the evolution of the ideas of Eastern enlightenment. What explains it?
5. How have the approaches of the intelligentsia of Eastern countries changed to the question of their attitude towards Western culture?
6. What influence did the West have on the culture of the East?
7. What changes occurred in the 19th century. in the culture of eastern countries?