Exploring deep space using apparatus and telescopes. Study of solar system objects by spacecraft: asteroids

Science fiction writers who sent their heroes to other worlds did not even imagine how quickly these dreams would come true. From the first launches of small rockets, rising several tens of meters, to the first artificial Earth satellite, only 30 years passed. These days, numerous spacecraft photograph the surfaces of distant planets and their satellites, conduct all kinds of research, transmitting data to Earth. A little more time will pass, and vast colonies will appear in space. According to expert estimates, by 2030 more than 1,000 people will be constantly working outside the earth's atmosphere

Lunar exploration

It is quite natural that the Moon, as the celestial body closest to the Earth, became the first object to which spacecraft were directed.

The Soviet automatic interplanetary stations of the first generation “Luna-1, −2, −3” did not use either course correction on the Earth-Moon trajectory or braking during approach. They flew directly. Launching from the Earth on January 2, 1959, the Luna-1 station weighing 361 kg for the first time reached the second escape velocity (i.e., the minimum speed that an object starting from a celestial body must develop in order to overcome the force of its gravity; for the Earth it is equal to 11.19 km/s) and passed at a distance of about six thousand kilometers from the surface of the Moon.

Luna 2 reached the lunar surface on September 14, 1959 near the central meridian (the landing site of this station is now called Lunnika Bay). Its instruments showed that the Moon has virtually no magnetic field of its own. And on board the Luna-3 station there was photo-television equipment, which for the first time transmitted to Earth images of part of the visible and almost 2/3 of the invisible hemisphere. They had a large number of defects, but despite this, scientists managed to knock out many details on the far side of the Moon. The craters discovered by Luna-3 were named: Tsiolkovsky, Kurchatov, Giordano Bruno, Jules Berne, etc.

Large-scale photography of individual sections of the surface of the visible hemisphere was carried out during the fall to the Moon by the American spacecraft Ranger 7, -8, -9 in 1964 and 1965. The Soviet probe Zond-3 completed photographing the invisible hemisphere.

The first soft landing on the lunar surface was carried out in February 1966 by the Soviet automatic station Luna-9. Television cameras transmitted panoramas of the surrounding landscape to Earth with a resolution of up to several millimeters. In 1966, artificial satellites Luna-10, -11, -12 were also launched into orbit around the Moon. They were equipped with instruments for studying the spectral composition of infrared and gamma radiation from the lunar surface, equipment for recording meteor particles, etc. In the same year, the American Surveyor 1 apparatus made a soft landing on the Moon and transmitted images to Earth for six weeks surfaces. At the end of December 1966, the Luna-13 station performed a soft landing, its remote instruments examined the properties of the lunar soil, and television cameras photographed the surrounding area.

Soft landings in various areas of the Moon were carried out by the American spacecraft Survey-or-3, -5, -6, -7 (1967-1968), which were supposed to explore the lunar surface and select landing sites for Apollo series spacecraft. . Five American artificial satellites "Lunar orbiter" in 1966-1967. photographed the Moon and studied its gravitational field. Detailed imaging of the surface in the region of the lunar equator, carried out by these satellites, was also needed to select future landing sites for spacecraft with astronauts.

The development of elements of the flight program to the Moon was carried out first by unmanned spacecraft of the Apollo series, and then by manned ones (Apollo 8, -9, -10). Apollo weighed 44 tons and consisted of a main block and a lunar cabin, which included landing and takeoff stages. Manned flights of the Moon were also planned in our country. To practice maneuvers in orbit, the Zond-4, −5, −6, −7, −8 spacecraft were used. However, these plans were abandoned after American astronauts made such flights.

The landing site for the lunar cabin of the Apollo 11 spacecraft was chosen in the Sea of ​​Tranquility, where Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 had already visited. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed on July 20, 1969. Armstrong was the first to emerge from the cabin, uttering a phrase that became historic: “This is a small step for the shuttle, but a giant leap for mankind.” The astronauts spoke to the US President using Czech radio communications; They installed a laser radiation compressor, a seismic meter, took pictures, and collected 221 samples of lunar soil. All work took them 2 hours 30 minutes. During this time, the astronauts moved away from the landing module at a distance of up to 100 m. Michael Collins, who also carried out scientific research, was found in orbit in the main block.

Astronauts of Apollo 12, launched on November 14, 1969, Charles! Conrad and Alan Bean landed in the Ocean of Storms region, near the lunar equator. Richard Gordon remained in the main block of the ship in orbit around the Moon. Conrad and Bean went to the surface twice and installed equipment to study the seismic activity of the Moon and the composition of solar wind particles at its surface. Since the landing site was chosen near the Surveyor 3 station, which had been on the Moon for two years and seven months, the astronauts’ task was to survey it. They found no signs of destruction of the station; only a layer of reddish-brown dust covered it. This time, 34 kg of lunar rock samples were collected.

The crew of Apollo 13 was unable to land on the Moon due to an explosion in the engine compartment of the main unit. Having flown around the Moon, the astronauts returned to Earth seven days later.

The Soviet automatic station "Luna-16" in September 1970 made a soft landing in the Sea of ​​Plenty, where lunar rock weighing 105 g was taken with a special soil-collecting device and placed in the return vehicle, which delivered it to Earth. In the same year, the Lunokhod-1 self-propelled vehicle was first delivered by the Luna-17 station, covering a 10.5 km long path and transmitting many images to Earth. Using the laser corner reflector installed on Lunokhod-1, it was possible to clarify the distance from the Earth to the Moon.

The Apollo 14 expedition took place from January 31 to February 9, 1971. The report from the landing site of the lunar cabin in the area of ​​the Fra Mauro crater was transmitted to Earth. Astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell spent 9 hours on the lunar surface and collected 44.5 kg of rocks. In August 1971, the crew of Apollo 15 landed at the foot of the lunar Apennine Mountains. For the first time, astronauts David Scott and James Irwin used a lunar rover for movement, making a 10 km long journey on it, and conducted numerous studies. In particular, they studied a deep gorge called Hadley's Furrow, but did not dare to go down without special equipment.

In April 1972, the crew of the lunar cabin of the Apollo 16 spacecraft landed on the mainland in the vicinity of the Descartes crater. In December of the same year, the last, sixth expedition on the Apollo 17 spacecraft was successfully completed.

The second self-propelled vehicle Lunokhod-2, delivered by the Luna-21 station in January 1973, continued research in a rather complex region of the Moon, which is a transition from the sea to the mainland. Using on-board television equipment, numerous panoramas and photographs of the surrounding area, data on the properties of the soil and its chemical composition were transmitted to Earth. A total of 37 km were covered. In 1974, the Luna-22 apparatus studied the relief and gravitational field from the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon. In the same year, Luna 23 managed to land in the Sea of ​​Crisis area. The exploration of the Moon by Soviet automatic stations was completed by the Luna-24 spacecraft, which automatically drilled lunar soil in the Sea of ​​Crises to a depth of 2 m and delivered 170 g of lunar rock to Earth on August 22, 1976.

After that, for quite a long time there were no launches to the Moon either in our country or in the USA. Interestingly, only 14 years later, in March 1990, Japan, using a Nissan rocket, launched the Muses-A automatic apparatus into orbit around the Moon for remote study of the lunar surface.

New generation devices created using ultra-light materials include the Clementine station, launched in January 1994. In addition to photographing the lunar surface, it measured relief heights, and also refined the thickness of the lunar crust, the gravitational field model and some other parameters.

In the near future, exploration of the Moon will begin. Already today, projects are being developed in detail to create a permanent inhabited base on its surface. The long-term or permanent presence on the Moon of replacement crews of such a base will make it possible to solve more complex scientific and applied problems.

Mercury Research

Nothing was known about the surface of the planet closest to the Sun until the flight of the Mariner 10 spacecraft, launched on November 3, 1973. The weight of the scientific equipment was about 80 kg. First, the device was directed towards Venus, in the gravitational field of which it received gravitational acceleration and, changing its trajectory, flew up to Mercury on March 29, 1974. Images of the surface obtained as a result of three flights of Mariner 10 at an interval of six months showed a surprising similarity of Mercury's topography with the Earth's closest neighbor, the Moon. As it turned out, its entire surface is covered with many craters of different sizes.

Scientists were somewhat disappointed that no atmosphere was found on Mercury. Traces of argon, neon, helium and hydrogen were found, but so insignificant that we can only talk about a vacuum with a degree of rarefaction that is not yet possible on Earth.

During the first flyby, which took place at an altitude of 705 km, a plasma shock wave and a magnetic field were detected near Mercury. It was possible to clarify the value of the planet’s radius (2439 km) and its mass.

On September 21, 1974, at a fairly large distance (more than 48 thousand kilometers), the second flyby of Mercury was carried out. Temperature sensors made it possible to establish that during a day, the duration of which is 88 Earth days. The planet's surface temperature rises to 510 °C, and at night drops to −210 °C. Using a radiometer, the heat flux emitted by the surface was determined; Against the background of heated areas consisting of loose rocks, colder areas consisting of rocks were identified.

During the third flyby of Mercury, which took place on March 16, 1975 at the shortest distance of −318 km, it was confirmed that the detected magnetic field indeed belonged to the planet. Its strength is about 1% of the strength of the earth's magnetic field. 3 thousand photographs obtained at this session had a resolution of up to 50 m. Since three photographic sessions covered the western hemisphere of the planet, the eastern hemisphere remained unexplored.

Currently, projects are being developed for new flights of space stations to Mercury, which will make it possible to study its eastern hemisphere.

Venus Research

The surface of Venus is completely hidden by a thick cloud cover, and only with the help of radars is it possible to “see” its relief.

The first descent vehicle in the form of a sphere with a diameter of 0.9 m with a heat-protective coating was delivered by the Venera-3 spacecraft in March 1966. The descent vehicles of the Venera-4, −5, −6 stations transmitted information about pressure, temperature and composition atmosphere during descent. However, they did not reach the surface of the planet, since they were not designed for the atmospheric pressure of Venus, which, as it turned out, is 90 atmospheres! And only the Venera-7 descent module in December 1970 finally landed on the surface of Venus and transmitted data on the composition of the atmosphere, the temperature of its various layers and surface, as well as changes in pressure.

In July 1972, the Venera 8 lander landed on the daytime side of the planet for the first time and showed that the illumination on its surface resembled an earthly cloudy day. The clouds of Venus, through which the device passed at an altitude of 70 to 30 km, had a layered structure and were not very dense.

In October 1975, the new generation Venera-9, −10 devices, which made a soft landing at a distance of over 2 thousand kilometers from each other on the illuminated side of the planet, transmitted panoramas of the surrounding area to Earth for the first time. The mass of each descent module with a diameter of 2.4 m was 1560 kg. Within an hour, the spacecraft remaining in orbit relayed scientific information from the surface of the planet to Earth.

People were able to see the global features of the relief of most of the surface of Venus thanks to radar sounding carried out from the American automatic station Pioneer Venus 1 in 1978. On maps compiled from the results of measuring surface heights, one can see extensive hills, individual mountain ranges and lowlands .

An interesting experiment was carried out at the Pioneer-Venera-2 station: with its help, one large one (with a diameter of 1.5 m and a mass of 316 kg) and three small ones (with a diameter of 0.7 m and a mass of 96.6 kg) were dropped into the atmosphere of Venus. ) the vehicle descends to the day and night sides, as well as to the region of the planet’s north pole. The devices transmitted information as they fell, and one of the small devices even withstood the impact and transmitted data from the surface for an hour. The results of this experiment confirmed that the planet's atmosphere contains up to 96% carbon dioxide, up to 4% nitrogen and some water vapor. A thin layer of dust was found on the surface.

In December 1978, research was also carried out by the Soviet “Venera-11, −12”, which landed at a distance of 800 km from each other. The data on the registration of electrical discharges in the planet’s atmosphere turned out to be interesting. One of the devices detected 25 lightning strikes per second, and the other about 1000, with one of the thunderclaps lasting 15 minutes. Apparently, the occurrence of these discharges is facilitated by the high content of sulfuric acid in the cloud cover.

Data on the chemical composition of the rocks at the Venera-13, −14 landing site were obtained in March 1982 using special soil sampling devices that placed the rock inside the descent vehicle. Data from the analyzes performed by the machines were transmitted to Earth, where scientists were able to compare these rocks with basalts found in the deep basins of the Earth's oceans.

From the orbits of the artificial satellites of Venus, the Venera-15, −16 spacecraft, equipped with radar systems, transmitted images of the surface of part of the planet’s northern hemisphere and measurement data of relief heights. As a result of each flight in highly elongated circumpolar orbits, a strip of terrain 160 km wide and 8 thousand kilometers long was photographed. Based on the materials from these surveys, an atlas of the surface of Venus was compiled, including relief maps, geological and other special maps.

A new type of lander, consisting of a lander and a balloon probe, was dropped from the Soviet stations "Ve-ga-1, -2", intended for research of Venus and Halley's comet in 1985. The balloon probes drifted at an altitude of about 54 km and transmitted data for two days, while the landing vehicles conducted a study of the atmosphere and surface of the planet.

The most detailed images of the entire surface of Venus were obtained using the American Magellan spacecraft, launched by astronauts of the space shuttle Atlantis in May 1989. Regular radar surveys carried out over several years made it possible to obtain images of the relief of the surface of Venus with a resolution of less than 300 m. As a result of all the experiments carried out using spacecraft, Venus has perhaps been studied better than other planets.

Research of Mars and its moons

The flight to Mars takes six to eight months. Since relative position The Earth and Mars are changing all the time, and the minimum distances between them (oppositions) occur only once every two years; the launch moment is chosen in such a way that Mars is at the intersection with the trajectory of the spacecraft, which by that time has reached its orbit.

The first launch towards Mars was carried out in early November 1962. The Soviet “Mars-1” passed at a distance of 197 thousand kilometers from the red planet. Photographs of its surface were taken by the American Mariner 4, launched two years later and passing on July 15, 1965 at a distance of 10 thousand kilometers from the surface of the planet.

It turned out that Mars is also covered with craters. The mass of the planet and the composition of its atmosphere were clarified. In 1969, the Mariner-6, −7 spacecraft, from a distance of 3400 km from Mars, transmitted several dozen images with a resolution of up to 300 m, and also measured the temperature of the southern polar cap. which turned out to be very low (-125 °C).

In May 1971, Mars 2, −3 and Mariner 9 were launched. The Mars-2, −3 devices, weighing 4.65 tons each, had an orbital compartment and a descent module. Only the Mars-3 lander managed to make a soft landing.

The Mars-2, −3 spacecraft conducted research from the orbits of artificial satellites, transmitting data on the properties of the atmosphere and surface of Mars based on the nature of radiation in the visible, infrared and ultraviolet spectral ranges, as well as in the radio wave range. The temperature of the northern polar cap was measured (below −110 °C); the extent, composition, temperature of the atmosphere, the temperature of the planet's surface were determined; data on the height of dust clouds and a weak magnetic field were obtained, as well as color images of Mars.

Mariner 9 also transferred an artificial satellite of Mars into orbit with a period of about 12 hours. It transmitted to Earth 7329 images of Mars with a resolution of up to 100 m, as well as photographs of its satellites, Phobos Deimos. Images of the Martian surface clearly show giant extinct volcanoes, many large and small canyons and valleys resembling dried up riverbeds; Martian craters differ from lunar ones in their emissions, indicating the presence of subsurface ice, as well as traces of water erosion and wind activity

A whole flotilla of four spacecraft Mars-4, −5, −6, −7 launched in 1973 reached the vicinity of Mars in early 1974. From-; malfunction of the on-board braking systems, Mars-4 passed at a distance of about 2200 km from the surface of the planet, having only photographed it. Mars-5 carried out remote sensing of the surface and atmosphere from the orbit of an artificial satellite. The Mars 6 lander made a soft landing in southern hemisphere. Data on the chemical composition, pressure and temperature of the atmosphere were transmitted to Earth. Mars 7 passed at a distance of 1,300 km from the surface without completing its program.

The most effective flights were the two American Vikings launched in 1975. On board the devices were television cameras, infrared spectrometers for recording water vapor in the atmosphere, and radiometers for obtaining temperature data. The Viking 1 landing unit made a soft landing on Chrysus Planitia on July 20, 1976, and the Viking 2 landing unit on Utopia Planitia on September 3, 1976. Unique experiments were carried out at the landing sites in order to detect signs of life in the Martian soil. A special device captured a soil sample and placed it in one of the containers containing a supply of water or nutrients. Since any living organisms change their habitat, the instruments had to record this. Although some changes in the environment in a tightly closed container were observed, the presence of a strong oxidizing agent in the soil could lead to the same results. That is why scientists could not confidently attribute these changes to the activity of bacteria.

Detailed photographs of the surface of Mars and its satellites were taken from orbital stations. Based on the data obtained, we compiled detailed maps surfaces of the planet, geological, thermal and other special maps.

The task of the Soviet stations “Pho-bos-1, -2”, launched after a 13-year break, was to study Mars and its satellite Phobos. As a result of an incorrect command from Earth, Phobos-1 lost orientation, and communication with it could not be restored.

“Phobos-2” entered the orbit of the artificial satellite of Mars in January 1989. Data on temperature changes on the surface of Mars and new information about the properties of the rocks that make up Phobos were obtained using remote methods. 38 images with a resolution of up to 40 m were obtained, and the temperature of its surface was measured, which was 30 °C in the hottest spots. Unfortunately, it was not possible to implement the main program to study Phobos. Communication with the device was lost on March 27, 1989.

The series of failures did not end there. The American Mars Observer spacecraft, launched in 1992, also failed to complete its mission. Contact with him was lost on August 21, 1993. It was not possible to place the Russian station “Mars-9b” on the flight path to Mars. In July 1997, Mars Pathfinder delivered the first automatic rover to the planet, which successfully studied the chemical composition of the surface and meteorological conditions.

In 1998, Japan plans to launch the Planet-B orbiter to Mars. In 2003, the European Space Agency, together with the United States and Russia, plans to create a network of special stations on Mars. Programs are being developed to fly astronauts to Mars. Such an expedition will take more than two years, since in order to return they will have to wait for a convenient relative position of Earth and Mars.

Jupiter Research

Study the giant planets using space technology began a decade later than the terrestrial planets. On March 3, 1972, the American spacecraft Pioneer 10 launched from Earth. After 6 months of flight, the device successfully passed the asteroid belt and after another 15 months reached the vicinity of the “king of the planets,” passing at a distance of 130,300 km from it in December 1973.

Using the original photopolarimeter, 340 images of the cloud cover of Jupiter and the surfaces of the four largest moons were obtained: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. In addition to the Great Red Spot, whose dimensions exceed the diameter of our planet, a white spot with a diameter of more than 10 thousand kilometers was discovered. An infrared radiometer showed the temperature of the outer cloud cover to be 133 °C. It was also discovered that Jupiter emits 1.6 times more heat than it receives from the Sun; The mass of the planet and satellite Io has been specified.

Research has shown that Jupiter has a powerful magnetic field; a zone with intense radiation was also recorded (10 thousand times more than in the near-Earth radiation belts) at a distance of 177 thousand kilometers from the planet. The gravity of Jupiter greatly changed the flight path of the device. Pioneer 10 began to move tangentially to the orbit of Jupiter, moving away from the Earth almost in a straight line. Interestingly, a plume of Jupiter's magnetosphere was discovered outside the orbit of Saturn. In 1987, Pioneer 10 went beyond the boundaries of the solar system.

The route of Pioneer 11, which flew at a distance of 43 thousand kilometers from Jupiter in December 1974, was calculated differently. He passed between the belts and the planet itself without receiving a dangerous dose of radiation. The same devices were installed on this device as on the previous one. Analysis of color images of the cloud layer obtained with a photopolarimeter made it possible to identify the features and structure of the clouds. Their height turned out to be different in the stripes and the zones located between them. According to Pioneer 11 studies, the light zones and the Great Red Spot are characterized by upward currents in the atmosphere. The clouds in them are located higher than in neighboring areas of the stripes, and it is colder here.

Jupiter's gravity turned Pioneer 11 almost 180°. After several corrections to the flight path, he crossed the orbit of Saturn not far from the planet itself.

The unique relative position of the Earth and the giant planets from 1976 to 1978 was used to consistently study these planets. Under the influence of gravitational fields, spacecraft were able to move from the flight path from Jupiter to Saturn, then to Uranus and Neptune. Without the use of the gravitational fields of the intermediate planets, the flight to Uranus would have taken 16 years instead of 9, and to Neptune - 20 years instead of 12. In 1977. The Voyager −1, −2 spacecraft set off on a long journey, with Voyager 2 launched earlier, on August 20, 1977, along a “slow” trajectory, and Voyager 1 on September 5, 1977, according to “ fast."

Voyager 1 made a flyby of Jupiter in March 1979, and Voyager 2 passed by the giant four months later. They transmitted to Earth images of Jupiter's cloud cover and the surfaces of nearby moons in amazing detail. Atmospheric masses of red, orange, yellow, brown and blue were constantly moving. The stripes of vortex flows captured each other, now narrowing, now expanding. The speed of cloud movement turned out to be 11 km/s. The Great Red Spot rotated counterclockwise and made a full revolution in 6 hours. Voyager 1 for the first time showed that Jupiter has a system of pale rings located at a distance of 57 thousand kilometers from the cloud cover of the planet, and there are eight volcanoes on the moon Io . Voyager 2 reported several months later that six of them remained active. Photographs of other Galilean moons - Europa, Ganymede and Callisto - showed that their surfaces differ sharply from each other.

The American Galileo spacecraft, delivered into low-Earth orbit in the cargo hold of the Atlantis spacecraft, was a new generation apparatus for studying the chemical composition and physical characteristics of Jupiter, as well as for more detailed photography of its satellites. The device consisted of an orbital module for long-term observations and a special probe that was supposed to penetrate the planet’s atmosphere. Galileo's trajectory was quite complex. First, the device headed towards Venus, which it passed by in February 1990. Then, along a new trajectory in December, it returned to Earth. Numerous photographs of Venus, the Earth and the Moon were transmitted.

In October 1991, while passing through the asteroid belt, the device photographed the minor planet Gaspra. Returning to Earth for the second time in December 1992 and receiving new acceleration, he rushed to the main goal of his journey - Jupiter. Once again in the asteroid belt in August 1993, he photographed another small planet, Ida.

Two years later, Galileo reached the vicinity of Jupiter. On command from the Earth, the descent probe separated from it and for five months made an independent flight to the boundaries of Jupiter’s atmosphere at a speed of 45 km/s. Due to the resistance of its upper layers, the speed dropped to several hundred meters per second within two minutes. At the same time, the overloads exceeded the earth's gravity by 230 times. The device penetrated the atmosphere to a depth of 156 km and operated for 57 minutes. Atmospheric data was relayed through the main Galileo unit.

Saturn Research

The first spacecraft to visit the vicinity of Saturn was Pioneer 11, which on September 1, 1979 passed at a distance of 21,400 km from the cloud layer of the planet. Saturn's magnetic field turned out to be stronger than the Earth's, but weaker than that of Jupiter. The mass of Saturn was clarified. Based on the nature of the gravitational field, it was concluded that the internal structure of Saturn is similar to the structure of Jupiter. According to measurements infrared radiation Scientists have determined the temperature of the visible surface of Saturn. It turned out to be equal to 100 K, and this fact indicated that the planet radiates approximately twice as much heat as it receives from the Sun. In the high latitudes of Saturn, the presence of auroras was assumed.

For the first time, images of Titan, the largest of Saturn's family of moons, were obtained, but, unfortunately, the resolution was very low.

The photographs of the rings looked unusual. The side of the rings not illuminated by the Sun was facing the apparatus, so the instruments recorded light that was not reflected from the rings, but passed through them.

Pioneer 11 left the solar system, but weak signals from it are still picked up by earthly antennas.

Better images were obtained during the flyby of two Voyagers, which, under the influence of Jupiter's gravity, changed their trajectories and headed towards Saturn. Images of the planet's cloud cover show swirling streaks, eddies, halos and spots different colors- yellow to brown, reminiscent of formations on Jupiter. A red spot with a diameter of about 1250 km was also discovered, as well as rapidly disappearing dark oval formations. Voyager 1 showed for the first time that the ring system of Saturn consists of thousands of individual narrow rings, discovered six new satellites and, passing at a distance of 4030 km from Titan, established that the main component of its atmosphere is nitrogen, and not methane, as previously thought . Interesting data was also obtained about some of Saturn’s other satellites: Tethys, Mimas, Dione, Rhea and Enceladus. Voyager 1 completed its main tasks and went beyond solar system.

Voyager 2 did not come the closest to Saturn. In the system of its rings there were even more individual rings, consisting of countless ice particles, large and small fragments. Voyager 2 discovered the largest crater in the entire system on the moon Tethys

Saturn with a diameter of 400 km and a depth of 16 km. After the encounter with Saturn, Voyager 2's flight path was changed so that it would pass near Uranus in January 1986.

New studies of Saturn, its rings and moons are planned in a project called Cassini. The launch of the device is scheduled for October 1997. Following a complex trajectory, the device will reach the outskirts of Saturn in June 2004 and will conduct research for four years. The most interesting thing in the project is the descent of a special probe into the atmosphere of Titan.

Uranus Research

Only one spacecraft, Voyager 2, has visited the vicinity of Uranus, flying at a distance of 81,200 km from the outer cloud cover. The trajectory of the device was almost perpendicular to the plane in which the satellites are located, so only Miranda, the smallest satellite known before this flight, was photographed at close range. The magnetic field strength of Uranus turned out to be greater than that of Saturn, and the intensity of the radiation belts is the same as that of the Earth's belts. In the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, a glow from the atmosphere of Uranus was recorded, extending 50 thousand kilometers from the planet.

Like other giant planets, vortices, jet streams, spots (but much fewer of them) were discovered in the atmosphere of Uranus, and methane clouds were recorded in its depths. Helium turned out to be three times less than previously expected: only 15%. Atmospheric circulation occurs at high latitudes at a higher speed than at the equator.

The nine rings of Uranus were known from ground-based observations of the planet's occultations of stars. Voyager 2 discovered the tenth ring, 3 km wide, and several incomplete rings of a dark color. The particles that make up the rings are about 1 m in diameter.

Images of five previously known satellites and ten new, small ones were obtained. Several large craters and a mountain about 6000 m high were discovered on Oberon, and numerous craters and valleys were discovered on Titania. The surface of Umbriel is very smooth, with craters and a bright spot visible on it. Ariel's heavily cratered surface, with traces of various geological processes, is reminiscent of Saturn's moon Enceladus. The surface of Miranda turned out to be the most complex, dotted with furrows, ridges and faults several kilometers deep. Such active tectonic activity was unexpected on a satellite whose diameter is less than 500 km.

Under the influence of Uranus's gravitational field, Voyager 2's trajectory changed again, and it headed towards Neptune.

Neptune Research

By the time of its encounter with Neptune on August 25, 1989, Voyager 2 had covered a distance of 4.5 billion kilometers. Despite the long journey, which took 12 years, and numerous trajectory corrections during the flight from Jupiter to Saturn and Uranus, Voyager ended up at the minimum distance from Neptune (less than 5 thousand kilometers) at the exact time calculated on Earth.

In color images synthesized from weak signals from Voyager, the visible surface of Neptune is a dense cloud layer blue color with stripes and white and dark spots. A powerful whirlwind storm the size of our planet is spinning counterclockwise. Neptune has a magnetic field; the axis of the magnetic poles is deviated by 50° from the planet's rotation axis. Voyager 2 also detected five faint rings around Neptune.

Based on ground-based studies, only two satellites were known: Triton and Nereid, orbiting Neptune in the opposite direction. Voyager discovered six more satellites ranging in size from 200 to 50 km, rotating in the same direction as Neptune. Triton and Nereid exhibit phenomena in the ultraviolet that are reminiscent of terrestrial auroras.

Triton has a very thin shell of gas, the top layer of which consists of nitrogen. Methane and solid particles of nitrogen formations were found in the lower layers. Along with craters, active volcanoes, canyons and mountains are discovered on its surface.

Voyager 2 continues to explore space beyond the solar system. Scientists hope to receive information from this spacecraft until 2013.

Spacecraft in all their diversity are both the pride and concern of humanity. Their creation was preceded by a centuries-old history of the development of science and technology. The space age, which allowed people to look at the world in which they live from the outside, has taken us to a new level of development. A rocket in space today is not a dream, but a matter of concern for highly qualified specialists who are faced with the task of improving existing technologies. What types of spacecraft are distinguished and how they differ from each other will be discussed in the article.

Definition

Spacecraft is a general name for any device designed to operate in space. There are several options for their classification. In the very simple case distinguish between manned and automatic spacecraft. The former, in turn, are divided into spaceships and stations. Different in their capabilities and purpose, they are largely similar in structure and equipment used.

Flight Features

After launch, any spacecraft goes through three main stages: insertion into orbit, flight itself and landing. The first stage involves the device developing the speed necessary to enter outer space. In order to get into orbit, its value must be 7.9 km/s. Complete overcoming of gravity involves the development of a second equal to 11.2 km/s. This is exactly how a rocket moves in space when its target is remote areas of the Universe.

After liberation from attraction, the second stage follows. During an orbital flight, the movement of spacecraft occurs by inertia, due to the acceleration given to them. Finally, the landing stage involves reducing the speed of the ship, satellite or station to almost zero.

"Filling"

Each spacecraft is equipped with equipment that matches the tasks it is designed to solve. However, the main discrepancy is related to the so-called target equipment, which is necessary precisely for obtaining data and various scientific research. Otherwise, the equipment of the spacecraft is similar. It includes the following systems:

• energy supply - most often solar or radioisotope batteries, chemical batteries, and nuclear reactors supply spacecraft with the necessary energy;
• communication - carried out using a radio wave signal; at a significant distance from the Earth, accurate pointing of the antenna becomes especially important;
• life support - a system typical for manned spacecraft, thanks to it it becomes possible for people to stay on board;
• orientation - like any other ships, space ships are equipped with equipment to constantly determine their own position in space;
• movement - spacecraft engines allow changes in flight speed, as well as in its direction.

Classification

One of the main criteria for dividing spacecraft into types is the operating mode, which determines their capabilities. By this characteristic devices are distinguished:

• located in a geocentric orbit, or artificial earth satellites;
• those whose purpose is to study remote areas of space - automatic interplanetary stations;
• used to deliver people or necessary cargo into the orbit of our planet, they are called spaceships, can be automatic or manned;
• created for people to stay in space for long period, - This ;
• engaged in the delivery of people and cargo from orbit to the surface of the planet, they are called descent;
• those capable of exploring the planet, directly located on its surface, and moving around it are planetary rovers.

Let's take a closer look at some types.

AES (artificial earth satellites)

The first devices launched into space were artificial Earth satellites. Physics and its laws make launching any such device into orbit a difficult task. Any device must overcome the gravity of the planet and then not fall on it. To do this, the satellite needs to move at or slightly faster. Above our planet, a conditional lower limit of the possible location of an artificial satellite is identified (passes at an altitude of 300 km). A closer placement will lead to a fairly rapid deceleration of the device in atmospheric conditions.

Initially, only launch vehicles could deliver artificial Earth satellites into orbit. Physics, however, does not stand still, and today new methods are being developed. Thus, one of the frequently used lately methods - launching from another satellite. There are plans to use other options.

The orbits of spacecraft revolving around the Earth can lie at different altitudes. Naturally, the time required for one lap also depends on this. Satellites, whose orbital period is equal to a day, are placed on the so-called It is considered the most valuable, since the devices located on it appear motionless to an earthly observer, which means there is no need to create mechanisms for rotating antennas.

AMS (automatic interplanetary stations)

Scientists obtain a huge amount of information about various objects of the Solar System using spacecraft sent beyond the geocentric orbit. AMS objects are planets, asteroids, comets, and even galaxies accessible for observation. The tasks posed to such devices require enormous knowledge and effort from engineers and researchers. AWS missions represent the embodiment of technological progress and are at the same time its stimulus.

Manned spacecraft

Devices created to deliver people to their intended destination and return them back are in no way inferior in technological terms to the described types. The Vostok-1, on which Yuri Gagarin made his flight, belongs to this type.

The most difficult task for the creators of a manned spacecraft is ensuring the safety of the crew during the return to Earth. Also an important part of such devices is the emergency rescue system, which may be necessary when the ship is launched into space using a launch vehicle.

Spacecraft, like all astronautics, are constantly being improved. Recently, the media have often seen reports about the activities of the Rosetta probe and the Philae lander. They embody everything latest achievements in the field of space shipbuilding, calculation of vehicle motion, and so on. The landing of the Philae probe on the comet is considered an event comparable to Gagarin's flight. The most interesting thing is that this is not the crown of humanity’s capabilities. New discoveries and achievements still await us in terms of both space exploration and the structure

Man has always been attracted by the cold reaches of space... They amaze with their dark mystery. Probably, out of a great desire to touch the unknown, people invented flying machines.

This article is intended for persons over 18 years of age

Have you already turned 18?

Small spacecraft

Cassini spacecraft

The first satellites

To carry out interplanetary travel at one time it was necessary to create powerful, modern and durable machines that could overcome not only the gravitational force of our planet, but also various unfavorable conditions environment of interplanetary space. To overcome the gravitational force of our planet, an aircraft requires a speed of over eleven kilometers per second. Overcoming the gravitational forces of the Earth acting on it during flight, the device goes into outer space - interplanetary space.

But space is just beginning here. Next, you need to overcome the gravitational force of the Sun and get out from under its “power”; for this you will need an average speed of over sixteen kilometers per second. So aircraft leaves the zone of influence of the Sun and enters interstellar space. However, this is not the limit, for the dimensions of the cosmos are limitless, just as the dimensions of human consciousness are limitless. To advance further, namely to enter intergalactic space, you need to reach a speed of over five hundred kilometers per second.

The first satellite of our planet was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union with the aim of studying outer space around the Earth. It was a breakthrough in the field of space exploration. Thanks to the launch of the first satellite, the Earth's own atmosphere, as well as the outer space surrounding it, was studied in detail. The fastest and most distant spacecraft in relation to our planet today is the Voyager 1 satellite. He has been exploring the Solar System and its environs for forty years. Over these forty years, invaluable data has been collected that can serve as a good springboard for scientific discoveries of the future.

One of the priority areas of science in the field of space exploration is the exploration of Mars. As for the flight to this planet, so far such an idea remains only on paper, although work in its direction is underway. Through trial and error and analysis of spacecraft failures, scientists are trying to find the most comfortable option for a flight to Mars. It is also very important that the safest conditions are created for the crew inside the ship. One of the main problems today is the electrification of a spacecraft during high speed conditions, which creates a fire hazard. But still, even despite this, man’s thirst for knowledge of space is unquenchable. This is evidenced by the huge list of interplanetary trips carried out to date.

Spacecraft launches in 2017

The list of spacecraft launches in 2017 is very long. The leader in the list of spacecraft launches, of course, is America, as the flagship of scientific research in the field of space exploration, but other countries are also not lagging behind. And the launch statistics are positive; in the entire year of 2017, there were only three unsuccessful launches.

Exploration of the Moon by spacecraft

Of course, the most attractive object of human research has always been the Moon. In 1969, man first set foot on the surface of the Moon. Scientists who have studied the planet Mercury claim that the Moon and Mercury are similar in physical characteristics. An image taken by a spacecraft from Saturn's orbit shows the Moon appearing as a dot of light in the vast darkness of space.

Russian spacecraft

Most of Russia's current spacecraft are Soviet reusable aircraft that were launched into space back in Soviet times. However, modern aircraft in Russia are also achieving success in space exploration. Russian scientists are planning many flights to the surface of the Moon, Mars and Jupiter. The greatest contribution to the study of Venus, the Moon and Mars was made by Soviet research stations with the same names. They made a great many flights, the results of which were priceless photographs and video materials, measurements of temperature, pressure, study of the atmosphere of these planets, etc.

Classification of spacecraft

According to the principle of operation and specialization, spacecraft are divided into:

• artificial satellites of planets;
• space stations for interplanetary exploration;
• rovers;
• spaceships;
• orbital stations.

Earth satellites, orbital stations and spacecraft are designed to explore the Earth and the planets of the solar system. Space stations are designed for research beyond the solar system.

Descent module of the Soyuz spacecraft

"Soyuz" is a manned spacecraft with scientific equipment on board, on-board equipment, the possibility of communication between the spacecraft and the earth, the presence of energy-converting equipment, a telemetry system, an orientation and stabilization system and many other systems and instruments for conducting research work and life support crew. The Soyuz descent module has an impressive weight - from 2800 to 2900 kg, depending on the make of the ship. One of the disadvantages of the ship is the high probability of failure of radio communications and unopened solar panels. But this was corrected in later versions of the ship.

History of spacecraft of the Resurs-F series

The history of the Resource series dates back to 1979. This is a series of spacecraft for photo and video shooting in outer space, as well as for cartographic studies of the Earth's surface. The information obtained using the Resurs-F series spacecraft is used in cartography, geodesy, and also for monitoring the seismic activity of the Earth's crust.

Small spacecraft

Artificial satellites, having small sizes, are designed to solve the simplest problems. A lot is known about how they are used and what role they play in the study of space and the surface of the earth. Their main task is monitoring and researching the Earth's surface. The classification of small satellites depends on their mass. Divided:

• minisatellites;
• microsatellites;
• nanosatellites;
• picosatellites;
• femtosatellites.

Depending on the size and mass of the satellite, its task is determined, but one way or another, all satellites of this series perform tasks to study the Earth’s surface.

Electric rocket engine for spacecraft

The essence of the operation of an electric motor is the conversion of electrical energy into kinetic energy. Electric rocket engines are divided into: electrostatic, electrothermal, electromagnetic, magnetodynamic, pulsed, ion. A nuclear electric motor opens up the possibility of flight to distant stars and planets due to its power. The propulsion system converts energy into mechanical energy, which makes it possible to develop the speed necessary to overcome the force of gravity.

Spacecraft design

The development of spacecraft systems depends on the tasks assigned to these vehicles. Their activities can cover very different areas activities - from scientific research to meteorological and military intelligence. The design and provision of devices with certain systems and functions depends on the tasks assigned to them.

Cassini spacecraft

The names of these scouts of the secrets of the Universe are known throughout the world - “Juno”, “Meteor”, “Rosetta”, Galileo”, “Phoenix”, “Pioneer”, “Jubilee”, “Dawn”, “Akatsuki”, “Voyager” ", "Magellan", "Ace", "Tundra", "Buran", "Rus", "Ulysses", "Nivelir-ZU" (14f150), "Genesis", "Viking", "Vega", "Luna- 2", "Luna-3", "Soho", "Meridian", "Stardust", "Gemini-12", "Spektr-RG", "Horizon", "Federation", a series of devices "Resurs-P" and many others, the list goes on and on. Thanks to the information they collect, we can open up more and more new horizons.

The equally high-quality and unique Cassini spacecraft was launched back in 1997 and served for the benefit of humanity for twenty years. His prerogative is the study of the distant and mysterious “lord of the rings” of our solar system - Saturn. In September of this year, the device completed its honorable mission as a guiding star for humanity and, as befits a falling star, it burned to the ground in flight without touching its native Earth.

The entire complex of scientific work in space is divided into two groups: the study of near-Earth space (near space) and the study of deep space. All research is carried out using special spacecraft.

They are designed for flights into space or for work on other planets, their satellites, asteroids, etc. Basically, they are capable of functioning independently for a long time. There are two types of devices - automatic (satellites, stations for flights to other planets, etc.) and manned manned (spaceships, orbital stations or complexes).

Space satellites of the Earth

A lot of time has passed since the first flight of the artificial Earth satellite, and today more than a dozen of them are working in low-Earth orbit. Some of them form a worldwide communication network through which millions of telephone calls are transmitted every day, television broadcasts and computer messages are relayed to all countries of the world. Others help monitor weather changes, detect minerals, and monitor military installations. The advantages of receiving information from space are obvious: satellites operate regardless of weather and season, transmitting messages about the most remote and inaccessible areas of the planet. Their unlimited visibility allows you to instantly record data on vast territories.

Scientific satellites

Scientific satellites are designed to study outer space. With their help, information is collected about near-Earth space (near space), in particular - about the Earth’s magnetosphere, the upper layers of the atmosphere, the interplanetary medium and the planet’s radiation belts; study of the celestial bodies of the solar system; deep space exploration carried out using telescopes and other special equipment installed on satellites.

The most widespread are satellites that collect data on interplanetary space, anomalies in the solar atmosphere, the intensity of the solar wind and the influence of these processes on the state of the Earth, etc. These satellites are also called the “solar service.”

For example, in December 1995, the SOHO satellite, created in Europe and representing an entire observatory for studying the Sun, was launched from the Cape Canaveral spaceport. With its help, scientists carry out studies of the magnetic field at the base of the solar crown, the internal movement of the Sun, the connection between its internal structure and the external atmosphere, etc.

This satellite became the first apparatus of its kind to conduct research at a point 1.5 million km away from our planet, in the very place where the gravitational fields of the Earth and the Sun balance each other. According to NASA, the observatory will remain in space until approximately 2002 and will conduct about 12 experiments during this time.

In the same year, another observatory, NEXTE, was launched from the Cape Canaveral spaceport to collect data on cosmic X-ray radiation. It was developed by NASA specialists, while the main equipment located on it and performing a larger volume of work was designed at the Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences at the University of California, San Diego.

The observatory's tasks include studying radiation sources. During its operation, the satellite's field of view includes about a thousand black holes, neutron stars, quasars, white dwarfs and active galactic nuclei.

In the summer of 2000, the European Space Agency carried out the planned successful launch of four Earth satellites, collectively called Cluster 2, designed to monitor the state of its magnetosphere. Cluster-2 was launched into low-Earth orbit from the Baikonur Cosmodrome by two Soyuz launch vehicles.

It should be noted that the agency’s previous attempt ended in failure: during the takeoff of the French Ariane 5 launch vehicle in 1996, the same number of satellites, collectively called Cluster 1, burned up - they were less advanced than Cluster 2 ", but were intended to perform the same work, i.e., simultaneously recording information about the state of the Earth's electric and magnetic fields.

In 1991, the GRO-COMPTON space observatory was launched into orbit with the EGRET telescope to record gamma radiation on board, at that time the most advanced instrument of this level, which recorded radiation of extremely high energies.

Not all satellites are launched into orbit by launch vehicles. For example, the Orpheus-Spas-2 spacecraft began its work in space after it was removed from the cargo bay of the American reusable transport spacecraft Columbia using a manipulator. Orpheus-Spas-2, being an astronomical satellite, was located 30-115 km away from Columbia and measured the parameters of interstellar gas and dust clouds, hot stars, active galactic nuclei, etc. After 340 hours 12 minutes. After work, the satellite was again loaded aboard Columbia and safely delivered to Earth.

Communications satellites

Communication lines are also called the nervous system of the country, since without them any work is unthinkable. Communications satellites transmit telephone calls and relay radio and television programs around the world. They are capable of transmitting television program signals over vast distances and creating multi-channel communications. The huge advantage of satellite communications over terrestrial communications is that within the coverage area of ​​one satellite there is a huge territory with an almost unlimited number of ground stations receiving signals.

Satellites of this type are located in a special orbit at a distance of 35,880 km from the Earth's surface. They move at the same speed as the Earth, so it seems that the satellite hangs in one place all the time. Signals from them are received using special disk antennas installed on the roofs of buildings and facing the satellite orbit.

The first Soviet communications satellite, Molniya-1, was launched on April 23, 1965, and broadcast on the same day television program from Vladivostok to Moscow. This satellite was intended not only for relaying television programs, but also for telephone and telegraph communications. The total mass of Molniya-1 was 1500 kg.

The spacecraft managed to make two revolutions per day. Soon new communication satellites were launched: Molniya-2 and Molniya-3. All of them differed from each other only in the parameters of the on-board repeater (a device for receiving and transmitting a signal) and its antennas.

In 1978, more advanced Horizon satellites were put into operation. Their main task was to expand telephone, telegraph and television exchange throughout the country, to increase bandwidth international space communications system Intersputnik. It was with the help of two “Horizons” that the broadcast was carried out Olympic Games 1980 in Moscow.

Many years have passed since the appearance of the first communication spacecraft, and today almost all developed countries have their own such satellites. For example, in 1996, another spacecraft of the International Organization of Satellite Communications “Intelsat” was launched into orbit. Its satellites serve consumers in 134 countries around the world and provide direct television broadcasting, telephone, fax and telex communications to many countries.

In February 1999, the Japanese JCSat-6 satellite weighing 2900 kg was launched from the Canaveral Space Center on an Atlas-2AS launch vehicle. It was intended for television broadcasting and transmission of information to the territory of Japan and part of Asia. It was manufactured by the American company Hughes Space for the Japanese company Japan Satellite Systems.

In the same year, the 12th artificial Earth satellite of the Canadian satellite communications company Telesat Canada, created by the American company Lockheed Martin, was launched into orbit. It provides digital television broadcasting, audio and information services to subscribers in North America.

Educational companions

Flights of Earth satellites and interplanetary space stations have made space a working platform for science. The development of near-Earth space has created conditions for the dissemination of information, education, propaganda and exchange of cultural values ​​throughout the world. It has become possible to provide radio and television programs to the most remote and hard-to-reach areas.

Spacecraft have made it possible to teach literacy to millions of people simultaneously. Through satellites, information is transmitted via photo telegraphs to the printing houses of various cities, and pages of central newspapers, which allows rural residents to receive newspapers at the same time as the population of cities.

Thanks to the agreement between the countries, it became possible to broadcast television programs (for example, Eurovision or Intervision) around the world. Such broadcasting on a global scale ensures a wide exchange of cultural values ​​between peoples.

In 1991, the Indian space agency decided to use space technology to eliminate illiteracy in the country (in India, 70% of villagers are illiterate).

They launched satellites to transmit televised reading and writing lessons to any village. The Gramsat program (which translates into Hindi as “Gram” means village; “sat” is short for “satellite”) is targeting 560 small towns across India.

Educational satellites are usually located in the same orbit as communication satellites. To receive signals from them at home, each viewer must have his own disk antenna and television.

Satellites for studying the Earth's natural resources

In addition to searching for the Earth's mineral resources, such satellites transmit information about the state of the planet's natural environment. They are equipped with special sensor rings on which photo and television cameras and devices for collecting information about the Earth's surface are located. This includes devices for photographing atmospheric transformations, measuring parameters of the earth's surface and ocean, and atmospheric air. For example, the Landsat satellite is equipped with special instruments that allow it to photograph over 161 million m 2 of the earth's surface per week.

Satellites make it possible not only to conduct constant observations of the earth’s surface, but also to keep vast areas of the planet under control. They warn of drought, fires, environmental pollution and serve as key informants for meteorologists.

Today, many different satellites have been created to study the Earth from space, differing in their tasks, but equipping them with instruments that complement each other. Similar space systems are currently in operation in the USA, Russia, France, India, Canada, Japan, China, etc.

For example, with the creation of the American meteorological satellite TIROS-1 (Television and Infrared Earth Observation Satellite), it became possible to survey the Earth's surface and monitor global atmospheric changes from space.

The first spacecraft of this series was launched into orbit in 1960, and after the launch of a number of similar satellites, the United States created the TOS space meteorological system.

The first Soviet satellite of this type, Kosmos-122, was launched into orbit in 1966. Almost 10 years later, it was already operating in orbit. a whole series domestic spacecraft of the "Meteor" series for the study and control of the Earth's natural resources "Meteor-Nature".

In 1980, a new permanently operating satellite system “Resurs” appeared in the USSR, which included three complementary spacecraft: “Resurs-F”, “Resurs-O” and “Okean-O”.

"Resurs-Ol" has become a kind of indispensable space postman. Flying over one point on the Earth's surface twice a day, it takes email and sends it to all subscribers who have a radio complex with a small satellite modem. The system's customers are travelers, athletes and researchers located in remote areas of land and sea. Large organizations also use the system’s services: offshore oil platforms, geological exploration parties, scientific expeditions, etc.

In 1999, the United States launched a more modern scientific satellite, Terra, to measure the physical properties of the atmosphere and land, biosphere and oceanographic research.

All material received from satellites (digital data, photomontages, individual images) is processed in information reception centers. Then they go to the Hydrometeorological Center and other units. Images obtained from space are used in various branches of science. For example, they can be used to determine the state of grain crops in the fields. Grain crops that are infected with something are dark blue in the picture, while healthy ones are red or pink.

Marine satellites

The advent of satellite communications has provided enormous opportunities for studying the World Ocean, which occupies 2/3 of the surface of the globe and provides humanity with half of all the oxygen available on the planet. With the help of satellites, it has become possible to monitor the temperature and condition of the water surface, the development and attenuation of a storm, detect areas of pollution (oil spills), etc.

In the USSR for the first observations of the earth and water surfaces from space they used the Kosmos-243 satellite, launched into orbit in 1968 and fully equipped with special automated equipment. With its help, scientists were able to assess the distribution of water temperature on the ocean surface through the thickness of clouds, monitor the state of atmospheric layers and the ice boundary; Using the data obtained, compile ocean surface temperature maps necessary for the fishing fleet and meteorological service.

In February 1979, a more advanced oceanographic satellite, Cosmos-1076, was launched into Earth orbit, transmitting comprehensive oceanographic information. The instruments on board determined the main characteristics of sea water, atmosphere and ice cover, the intensity of sea waves, wind strength, etc. With the help of Cosmos-1076 and the subsequent Cosmos-1151, the first bank of “space data” was formed "about the World Ocean.

The next step was the creation of the Intercosmos-21 satellite, also designed to study the ocean. For the first time in history, a space system consisting of two satellites: “Cosmos-1151” and “Intercos-mos-21” operated over the planet. By complementing each other with equipment, the satellites made it possible to observe certain areas from different altitudes and compare the data obtained.

In the United States, the first artificial satellite of this type was Explorer, launched into orbit in 1958. It was followed by a series of satellites of this type.

In 1992, the French-American Torekh Poseidon satellite was launched into orbit, designed for high-precision measurements of the sea. In particular, using the data obtained from it, scientists have established that sea level is currently constantly rising from average speed 3.9 mm/year.

Thanks to marine satellites, today it is possible not only to observe the picture of the surface and deep layers of the World Ocean, but also to find lost ships and aircraft. There are special navigation satellites, a kind of “radio stars”, by which ships and planes can navigate in any weather. By relaying radio signals from ships to shore, satellites provide uninterrupted communication between most large and small ships and land at any time of the day.

In 1982, the Soviet satellite Kosmos-1383 was launched with equipment on board to determine the location of missing ships and crashed aircraft. “Cosmos-1383” went down in the history of astronautics as the first rescue satellite. Thanks to the data obtained from it, it was possible to determine the coordinates of many aviation and sea accidents.

A little later, Russian scientists created a more advanced artificial Earth satellite “Cicada” to determine the location of merchant ships and naval ships.

Spacecraft for flight to the Moon

Spacecraft of this type are designed to fly from the Earth to the Moon and are divided into flybys, lunar satellites and landing ones. The most complex of them are landing vehicles, which in turn are divided into moving ones (lunar rovers) and stationary ones.

A number of devices for studying the Earth’s natural satellite were discovered by spacecraft of the “Luna” series. With their help, the first photographs of the lunar surface were taken, measurements were taken during approach, entering its orbit, etc.

The first station to study the Earth’s natural satellite was, as is known, the Soviet “Luna-1”, which became the first artificial satellite of the Sun. It was followed by Luna-2, which reached the Moon, Luna-3, etc. With the development of space technology, scientists were able to create a device that could land on the lunar surface.

In 1966, the Soviet station Luna 9 made the first soft landing on the lunar surface.

The station consisted of three main parts: an automatic lunar station, a propulsion system for trajectory correction and braking when approaching the Moon, and a control system compartment. Its total mass was 1583 kg.

The Luna-9 control system included control and software devices, orientation instruments, a radio soft landing system, etc. Part of the control equipment that was not used during braking was separated before starting the braking engine. The station was equipped with a television camera to transmit images of the lunar surface in the landing area.

The appearance of the Luna-9 spacecraft made it possible for scientists to obtain reliable information about the lunar surface and the structure of its soil.

Subsequent stations continued their work on studying the Moon. With their help, new space systems and devices were developed. The next stage in the study of the Earth's natural satellite began with the launch of the Luna-15 station.

Its program provided for the delivery of samples from various areas of the lunar surface, seas and continents, and conducting extensive research. The research was planned to be carried out using mobile laboratories-lunar rovers and lunar satellites. For these purposes, a new device was specially developed - a multi-purpose space platform, or landing stage. It was supposed to deliver various cargo to the Moon (lunar rovers, return rockets, etc.), adjust the flight to the Moon, launch into lunar orbit, maneuver in lunar space and land on the Moon.

Luna-15 was followed by Luna-16 and Luna-17, which delivered the lunar self-propelled vehicle Lunokhod-1 to the Earth’s natural satellite.

The automatic lunar station "Luna-16" was to some extent also a lunar rover. She had to not only take and examine soil samples, but also deliver them to Earth. Thus, the equipment, previously designed only for landing, now, reinforced with propulsion and navigation systems, has become take-off. The functional part responsible for sampling the soil, after completing its mission, returned to the take-off stage and the apparatus, which was supposed to deliver the samples to Earth, after which the mechanism responsible for the launch from the lunar surface and the flight from the natural satellite of our planet to Earth began to work.

One of the first who, together with the USSR, began to study the Earth’s natural satellite was the United States. They created a series of Lunar Orbiter devices to search for landing areas for the Apollo spacecraft and the Surveyor automatic interplanetary stations. The first launch of Lunar Orbiter took place in 1966. A total of 5 such satellites were launched.

In 1966, the American spacecraft from the Surveyor series headed towards the Moon. It was created to explore the Moon and is designed for a soft landing on its surface. Subsequently, 6 more spacecraft of this series flew to the Moon.

Lunokhods

The appearance of the mobile station significantly expanded the capabilities of scientists: they had the opportunity to study areas not only around the landing point, but also in other areas of the lunar surface. The movement of the traveling laboratories was regulated using remote control.

Lunokhod, or lunar self-propelled vehicle, is designed to work and move on the surface of the Moon. Devices of this kind are the most complex of all those involved in the study of the Earth’s natural satellite.

Before scientists created the lunar rover, they had to solve many problems. In particular, such a device must have a strictly vertical landing, and it must move along the surface with all its wheels. It was necessary to take into account that constant communication between its on-board complex and the Earth would not always be maintained, since it depends on the rotation of the celestial body, on the intensity of the solar wind and the distance from the wave receiver. This means that we need a special highly directional antenna and a system of means for pointing it to the Earth. Constantly changing temperature regime requires special protection from the harmful effects of changes in the intensity of heat flows.

The significant remoteness of the lunar rover could lead to a delay in the timely transmission of some commands to it. This means that the apparatus should have been filled with devices that independently developed an algorithm for further behavior depending on the task and the prevailing circumstances. This is the so-called artificial intelligence, and its elements are already widely used in space research. Solving all the tasks allowed scientists to create an automatic or controlled device for studying the Moon.

On November 17, 1970, the Luna-17 station delivered the Lunokhod-1 self-propelled vehicle to the lunar surface for the first time. It was the first mobile laboratory, weighing 750 kg and 1600 mm wide.

The autonomous, remotely controlled lunar rover consisted of a sealed body and a frameless chassis of eight wheels. Four blocks of two wheels were attached to the base of the truncated sealed body. Each wheel had an individual drive with an electric motor and independent suspension with a shock absorber. The equipment of the Lunokhod was located inside the body: a radio-television system, power batteries, means of thermal regulation, control of the Lunokhod, scientific equipment.

On the top of the case there was a rotating cover that could be positioned at different angles to better utilize solar energy. For this purpose, solar battery elements were located on its inner surface. On outer surface The device housed antennas, television camera windows, a solar compass and other instruments.

The purpose of the trip was to obtain a lot of data of interest to science: about the radiation situation on the Moon, the presence and intensity of sources x-ray radiation, chemical composition of the pound, etc. The movement of the lunar rover was carried out using sensors installed on the device and a corner reflector included in the laser coordination system.

Lunokhod-1 operated for over 10 months, which amounted to 11 lunar days. During this time, he walked along the lunar surface approximately 10.5 km. The lunar rover's route ran through the Sea of ​​Rains region.

At the end of 1996, tests of the American device Nomad from Luna Corp. were completed. The Lunokhod externally resembles a four-wheeled tank, equipped with four video cameras on five-meter rods for filming terrain within a radius of 5-10 meters. The device contains instruments for NASA research. In one month, the lunar rover can cover a distance of 200 km, and a total of up to 1000 km.

Spacecraft for flight to the planets of the solar system

They differed from spacecraft for flights to the Moon in that they were designed for greater distances from the Earth and a longer flight duration. Due to the large distances from the Earth, a number of new problems had to be solved. For example, to ensure communication with interplanetary automatic stations, the use of highly directional antennas in the on-board radio complex and means of pointing the antenna to the Earth in the control system has become mandatory. A more advanced protection system from external heat flows was required.

And so on February 12, 1961, the world's first Soviet automatic interplanetary station, Venera-1, took off.

“Venera-1” was a sealed apparatus equipped with a software device, a radio equipment complex, an orientation system, and chemical battery units. Some of the scientific equipment, two solar panels and four antennas were located outside the station. Using one of the antennas, communication with the Earth was carried out over long distances. The total mass of the station was 643.5 kg. The main task The station was testing methods for launching objects onto interplanetary routes, monitoring ultra-long-range communications and control, and conducting a number of scientific studies during the flight. With the help of the data obtained, it became possible to further improve the designs of interplanetary stations and components of on-board equipment.

The station reached the Venus region in late May and passed approximately 100 thousand km from its surface, after which it entered solar orbit. Following it, scientists sent “Venera-2” and “Venera-3”. After 4 months, the next station reached the surface of Venus and left there a pennant depicting the coat of arms of the USSR. She transmitted to Earth a lot of different data necessary for science.

The automatic interplanetary station "Venera-9" (Fig. 175) and the descent vehicle of the same name included in it were launched into space in June 1975 and worked as a single unit only until undocking occurred and the descent vehicle landed on surface of Venus.

In the process of preparing the automatic expedition, it was necessary to take into account the pressure existing on the planet of 10 MPa, and therefore the descent vehicle had a spherical body, which was also the main power element. The purpose of sending these devices was to study the atmosphere of Venus and its surface, which included determining the chemical composition of the “air” and soil. For this purpose, there were complex spectrometric instruments on board the device. With the help of "Venera-9" it was possible to take the first photograph of the planet's surface.

In total, Soviet scientists launched 16 spacecraft of the Venus series between 1961 and 1983.

Soviet scientists discovered the Earth-Mars route. The launch of the interplanetary station “Mars-1” took place in 1962. It took the spacecraft 259 days to reach the planet’s orbit.

Mars-1 consisted of two sealed compartments (orbital and planetary), a corrective propulsion system, solar panels, antennas and a thermal control system. The orbital compartment contained the equipment necessary for the operation of the station during its flight, and the planetary compartment contained scientific instruments designed to work directly on the planet. Subsequent calculations showed that the interplanetary station passed 197 km from the surface of Mars.

During the flight of Mars-1, 61 radio communication sessions were carried out with it, and the time to send and receive a response signal was approximately 12 minutes. After approaching Mars, the station entered solar orbit.

In 1971, the descent vehicle of the Mars-3 interplanetary station landed on Mars. And two years later, four Soviet stations of the “Mars” series flew along the interplanetary route for the first time. Mars-5 became the third artificial satellite of the planet.

US scientists have also studied the Red Planet. They created a series of automatic interplanetary stations “Mariner” for flying over planets and placing satellites into their orbit. In addition to Mars, spacecraft of this series also studied Venus and Mercury. In total, American scientists launched 10 Mariner interplanetary stations between 1962 and 1973.

In 1998, the Japanese automatic interplanetary station Nozomi was launched towards Mars. Now she is making an unscheduled flight in orbit between the Earth and the Sun. Calculations have shown that in 2003 Nozomi will fly quite close to the Earth and, as a result of a special maneuver, will switch to a flight path to Mars. At the beginning of 2004, an automatic interplanetary station will enter its orbit and carry out the planned research program.

The first experiments with interplanetary stations significantly enriched knowledge about outer space and made it possible to fly to other planets of the solar system. To date, almost all of them, except Pluto, have been visited by stations or probes. For example, in 1974, the American spacecraft Mariner 10 flew quite close to the surface of Mercury. In 1979, two automatic stations, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, flying towards Saturn, passed by Jupiter, and they managed to capture the cloudy shell of the giant planet. They also photographed a huge red spot, which has been of interest to all scientists for so long and is an atmospheric vortex larger than our Earth. The stations discovered an active volcano on Jupiter and its largest satellite, Io. As Voyagers approached Saturn, they photographed the planet and its orbiting rings, made up of millions of rocky debris covered in ice. A little later, Voyager 2 passed near Uranus and Neptune.

Today, both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are exploring the outer regions of the Solar System. All their instruments work normally and constantly transmit scientific information to Earth. Presumably, both devices will remain operational until 2015.

Saturn was studied by the Cassini interplanetary station (NASA-ESA), launched in 1997. In 1999, it flew past Venus and carried out spectral imaging of the planet’s cloud cover and some other research. In mid-1999, it entered the asteroid belt and safely passed it. Its last maneuver before its flight to Saturn took place at a distance of 9.7 million km from Jupiter.

The automatic station "Galileo" also flew to Jupiter, reaching it 6 years later. About 5 months earlier, the station released a space probe that entered the atmosphere of Jupiter and existed there for about 1 hour until it was crushed by the atmospheric pressure of the planet.

Interplanetary automatic stations were created to study not only the planets, but also other bodies of the Solar System. In 1996, the Delta-2 launch vehicle launched from the Canaveral Space Center with the small interplanetary station HEAP on board, designed to study asteroids. In 1997, HEAP studied the Matilda asteroids, and two years later, Eros.

The space research vehicle consists of a module with service systems, instrumentation and propulsion system. The body of the device is made in the form of an octagonal prism, on the front bottom of which a transmitting antenna and four solar panels are mounted. Inside the hull there is a propulsion system, six scientific instruments, a navigation system consisting of five digital solar sensors, a star sensor and two hydroscopes. The launch mass of the station was 805 kg, of which 56 kg was for scientific equipment.

Today, the role of unmanned spacecraft is enormous, since they account for the bulk of all scientific work carried out by scientists on Earth. As science and technology develop, they constantly become more complex and improved due to the need to solve new complex problems.

Manned spacecraft

A manned spacecraft is a device designed to fly people and all the necessary equipment into space. The first such devices - the Soviet Vostok and the American Mercury, intended for human space flights, were relatively simple in design and the systems used. But their appearance was preceded by long scientific work.

The first stage in the creation of manned spacecraft were rockets, originally designed to solve many problems in studying the upper layers of the atmosphere. Creation of aircraft with liquid rocket engines at the beginning of the century served as an impetus for the further development of science in this direction. The greatest results in this area of ​​cosmonautics were achieved by scientists from the USSR, USA and Germany.

German scientists in 1927 formed the Society for Interplanetary Travel, led by Wernher von Braun and Klaus Riedel. With the Nazis coming to power, it was they who headed all the work on creating combat missiles. After 10 years, a rocket development center was formed in the city of Penemond, where the V-1 aircraft projectile and the world's first serial ballistic missile, the V-2, were created (ballistic is a rocket controlled during the initial phase of the flight. When the engines are turned off , it continues its flight along the trajectory).

Its first successful launch took place in 1942: the rocket reached an altitude of 96 km, flew 190 km, and then exploded 4 km from its intended target. The V-2 experience was taken into account and served as the basis for the further development of rocket technology. The next model “Fau” with a combat charge of 1 ton covered a distance of 300 km. It was these missiles that Germany fired at Great Britain during World War II.

After the end of the war, rocketry became one of the main directions in the public policy of most of the world's major powers.

It received significant development in the USA, where, after the defeat of the German Empire, some German rocket scientists moved. Among them is Wernher von Braun, who led a group of scientists and designers in the United States. In 1949, they mounted a V-2 on a small Vac-Corporal rocket and launched it to an altitude of 400 km.

In 1951, specialists under the leadership of Brown created the American Viking ballistic missile, which reached speeds of up to 6,400 km/h. A year later, the Redstone ballistic missile appeared with a flight range of 900 km. Subsequently, it was used as the first stage when launching the first American satellite, Explorer 1, into orbit.

In the USSR, the first test of the long-range R-1 rocket took place in the fall of 1948. It was significantly inferior in many respects to the German V-2. But as a result of further work, subsequent modifications received a positive assessment, and in 1950 the R-1 was adopted for service in the USSR.

It was followed by the R-2, which was twice the size of its predecessor, and the R-5. The R-2 differed from the German Vau with external fuel tanks that did not carry any load in that its body also served as walls for the fuel tanks.

All the first Soviet rockets were single-stage. But in 1957, from Baikonur, Soviet scientists launched the world's first multi-stage ballistic missile, the R-7, 7 m long and weighing 270 tons. It consisted of four side blocks of the first stage and a central block with its own engine (second stage). Each stage provided acceleration of the rocket over a certain part of the flight, and then separated.

With the creation of a rocket with a similar separation of stages, it became possible to launch the first artificial Earth satellites into orbit. Simultaneously with this still unresolved problem, the Soviet Union was developing a rocket capable of lifting an astronaut into space and returning him back to Earth. The problem of returning the astronaut to earth was especially difficult. In addition, it was necessary to “teach” the devices to fly at the second cosmic speed.

The creation of a multi-stage launch vehicle made it possible not only to develop such a speed, but also to launch into orbit a cargo weighing up to 4500-4700 tons (previously only 1400 tons). For the required third stage, a special engine was created that runs on liquid fuel. The result of this complex (albeit short-lived) work of Soviet scientists, numerous experiments and tests was the three-stage Vostok.

Spaceship "Vostok" (USSR)

“Vostok” was born gradually, in the process of testing. Work on his project began back in 1958, and the test flight took place on May 15, 1960. But the first unmanned launch was unsuccessful: one of the sensors did not work correctly before turning on the braking propulsion system, and instead of descending, the ship ascended to a higher orbit .

The second attempt was also unsuccessful: the accident occurred at the very beginning of the flight, and the descent module was destroyed. After this incident, a new emergency rescue system was designed.

Only the third launch was successful, and the descent module, together with its passengers, the dogs Belka and Strelka, landed successfully. Then another failure: the braking system failed, and the descent module burned up in the atmosphere due to too high a speed. The sixth and seventh attempts in March 1961 were successful, and the ships returned safely to Earth with the animals on board.

The first flight of Vostok-1 with cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on board took place on April 12, 1961. The ship made one revolution around the Earth and returned safely to it.

Externally, the Vostok, which today can be seen in cosmonautics museums and the cosmonautics pavilion at the All-Russian Exhibition Center, looked very simple: a spherical descent module (cosmonaut cabin) and an instrument compartment docked with it. They were connected to each other using four metal tie strips. Before entering the atmosphere during descent, the tapes were torn, and the descent module continued to move towards the Earth, and the instrument compartment burned up in the atmosphere. The total weight of the ship, the hull of which was made of aluminum alloy, was 4.73 tons.

Vostok was launched into orbit using a launch vehicle with the same name. It was a fully automated spacecraft, but if necessary, the astronaut could switch to manual control.

The pilot's cabin was located in the descent module. Inside it there were all the conditions necessary for the life of an astronaut and supported by life support systems, thermoregulation and a regenerating device. They eliminated unnecessary carbon dioxide, moisture and heat; replenish the air with oxygen; maintained constant atmospheric pressure. The operation of all systems was controlled using an on-board software device.

The ship's equipment included all modern radio equipment that provided two-way communication, controlled the ship from the Earth, and carried out the necessary measurements. For example, with the help of the “Signal” transmitter, the sensors of which were located on the astronaut’s body, information about the state of his body was transmitted to Earth. The Vostok was supplied with energy from silver-zinc batteries.

The instrument and component compartment housed service systems, fuel tanks and a braking propulsion system, developed by a team of designers headed by A. M. Isaev. The total mass of this compartment was 2.33 tons. The compartment contained the most modern systems navigation orientation to determine the position of the spacecraft in space (solar sensors, optical device “Vzor”, hygroscopic sensors and others). In particular, the “Vzor” device, designed for visual orientation, allowed the astronaut to see the movement of the Earth through the central part of the device, and the horizon through the ring mirror. If necessary, he could independently control the ship's course.

A “self-braking” orbit (180-190 km) was specially designed for Vostok: in the event of a failure of the braking propulsion system, the ship would begin to fall to Earth and would brake itself in about 10 days due to the natural resistance of the atmosphere. The supplies of life support systems were also designed for this period.

After separation, the descent vehicle descended in the atmosphere at a speed of 150-200 km/h. But for a safe landing, its speed should not exceed 10 m/h. To achieve this, the vehicle was additionally slowed down using three parachutes: first a pilot chute, then a braking parachute, and finally the main one. The astronaut ejected at an altitude of 7 km using a chair equipped with a special device; at an altitude of 4 km he separated from the chair and landed separately using his own parachute.

Mercury spacecraft (USA)

Mercury was the first orbital vehicle with which the United States began the exploration of outer space. Work on it has been carried out since 1958, and in the same year the first launch of Mercury took place.

Training flights carried out under the Mercury program were carried out first in unmanned mode, then along a ballistic trajectory. The first American astronaut was John Glenn, who made an orbital flight around the Earth on February 20, 1962. Subsequently, three more flights were carried out.

The American ship was smaller in size than the Soviet one, since the Atlas-D launch vehicle could lift a load weighing no more than 1.35 tons. Therefore, American designers had to proceed from these parameters.

“Mercury” consisted of a capsule in the shape of a truncated cone returning to Earth, a braking unit and flight equipment, which included jettisonable bundles of braking unit engines, parachutes, the main engine, etc.

The capsule had a cylindrical top and a spherical bottom. At the base of its cone there was a braking unit consisting of three jet engines on solid fuel. During descent into the dense layers of the atmosphere, the capsule entered the bottom, so a powerful heat shield was located only here. The Mercury had three parachutes: brake, main and reserve. The capsule landed on the surface of the ocean, for which it was additionally equipped with an inflatable raft.

In the pilot's cabin there was a seat for the astronaut, located in front of the window, and a control panel. The ship's energy supply was carried out using batteries, and the orientation system was carried out using 18 controlled engines. The life support system was very different from the Soviet one: the atmosphere on Mercury consisted of oxygen, which was supplied to the cosmonaut’s space suit and the cabin as needed.

The suit was cooled using the same oxygen supplied to the lower part of the body. The temperature and humidity were maintained by heat exchangers: moisture was collected with a special sponge, which had to be wrung out periodically. Since it is quite difficult to do this in conditions of weightlessness, this method was subsequently improved. The life support system was designed for 1.5 days of flight.

The launch of Vostok and Mercury and the launches of subsequent spacecraft became another step in the development of manned space exploration and the emergence of completely new technology.

Vostok spacecraft series (USSR)

After the first orbital flight, which lasted only 108 minutes, Soviet scientists set themselves more complex tasks to increase flight duration and combat weightlessness, which, as it turns out, is a very formidable enemy for humans.

Already in August 1961, the next spacecraft, Vostok-2, was launched into low-Earth orbit with pilot-cosmonaut G.S. Titov on board. The flight had already lasted 25 hours and 18 minutes. During this time, the astronaut managed to complete a more extensive program and conducted more research (made the first filming from space).

Vostok-2 was not much different from its predecessor. Among the innovations, a more advanced regeneration unit was installed on it, which allowed it to stay in space longer. The conditions for putting the astronaut into orbit and then for lowering the astronaut improved: they did not affect him much, and he maintained excellent performance throughout the flight.

A year later, in August 1962, a group flight took place on the spacecraft Vostok-3 (pilot-cosmonaut A.G. Nikolaev) and Vostok-4 (pilot-cosmonaut V.F. Bykovsky), which were separated by no more than 5 km. For the first time, communication was carried out through the space-to-space line and the world's first television report from space was carried out. At the Vostok base, scientists worked on tasks to increase flight duration, skills and means to ensure the launch of a second spacecraft at a close distance from a ship already in orbit (preparation for orbital stations). Improvements were made to improve the comfort of ships and individual equipment.

On June 14 and 16, 1963, after a year of experiments, a group flight was repeated on the Vostok-5 and Vostok-6 spacecraft.” They were attended by V. F. Bykovsky and the world's first female cosmonaut V. V. Tereshkova. Their flight ended on June 19. During this time, the ships managed to make 81 and 48 orbits around the planet. This flight proved that women can fly in space orbits.

The Vostokov flights for three years became the first stage of testing and testing of manned spacecraft for orbital flights in outer space. They proved that a person can not only be in near-Earth space, but also carry out special research and experimental work. Further development of Soviet manned space technology took place on multi-seat spacecraft of the Voskhod type.

Voskhod series of spacecraft (USSR)

Voskhod was the first multi-seat orbital spacecraft. It launched on October 12, 1964 with cosmonaut V. M. Komarov, engineer K. P. Feoktistov and doctor B. B. Egorov on board. The ship became the first flying laboratory with scientists on board, and its flight marked the beginning of the next stage in the development of space technology and space research. It became possible to conduct complex scientific, technical, medical and biological programs on multi-person ships. The presence of several people on board made it possible to compare the results obtained and obtain more objective data.

The three-seat Voskhod differed from its predecessors in having more modern technical equipment and systems. It made it possible to conduct television reports not only from the cosmonaut’s cabin, but also to show areas visible through the window and beyond. The ship has new and improved orientation systems. To transfer Voskhod from the Earth's satellite orbit to the descent trajectory, two braking rocket propulsion systems were now used: a braking and a backup. The ship could move to a higher orbit.

The next stage in astronautics was marked by the appearance of a spacecraft, with the help of which it became possible to go into outer space.

Voskhod-2 launched on March 18, 1965 with cosmonauts P.I. Belyaev and A.A. Leonov on board. The ship was equipped with more advanced systems for manual control, orientation and activation of the braking propulsion system (the crew used it for the first time when returning to Earth). But the most important thing is that it had a special airlock device for going into outer space.

At the beginning of the experiment, the ship was out of radio communication range with ground tracking points on the territory of the USSR. The ship's commander, P.I. Belyaev, gave the command from the control panel to deploy the airlock. Its opening, as well as equalization of pressure inside the airlock and Voskhod, was ensured using a special device located on the outside of the descent vehicle. After preparatory stage A. A. Leonov moved into the airlock chamber.

After the hatch separating the ship and the airlock closed behind him, the pressure inside the airlock began to drop and became comparable to the vacuum of space. At the same time, the pressure in the astronaut’s spacesuit was maintained constant and was equal to 0.4 atm, which ensured the normal functioning of the body, but did not allow the spacesuit to become too rigid. The hermetic shell of A. A. Leonov protected him from ultraviolet radiation, radiation, large temperature differences, ensured the normal temperature regime required gas composition and environmental humidity.

A. A. Leonov was in open space for 20 minutes, of which 12 minutes. - outside the ship's cabin.

The creation of ships of the Vostok and Voskhod type, performing certain types of work, served as a step for the emergence of long-term orbital manned stations.

Soyuz spacecraft series (USSR)

The next stage in the creation of orbital stations was the multi-purpose spacecraft of the Soyuz series of the second generation.

The Soyuz was very different from its predecessors not only in its larger size and internal volume, but also in its new on-board systems. The launch weight of the ship was 6.8 tons, the length was more than 7 m, the span of the solar panels was about 8.4 m. The ship consisted of three compartments: the instrumentation module, the orbital module and the descent vehicle.

The orbital compartment was located at the top of the Soyuz and was connected to a sealed descent module. It housed the crew during launch and insertion into orbit, during maneuvering in space and descent to Earth. Its outer side was protected by a layer of special heat-shielding material.

The external shape of the descent vehicle is designed in such a way that, at a certain position of its center of gravity in the atmosphere, a lifting force of the required magnitude is generated. By changing it, it was possible to control the flight during descent into the atmosphere. This design made it possible to reduce the overload on the astronauts during descent by 2-2.5 times. There were three windows on the body of the descent vehicle: a central one (next to the control panel) with an optical sighting device installed on it, and one each on the left and right sides, intended for filming and visual observations.

Inside the descent module there were individual seats for the astronauts, exactly repeating the configuration of their bodies. The special design of the seats allowed the astronauts to withstand significant overloads. There was also a control panel, a life support system, radio communication equipment, a parachute system and containers for the return of scientific equipment.

On the outer side of the descent vehicle there were engines for the descent and soft landing control system. Its total weight was 2.8 tons.

The orbital compartment was the largest and was located in front of the descent module. In its upper part there was a docking unit with an internal manhole with a diameter of 0.8 m. The compartment body had two viewing windows. The third porthole was located on the manhole cover.

This compartment was intended for scientific research and recreation of astronauts. Therefore, it was equipped with places for the crew to work, rest and sleep. There was also scientific equipment, the composition of which varied depending on the mission tasks performed, and a system for regeneration and purification of the atmosphere. The compartment was also an airlock for spacewalks. Its internal space was occupied by the control panel, instruments and equipment of the main and auxiliary on-board systems.

On the outside of the orbital compartment there was an external viewing television camera and an antenna for radio communication and television systems. The total mass of the compartment was 1.3 tons.

The instrumentation compartment, located behind the descent module, housed the main onboard equipment and propulsion systems of the ship. In its sealed part there were units of the thermal control system, chemical batteries, radio control and telemetry devices, orientation systems, a computer and other devices. The unpressurized part housed the ship's propulsion system, fuel tanks and low-thrust engines for maneuvering.

On the outside of the compartment there were solar panels, antenna systems, and orientation system sensors.

As a spacecraft, Soyuz had great capabilities. He could maneuver in space, search for another ship, approach and dock with it. Special technical means, consisting of two high-thrust correction engines and a set of low-thrust engines, provided him with freedom of movement in outer space. The ship could carry out autonomous flight and piloting without the participation of the Earth.

The Soyuz life support system allowed cosmonauts to work in the ship's cabin without spacesuits. It maintained all the necessary conditions for the normal functioning of the crew in the sealed compartments of the descent vehicle and the orbital block.

A special feature of the Soyuz was the manual control system, consisting of two handles connected to a low-thrust engine. It made it possible to turn the ship around and control the forward movement when mooring. With the help of manual control it became possible to manually manipulate the ship. True, only on the illuminated side of the Earth and in the presence special device- optical sight. Fixed in the cabin body, it allowed the astronaut to simultaneously see the surface of the Earth and the horizon, space objects, and orient solar panels to the Sun.

Almost all systems available on the ship (life support, radio communications, etc.) were automated.

Initially, Soyuz was tested in unmanned flights, and a manned flight took place in 1967. The first pilot of Soyuz-1 was Hero Soviet Union USSR pilot-cosmonaut V. M. Komarov (who died in the air during descent due to a malfunction of the parachute system).

After additional testing, long-term operation of manned spacecraft of the Soyuz series began. In 1968, Soyuz-3, with pilot-cosmonaut G. T. Beregov on board, docked in space with the unmanned Soyuz-2.

The first docking in space of manned Soyuz took place on January 16, 1969. As a result of the connection in space of Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5, the first experimental station weighing 12,924 kg was formed.

The rapprochement to the required distance at which radio capture could be carried out was ensured for them on Earth. After which, automatic systems brought the Soyuz closer to a distance of 100 m. Then, with the help of manual control, mooring was carried out, and after the ships docked, the Soyuz-5 crew A. S. Eliseev and E. V. Khrunov crossed outer space aboard Soyuz-4, on which they returned to Earth.

With the help of a series of subsequent Soyuz, ship maneuvering skills were developed, various systems, flight control techniques, etc. were tested and improved. As a result of work to maintain physical condition cosmonauts in conditions of weightlessness used special equipment (treadmills, bicycle ergometer), suits that created additional stress on the muscles, etc. But in order for the cosmonauts to be able to use them in space, it was necessary to somehow place all the devices on the spacecraft apparatus. And this was only possible on board the orbital station.

Thus, the entire Soyuz series solved problems related to the creation of orbital stations. The completion of this work made it possible to launch the first Salyut orbital station into space. The further fate of the Soyuz is connected with the flights of the stations, where they served as transport ships for delivering crews aboard the stations and back to Earth. At the same time, the Soyuz continued to serve science as astronomical observatories and testing laboratories for new instruments.

Gemini spacecraft (USA)

The two-seat Gemini orbital was designed to conduct various experiments in the further development of space technology. Work on it began in 1961.

The ship consisted of three compartments: for the crew, units and a radar and attitude control section. The last compartment contained 16 attitude control and descent control engines. The crew compartment was equipped with two ejection seats and parachutes. The unit housed various engines.

The first launch of Gemini took place in April 1964 in an unmanned version. A year later, astronauts V. Griss and D. Young performed a three-orbit orbital flight on the ship. In the same year, astronaut E. White made his first spacewalk on the ship.

The launch of the Gemini 12 spacecraft ended a series of ten manned flights under this program.

Apollo series of spacecraft (USA)

In 1960, the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration, together with a number of companies, began developing a preliminary design for the Apollo spacecraft to carry out a manned flight to the Moon. A year later, a competition was announced for firms vying for a contract for the production of the ship. The best project turned out to be the project of the Rockwell International company, which was approved by the main developer of Apollo. According to the project, the manned complex for the flight to the Moon included two aircraft: the Apollo lunar orbital ship and the Lunar Expeditionary Module. The launch weight of the ship was 14.7 tons, length - 13 m, maximum diameter - 3.9 m.

Its first tests took place in February 1966, and two years later manned flights began. Then Apollo 7 was launched into orbit with a crew of 3 people (astronauts W. Schirra, D. Eisele and W. Cunningham). Structurally, the ship consisted of three main modules: command, service and docking.

The pressurized command module was located inside a cone-shaped heat-protective shell. It was intended to accommodate the ship's crew during its launch into orbit, during descent, during flight control, parachuting and splashdown. All the necessary equipment for monitoring and managing the ship’s systems, equipment for the safety and convenience of the crew members was also located here.

The command module consisted of three compartments: upper, lower and for the crew. In the upper one there were two engines of the jet motion control system during descent, equipment for splashdown and parachutes.

The lower compartment housed 10 engines for the jet motion control system during descent, fuel tanks with fuel reserves, and electrical communications. Within the walls of its hull there were 5 observation windows, on one of which a sighting device was installed for manual mooring during docking.

The hermetically sealed crew compartment contained the control panel for the ship and all onboard systems, crew seats, life support systems, and containers for scientific equipment. The compartment body had one side hatch.

The service module was intended to house a propulsion system, a rocket control system, equipment for communication with satellites, etc. Its body was made of aluminum honeycomb panels and divided into sections. On the outside there are radiators-emitters of the environmental control system, side orientation lights, and a searchlight. The mass of the service module at launch was 6.8 tons.

The docking module, in the form of a cylinder with a length of more than 3 m and a maximum diameter of 1.4 m, was an airlock compartment for the passage of astronauts from ship to ship. Inside it was an instrument section with control panels and its systems, some equipment for experiments, and much more. etc.

On the outside of the module there were cylinders with oxygen and nitrogen gas, radio antennas, and a docking target. The total mass of the docking module was 2 tons.

In 1969, the Apollo 11 spacecraft launched to the Moon with astronauts N. Armstrong, M. Collins and E. Aldrin on board. The Eagle lunar cabin with astronauts separated from the main Columbia block and landed on the Moon in the Sea of ​​Tranquility. During their stay on the Moon, the astronauts walked to its surface, collected 25 kg of lunar soil samples and returned to Earth.

Subsequently, 6 more Apollo spacecraft were launched to the Moon, five of which landed on its surface. The program of flights to the Moon was completed by the Apollo 17 spacecraft in 1972. But in 1975, a modification of Apollo took part in the first international space flight under the Soyuz-Apollo program.

Transport spaceships

Transport spacecraft were intended to deliver payload (a spacecraft or a manned spacecraft) to the station's operating orbit and, after completing the flight program, return it to Earth. With the creation of orbital stations, they began to be used as service systems for space structures (radio telescopes, solar power plants, orbital research platforms, etc.) to perform installation and debugging work.

Transport ship "Progress" (USSR)

The idea of ​​​​creating a transport cargo spacecraft "Progress" arose at the moment when the orbital station "Salyut-6" began its work: the volume of work increased, the astronauts constantly needed water, food and other household items necessary for a person's long stay in space.

On average, approximately 20-30 kg of various materials are consumed at the station per day. For a flight of 2-3 people over the course of a year, 10 tons of various replacement materials would be needed. All this required space, and the volume of Salyut was limited. Hence the idea of ​​creating a regular supply of the station with everything necessary. The main task of Progress was to provide the station with fuel, food, water and clothing for the astronauts.

The “space truck” consisted of three compartments: a cargo compartment with a docking station, a compartment with a supply of liquid and gaseous components for refueling the station, and an instrument and aggregate section, which included a transition, instrument and aggregate sections.

The cargo compartment, designed for 1300 kg of cargo, housed all the instruments and scientific equipment necessary for the station; supplies of water and food, life support system units, etc. During the entire flight, the necessary conditions for storing cargo were maintained here.

The compartment with refueling components is made in the form of two truncated conical shells. On one side it was connected to the cargo compartment, on the other - to the transition section of the instrument compartment. Fuel tanks, gas cylinders, and refueling system units were located here.

The instrumentation compartment contained all the main service systems necessary for the spacecraft's autonomous flight, rendezvous and docking, for a joint flight with the orbital station, undocking and deorbiting.

The ship was launched into orbit using a launch vehicle, which was used for Soyuz manned transport spacecraft. Subsequently, a whole series of “Progresses” was created, and on January 20, 1978, regular flights transport cargo ships from Earth to space.

Transport ship "Soyuz T" (USSR)

The new three-seat transport ship Soyuz T was an improved version of the Soyuz. It was intended to deliver the crew to the Salyut orbital station, and after completing the program back to Earth; for conducting research in orbital flights and other tasks.

Soyuz T was very similar to its predecessor, but at the same time had significant differences. The ship's equipment included a new motion control system, which included a digital computer complex. With its help, quick calculations of motion parameters and automatic control of the device with the lowest fuel consumption were made. If necessary, the digital computer complex independently switched to backup programs and tools, providing information to the crew on the on-board display. This innovation helped improve the reliability and flexibility of vehicle control during orbital flight and during descent.

The second feature of the ship was its improved propulsion system. It included a proximity-correction engine, mooring and orientation micromotors. They worked on common fuel components and had a common storage and supply system. This innovation made it possible to almost completely use on-board fuel reserves.

The reliability of landing aids and the crew emergency rescue system during insertion into orbit has been significantly improved. For more economical fuel consumption during landing, the separation of the living compartment now occurred before turning on the braking propulsion system.

The first flight of the improved manned spacecraft Soyuz T in automatic mode took place on December 16, 1979. With its help, the operations of rendezvous and docking with the Salyut-6 station and the flight as part of the orbital complex were to be tested.

Three days later, he docked with the Soyuz-6 station, and on March 24, 1980, he undocked and returned to Earth. During all 110 days of its space flight, the ship's onboard systems worked flawlessly.

Subsequently, on the basis of this ship, new devices of the Soyuz series were created (in particular, Soyuz TM). In 1981, Soyuz T-4 was launched, the flight of which marked the beginning of regular operation of Soyuz T spacecraft.

Reusable spacecraft (shuttles)

The creation of transport cargo ships made it possible to solve many problems associated with the delivery of goods on board a station or complex. They were launched using disposable rockets, the creation of which took a lot of money and time. Besides, why throw away unique equipment or invent additional descent vehicles for it, if you can both deliver it into orbit and return it to Earth using the same device.

Therefore, scientists have created reusable spacecraft for communication between orbital stations and complexes. They were the space shuttles “Shuttle” (USA, 1981) and “Buran” (USSR, 1988).

The main difference between shuttles and launch vehicles is that the main elements of the rocket - the orbital stage and the rocket accelerator - are adapted for reusable use. In addition, the advent of shuttles has significantly reduced the cost of space flights, bringing their technology closer to conventional flights. The shuttle crew typically consists of a first and second pilot and one or more research scientists.

Reusable space system "Buran" (USSR)

The appearance of the Buran is associated with the birth of the Energia rocket and space system in 1987. It included the Energia heavy-class launch vehicle and the Buran reusable spacecraft. Its main difference from previous rocket systems was that the spent blocks of the first stage of Energia could be returned to Earth and used again after repair work. The two-stage Energia was equipped with a third additional stage, which made it possible to significantly increase the mass of payload carried into orbit. The launch vehicle, unlike previous vehicles, launched the ship to a certain altitude, after which it, using its own engines, rose to a given orbit independently.

Buran is a manned orbital shuttle, which is the third stage of the Energia-Buran reusable rocket and space transport system. In appearance, it resembles an airplane with a low-lying delta-shaped wing. The development of the ship took more than 12 years.

The launch weight of the ship was 105 tons, the landing weight was 82 tons. The total length of the shuttle was about 36.4 m, the wingspan was 24 m. The dimensions of the shuttle runway at Baikonur were 5.5 km long and 84 m wide. Landing speed 310-340 km/h. The plane has three main compartments: nose, middle and tail. The first contains a pressurized cabin designed to accommodate a crew of two to four astronauts and six passengers. Some of the main flight control systems are also located here at all stages, including descent from space and landing at the airfield. In total, the Buran has over 50 different systems.

The first orbital flight of Buran took place on November 15, 1988 at an altitude of approximately 250 km. But it also turned out to be the last, since due to a lack of funds, the Energy-Buran program in the 1990s. was preserved.

Reusable space system "Space Shuttle" (USA)

The American reusable space transport system “Space Shuttle” (“Space Shuttle”) has been developed since the early 70s. XX century and made its first 3,260-minute flight on April 12, 1981.

The Space Shuttle includes elements designed for reusable use (the only exception is the outboard fuel compartment, which plays the role of the second stage of the launch vehicle): two salvageable solid fuel boosters (I stage), designed for 20 flights, an orbital ship (II stage) - for 100 flights, and its oxygen-hydrogen engines - for 55 flights. The launch weight of the ship was 2050 tons. Such a transport system could make 55-60 flights per year.

The system included a reusable orbital vehicle and a space booster unit (“tug”).

The orbital spacecraft is a hypersonic vehicle with a delta wing. It is a payload carrier and carries a crew of four during flight. The orbital vehicle has a length of 37.26 m, a wingspan of 23.8 m, a launch weight of 114 tons, and a landing weight of 84.8 tons.

The ship consists of a bow, middle and tail sections. The bow housed a pressurized crew cabin and a control system unit; in the middle there is a leaky compartment for equipment; in the tail are the main engines. To move from the crew cabin to the equipment compartment, there was an airlock chamber designed for the simultaneous presence of two crew members in spacesuits.

The Space Shuttle orbital stage was replaced by such shuttles as Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavor, the latter as of 1999.

Orbital space stations

An orbital space station is a collection of elements of the station itself and the complex of its facilities connected (docked) to each other. Together they determine its configuration. Orbital stations were needed to conduct research and experiments, master long-term human flights in conditions of weightlessness and test the technical means of space technology for its further development.

Orbital stations of the Salyut series (USSR)

For the first time, the tasks of creating the Salyut station were set in the Soviet Union, and they were solved within 10 years after Gagarin’s flight. The design, development and construction of test systems were carried out over a period of 5 years. The experience gained during the operation of the Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz spacecraft made it possible to move on to a new stage in astronautics - the design of manned orbital stations.

Work on creating the stations began during the life of S.P. Korolev in his design bureau, at a time when work on Vostok was still underway. The designers had a lot to do, but the most important thing was to teach the ships to meet and dock. The orbital station was supposed to become not only a workplace for astronauts, but also their home on long term. Therefore, it was necessary to be able to provide a person with optimal conditions for a long stay at the station, for his normal work and rest. It was necessary to overcome the consequences of weightlessness in humans, which was a formidable enemy, as it sharply worsened general condition person, and accordingly, performance decreased. Among the many problems that everyone who worked on the project had to face, the main one was related to ensuring the safety of the crew during a long flight. The designers had to provide a number of precautions.

The main danger was a fire and depressurization of the station. To prevent a fire, it was necessary to provide various protective devices, fuses, automatic switches for devices and groups of devices; develop a fire alarm system and fire extinguishing means. For interior decoration it was necessary to use materials that would not support combustion and would not emit harmful substances.

One of the reasons for the depressurization could be an encounter with meteorites, so it was necessary to develop an anti-meteor screen. They were the external elements of the station (for example, radiators of the thermal control system, a fiberglass casing covering part of the station).

Of no small importance was the problem of creating for the station large size and a corresponding launch vehicle to deliver it into orbit. It was necessary to find the correct shape of the orbital station and its layout (according to calculations, the elongated shape turned out to be ideal). The total length of the station was 16 m, weight - 18.9 tons.

Before designing the external appearance of the station, it was necessary to determine the number of its compartments and decide how to place the equipment in them. As a result of considering all the options, it was decided to place all the main systems in the same compartment where the crew was to live and work. The rest of the equipment was taken overboard the station (this included the propulsion system and part of the scientific equipment). The result was three compartments: two sealed - the main working and transitional - and one unsealed - the aggregate with the propulsion systems of the station.

To power the station’s scientific equipment and operate on-board systems, four flat panels with silicon elements capable of converting solar energy into electrical energy were installed on Salyut (as they decided to call the station). In addition, the orbital station included a main unit, launched into space without a crew, and a transport ship for delivering a working group of cosmonauts to the station. Over 1,300 instruments and assemblies were to be placed on board the station. For external observations, 20 portholes were made on board the Salyut.

Finally, on April 19, 1971, the world's first Soviet multi-purpose station, Salyut, was launched into low-Earth orbit. After checking all systems and equipment, on April 23, 1971, the Soyuz-10 spacecraft headed towards it. The crew of cosmonauts (V.A. Shatalov, A.S. Eliseev and N.N. Rukavishnikov) carried out the first docking with the orbital station, which lasted for 5.5 hours. During this time, the docking and other mechanisms were checked. And on June 6, 1971, the Vostok-11 manned spacecraft was launched. On board was a crew consisting of G. T. Dobrovolsky, V. N. Volkov and V. I. Patsaev. After a day of flight, the cosmonauts were able to board the station, and the Salyut-Soyuz complex began to function as the world's first manned orbital and scientific station.

The cosmonauts stayed at the station for 23 days. During this time, they carried out a huge amount of work on scientific research, test checks, photographed the Earth's surface, its atmosphere, carried out meteorological observations and much other work. After completing the entire program on board the station, the cosmonauts transferred to the transport ship and undocked from Salyut. But due to depressurization of the descent module, they all died tragically. The Salyut station was switched to automatic mode, and its flight continued until October 11, 1971. The experience of this station formed the basis for the creation of a new type of spacecraft.

Salyut was followed by Salyut-2 and Salyut-3. The last station operated in space for a total of 7 months. The ship's crew, consisting of G.V. Sarafanov and L.S. Demin, who tested rendezvous and maneuvering processes in various flight modes, carried out the world's first night landing of a spacecraft. The experience of the first Salyuts was taken into account in Salyut-4 and Salyut-5. The Soyuz-5 flight completed a lot of work related to the creation and practical testing of first-generation orbital stations.

Skylab orbital station (USA)

The next country to put a station into orbit was the United States. On May 14, 1973, the Skylab station (which translated means “Sky Laboratory”) was launched. It was flown by three crews of three astronauts each. The first astronauts of the station were C. Conrad, D. Kerwin and P. Weitz. Skylab was serviced by the Apollo transport spacecraft.

The length of the station was 25 m, weight - 83 tons. It consisted of a station block, an airlock chamber, a mooring structure with two docking points, astronomical equipment and two solar panels. The orbit correction was carried out using the engines of the Apollo spacecraft. The station was launched into orbit using the Saturn 5 launch vehicle.

The main block of the station was divided into two compartments: laboratory and household. The latter was, in turn, divided into parts intended for sleeping, personal hygiene, training and experiments, cooking and eating, and leisure time. The sleeping compartment was divided into sleeping cabins according to the number of astronauts, and each of them had a small locker and a sleeping bag. The compartment for personal hygiene contained a shower, a washbasin in the form of a closed sphere with holes for hands, and a waste receptacle.

The station was equipped with equipment for the study of outer space, medical, biological and technical research. She was not intended to return to Earth.

Subsequently, two more crews of astronauts visited the station. The maximum flight duration was 84 days (third crew D. Carr, E. Gibson, W. Pogue).

The American orbital station Skylab ceased to exist in 1979.

Orbital stations have not yet exhausted their capabilities. But the results obtained with their help made it possible to move on to the creation and operation of a new generation of modular space stations - permanently operating orbital complexes.

Space complexes

The creation of orbital stations and the possibility of long-term work for cosmonauts in space became the impetus for the organization of a more complex space system - orbital complexes. Their appearance would solve many of the needs of production, scientific research related to the study of the Earth, its natural resources and environmental protection.

Orbital complexes of the Salyut-6-Soyuz series (USSR)

The first complex was called “Salyut-6” - “Soyuz” - “Progress” and consisted of a station and two ships docked to it. Its creation became possible with the advent of a new station - Salyut-6. The total mass of the complex was 19 tons, and the length with two ships was about 30 m. The flight of Salyut-6 began on September 29, 1977.

"Salyut-6" is a second generation station. She differed from her predecessors in many ways design features and great opportunities. Unlike the previous ones, it had two docking ports, as a result of which it could accept two ships at the same time, which significantly increased the number of astronauts working on board. Such a system made it possible to deliver additional cargo, equipment, and spare parts for equipment repair into orbit. Its propulsion system could be refueled directly in space. The station provided the opportunity for two cosmonauts to go into outer space at once.

Its comfort has increased significantly, and many other improvements have appeared related to life support systems and improved conditions for the crew. So, for example, a shower installation, a color television camera, and a video recorder appeared at the station; new correction engines were installed, the fuel refueling system was modernized, the control system was improved, etc. New spacesuits were specially created for Salyut-6 with autonomous provision of the gas mixture and temperature control.

The station consists of three sealed compartments (transition, working and intermediate chambers) and two non-sealed compartments (compartment for scientific equipment and aggregate). The transition compartment was intended to connect the station with the spacecraft using the docking unit, carry out optical observations and orientation. Space suits, exit control panels, necessary equipment, control posts equipped with visual instruments and equipment for various studies were located here. Antennas for rendezvous radio equipment, manual mooring equipment, external television cameras, handrails, elements for securing astronauts, etc. are installed on the outer part of the transition compartment.

The working compartment was intended to accommodate the crew and main equipment. There was also a central control post with the main control systems. In addition, the compartment had sections for resting and eating. The instrument section houses the main onboard equipment (instruments of the attitude control system, radio telemetry, power supply, etc.). The working compartment had two hatches for transition to the transition compartment and to the intermediate chamber. On the outside of the compartment there were sensors for the solar panel orientation system and the solar panels themselves.

The intermediate chamber connected the station to the spacecraft using a docking unit. It housed the necessary replacement equipment delivered by transport ships. The chamber had a docking point. The living quarters were equipped with loudspeaker communications and lamps for additional lighting.

The scientific equipment compartment housed large instruments for working in vacuum (for example, a large telescope with the necessary system for its operation).

The assembly compartment served to house the propulsion system and connect to the launch vehicle. It contained fuel tanks, correction engines and various units. On the outside of the compartment there were antennas for proximity radio equipment, orientation sensors for solar panels, a television camera, etc.

The set of equipment for research included over 50 devices. Among them are the “Splav” and “Crystal” installations for studying the processes of obtaining new materials in space.

On December 11, 1977, the Soyuz-26 spacecraft with Yu. V. Romanenko and G. M. Grechko successfully docked to the station a day after launch, and the cosmonauts boarded it, where they stayed for 96 days. On board the complex, the cosmonauts performed a number of activities planned by the flight program. In particular, they entered outer space to check the external elements of the complex.

On January 10 of the following year, another spacecraft docked with the Salyut-6 station with cosmonauts V.A. Dzhanibekov and O.G. Makarov on board. The crew successfully boarded the complex and delivered there additional equipment for work. This is how the new research complex “Soyuz-6” - “Soyuz-26” - “Soyuz-27” was formed, which became another achievement of space science. The two crews worked together for 5 days, after which Dzhanibekov and Makarov returned to Earth on the Soyuz-26 spacecraft, delivering experimental and research materials.

On January 20, 1978, regular flights of transport cargo ships from Earth to space began. And in March of the same year, the first international crew consisting of A. Gubarev (USSR) and V. Remek (Czechoslovakia) arrived on board the complex. After the successful completion of all experiments, the crew returned to Earth. In addition to the Czechoslovakian cosmonaut, Hungarian, Cuban, Polish, German, Bulgarian, Vietnamese, Mongolian, and Romanian were subsequently on board the complex.

After the return of the main crew (Grechko and Romanenko), work on board the complex continued. During the third, main expedition, a television transmission system from the Earth to the orbital complex was tested, as well as a new radiotelephone system “Ring”, with the help of which the astronauts could negotiate with each other and with operators of the Mission Control Center from any area of ​​the complex. Biological experiments on growing plants continued on board. Some of them - parsley, dill and onions - were eaten by the astronauts.

The first Soviet orbital complex remained in space for almost 5 years (work ended in May 1981). During this time, 5 main crews worked on board for 140, 175, 185, 75 days. During the period of their work, the station was visited by 11 expeditions, 9 international crews from countries participating in the Intercosmos program; 35 dockings and re-dockings of ships were carried out. During the flight, tests of the new improved Soyuz-T spacecraft and maintenance and repair work were carried out. Research work carried out on board the complex made a great contribution to the science of planetary exploration and space exploration.

Already in April 1982, tests were carried out on the Salyut-7 orbital station, which was to form the basis of the next complex.

Salyut-7 was an improved version of the second generation orbital scientific stations. It had the same layout as its predecessors. As at previous stations, it was possible to go into outer space from the Salyut-7 transition block. Two windows became transparent to ultraviolet radiation, which significantly expanded the research capabilities of the station. One of the windows was in the transition compartment, the second was in the working compartment. To protect the windows from external mechanical damage, they were closed with external transparent covers with electric drives that opened at the press of a button.

The difference was the improved interior space (the living area became more spacious and comfortable). In the living compartments of the new “house” the sleeping places were improved, the shower installation became more convenient, etc. Even the chairs, at the request of the astronauts, were made lighter and removable. A special place was given to the complex for physical exercise and medical research. The equipment consisted of the most modern devices and new systems, which provided the stations not only best conditions for work, but also great technical capabilities.

The first crew, consisting of A.N. Berezovoy and V.V. Lebedev, was delivered to the station on May 13, 1982 by the Soyuz T-5 spacecraft. They had to stay in space for 211 days. On May 17, they launched their own small Earth satellite, Iskra-2, created by the student design bureau of the Moscow Aviation Institute. Sergo Ordzhonikidze. The satellite was equipped with pennants with the emblems of youth unions of the socialist countries participating in the experiment.

On June 24, the Soyuz T-6 spacecraft launched with cosmonauts V. Dzhanibekov, A. Ivanchenkov and French cosmonaut Jean-Louis Chrétien on board. At the station they carried out all the work according to their program, and the main crew helped them with this. After 78 days of staying on board the station, A. N. Berezova and V. V. Lebedev carried out a spacewalk, where they spent 2 hours 33 minutes.

On August 20, the three-seat Soyuz T-5 spacecraft docked with Salyut-7 with a crew consisting of L. I. Popov, A. A. Serebrov and the world’s second female cosmonaut S. E. Savitskaya. After the cosmonauts boarded the station, the new scientific research complex Salyut-7 - Soyuz T-5 - Soyuz T-7 began to function. The complex's crew of five cosmonauts began carrying out joint research. After a seven-month stay in orbit, the main crew returned to Earth. During this time, a lot of research was done in various fields of science, over 300 experiments and about 20 thousand photographs of the country's territory were performed.

The next complex was Salyut-7: Soyuz T-9 - Progress-17, where V. A. Lyakhov and A. P. Alexandrov were to continue work. For the first time in world practice, they performed four spacewalks in 12 days with a total duration of 14 hours 45 minutes. During the two years of operation of the complex, three main crews visited Salyut-7, working for 150, 211 and 237 days, respectively. During this time, they accepted four visiting expeditions, two of which were international (USSR-France and USSR-India). The cosmonauts performed complex repair and restoration work at the station, as well as a number of new studies and experiments. Outside the complex, Svetlana Savitskaya worked in outer space. Then the Salyut-7 flight continued without a crew.

A new flight to the station was already being planned when it became known that Salyut-7 was not responding to Earth’s call. It was suggested that the station was in an unoriented flight. After lengthy meetings, they decided to send a new crew to the station for reconnaissance. It included Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinykh.

On June 6, 1985, the Soyuz T-13 spacecraft left the Baikonur launch pad, and two days later the cosmonauts docked with the station and for 5 days tried to return the Soyuz to life. As it turned out, at the station the main power source - solar panels - was disconnected from the buffer battery, as a result of which the interior space became like the inner chamber of a refrigerator - everything was covered with frost. Some life support systems have failed. V. Dzhanibekov and V. Savinykh, for the first time in world practice, conducted major renovation a number of systems, and soon the station could once again receive crews on board. This extended her life by another year and saved a lot of money.

During the operation of the Salyuts, vast experience was accumulated in organizing the activities and life of the crew, in technical support for orbital work and maintenance of complexes, and in carrying out complex repair and maintenance operations in space. We successfully tested technological operations such as soldering, mechanical and electronic cutting of metal, welding and spraying of coatings (including in outer space), and extension of solar panels.

Orbital complex "Mir" - "Kvant" - "Soyuz" (USSR)

The Mir station was launched into orbit on February 20, 1986. It was supposed to form the basis of a new complex designed at the Energia design bureau.

"Mir" is a third generation station. With its name, the creators sought to emphasize that they are for the use of space technology only for peaceful purposes. It was conceived as a permanently operating orbital station, designed for many years of operation. The Mir station was supposed to become the base block for the creation of a multi-purpose research complex.

Unlike its predecessors, Salyut, Mir was a permanent multi-purpose station. Its basis was a block assembled from cylinders of different diameters and lengths. The total mass of the orbital complex was 51 tons, its length was 35 m.

It was different from Salyut and a large number docking berths. There were six of them at the new station (previously only two). A specialized module-compartment could be docked to each berth, changing depending on the program. The next feature was the ability to attach another permanent compartment to the base unit with a second docking point at the outer end. The Kvant astrophysical observatory became such a compartment.

In addition, Mir was distinguished by an improved flight control system and on-board research equipment; Almost all processes were automated. To do this, eight computers were installed on the unit, the power supply was increased, and fuel consumption was reduced to correct the flight orbit of the Mir station.

Its two axial berths were used to receive manned Soyuz-class spacecraft or unmanned Progress cargo ships. For crew communications with the Earth and for control of the complex, there was an improved radiotelephone communication system on board. If previously it was carried out only in the presence of ground tracking stations and special sea vessels, now a powerful Luch relay satellite has been launched into orbit specifically for these purposes. This system made it possible to significantly increase the duration of communication sessions between the Mission Control Center and the crew of the complex.

Living conditions have also improved significantly. For example, mini-cabins appeared where astronauts could sit at a table in front of the porthole, listen to music or read a book.

Module "Quantum". It became the first astrophysical observatory in space, the basis of which was the unique international observatory "Roentgen". Scientists from Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands and the European Space Agency (ESA) took part in its creation. “Kvant” included the Pulsar X-1 telescope-spectrometer, the Phosfich high-energy spectrometer, the Lilac gas spectrometer and a telescope with a shadow mask. The observatory was equipped with the Glazar ultraviolet telescope, created by Soviet and Swiss scientists, and many other devices.

The first residents of the complex were cosmonauts L. Kizim and V. Solovyov, who arrived on Mir on March 15, 1986. Their main task was to check the operation of the station in all modes, its computer complex, orientation system, on-board power station, communication system, etc. After the check, the cosmonauts on the Soyuz T spacecraft left Mir on May 5 and docked with Salyut-7 a day later.

Here the crew mothballed the onboard systems and part of the station’s equipment. The other part of the installations and instruments with a total weight of 400 kg, containers with research materials were transferred to Soyuz T and transported to the Mir station. After completing all the work, the crew returned to Earth on July 16, 1986.

On Earth, they checked once again all the life support systems, instruments and apparatus at the station, equipped it with additional installations, and replenished the reserves of fuel, water and food. All this was delivered to the station by Progress cargo ships.

On December 21, 1987, the ship with pilot V. Titov and engineer M. Manarov launched into space. These two cosmonauts became the first main crew to work on board the Mir-Kvant complex. Two days later they arrived at the Mir orbital station. Their program of work was designed for a whole year.

Thus, the launch of the Mir station marked the beginning of the creation of permanently operating manned scientific and technical complexes in orbit. On board they carried out scientific research on natural resources, unique astrophysical objects, and medical and biological experiments. The accumulated experience in operating the station and the complex as a whole allowed us to take the next step in the development of manned stations of the next generation.

Alpha International Orbital Station

In the creation of an international orbital space station 16 countries of the world took part (Japan, Canada, etc.). The station is designed to operate until 2014. In December 1993, Russia was also invited to work on the project.

Its creation began in the 80s, when US President R. Reagan announced the beginning of the creation of the national orbital station Freedom. It must be assembled in orbit by the Space Shuttle. As a result of the work, it became clear that such an expensive project could only be implemented with international cooperation.

At this time, the development of the Mir-2 orbital station was underway in the USSR, since the operational life of Mir was ending. On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States entered into an agreement on cooperation in space exploration, but due to economic problems in our country, further construction was suspended, and it was decided to continue operating the Mir.

In accordance with the agreement, the Russian space agency and NASA developed the Mir-Shuttle program. It consisted of three interrelated projects: flights of Russian cosmonauts on the Space Shuttle and American astronauts on the Mir orbital complex, a joint flight of crews, including the docking of the Shuttle with the Mir complex. The main goal of joint flights under the Mir-Shuttle program is to join forces to create the international orbital station Alpha.

The International Orbital Space Station should be assembled between November 1997 and June 2002. According to current plans, two orbital stations will operate in orbit for several years: Mir and Alpha. The complete configuration of the station includes 36 elements, 20 of which are basic. The total mass of the station will be 470 tons, the length of the complex will be 109 m, the width will be 88.4 m; the period of operation in the working orbit is 15 years. The main crew will consist of 7 people, three of whom are Russians.

Russia must build several modules, two of which became the main segments of the international orbital station: the functional cargo block and the service module. As a result, Russia could use 35% of the station's resources.

Russian scientists proposed creating the first international orbital station based on Mir. They also suggested using Spectrum and Priroda (operating in space), since the creation of new modules was delayed due to financial difficulties in the country. It was decided to dock the Mir modules to Alpha using the Shuttle.

The Mir station should become the basis for the construction of a multi-purpose, permanently operating modular manned complex. According to the plan, “Mir” is a complex multi-purpose complex, which, in addition to the base unit, includes five more. “World” consists of the following modules: “Kvant”, “Kvant-2”, “Zarya”, “Crystal”, “Spectrum”, “Nature”. The Spectrum and Nature modules will be used for the Russian-American scientific program. They housed scientific equipment produced in 27 countries weighing 11.5 tons. The total mass of the complex was 14 tons. The equipment will allow carrying out research on board the complex in 9 areas in various fields of science and technology.

The Russian segment consists of 12 elements, of which 9 are main with a total mass of 103-140 tons. It includes modules: “Zarya”, a service module, a universal docking module, a docking and storage module, two research modules and a life support module; as well as a scientific and energy platform and a docking compartment.

The Zarya module weighing 21 tons, developed and manufactured at the Center named after. M.V. Khrunichev, under a contract with Boeing, is the main element of the international orbital station Alpha. Its design allows you to easily adapt and modify the module depending on the assigned tasks and purpose while maintaining the reliability and safety of the created modules.

The basis of the Zarya is a cargo block for receiving, storing and using fuel, and housing part of the crew’s life support systems. The life support system can operate in two modes: automatic and in case of an emergency.

The module is divided into two compartments: instrument-cargo and transition. The first contains scientific equipment, consumables, batteries, service systems and equipment. The second compartment is designed for storing delivered goods. There are 16 cylindrical fuel storage tanks installed on the outside of the module body.

Zarya is equipped with elements of a thermal management system, solar panels, antennas, docking and telemetry control systems, protective screens, a gripping device for the Space Shuttle, etc.

The length of the Zarya module is 12.6 m, diameter 4.1 m, launch weight 23.5 tons and approximately 20 tons in orbit. As part of the international space station, the module can change the orbit, stabilize the flight during dockings, coordinate spatial position, and much more . etc.

The total weight of the American segment was 37 tons. It includes modules: for connecting the sealed compartments of the station into a single structure, the main truss of the station - a structure for housing the power supply system.

The basis of the American segment is the Unity module. It was launched into orbit using the Endeavor spacecraft from the Canaveral Space Center with six astronauts (including Russian) on board.

The Unity node module is a sealed compartment 5.5 m long and 4.6 m in diameter. It is equipped with 6 docking points for ships, 6 hatches for crew passage and cargo transfer. The orbital mass of the module is 11.6 tons. The module is the connecting part between the Russian and American parts of the station.

In addition, the American segment includes three hub, laboratory, residential, propulsion, international and centrifuge modules, an airlock chamber, power supply systems, an observation dome cabin, rescue ships, etc. The large American module is joined by elements developed by countries participating in the project.

The American segment also includes the Italian returnable cargo module, the laboratory module “Destini” (“Destiny”) with a complex of scientific equipment (the module is planned to be the control center for the scientific equipment of the American segment); joint airlock; a compartment with a centrifuge created on the basis of the Spacelab module and the largest living block for four astronauts. Here, in a sealed compartment, there is a kitchen, a wardroom, sleeping quarters, a shower, a toilet and other equipment.

The Japanese segment weighs 32.8 tons and includes two pressurized compartments. Its main module consists of a laboratory compartment, a resource and open scientific platform, a block with scientific equipment, and a gateway for moving equipment to the open platform. The interior space is occupied by compartments with scientific equipment.

The Canadian segment includes two remote manipulators, which will be used to carry out assembly operations, maintain service systems and scientific instruments.

The European segment consists of modules: for connecting the sealed compartments of the station into a single structure, logistics "Columbus" - a special research module with equipment.

To service the orbital station, it is planned to use not only the Space Shuttle and Russian transport ships, but also new American rescue ships for the return of crews, European automatic and Japanese heavy transport ships.

By the time construction of the international orbital station Alpha is completed, international expeditions of 7 astronauts will have to work on board it. The first crew to work on the international orbital station selected 3 candidates - Russians Sergei Krikalev, Yuri Gidzenko and American William Shepard. The commander will be appointed by joint decision depending on the objectives of a particular flight.

Construction of the international space station Alpha in low-Earth orbit began on November 20, 1998 with the launch of the first Russian module Zarya. It was produced using the Proton-K launch vehicle at 9:40 am. Moscow time from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. In December of the same year, Zarya docked with the American Unity module.

All experiments carried out on board the station were carried out in accordance with scientific programs. But due to the lack of funding to continue the manned flight, from mid-June 2000 the Mir spacecraft was transferred to autonomous flight mode. After 15 years of existence in outer space, the station was deorbited and sunk in the Pacific Ocean.

During this time, at the Mir station in the period 1986-2000. 55 targeted research programs were implemented. Mir became the first international orbital scientific laboratory in the world. Most of the experiments were carried out within the framework of international cooperation. Over 7,500 experiments were carried out in which foreign equipment was involved. Over the period from 1995 to 2000, over 60% of the total volume of research under Russian and international programs was carried out at the Mir station.

During the entire operation of the station, 27 international expeditions were carried out on it, 21 of them on a commercial basis. Representatives from 11 countries (USA, Germany, England, France, Japan, Austria, Bulgaria, Syria, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Slovakia) and ESA worked on Mir. A total of 104 people visited the orbital complex.

Modular orbital complexes made it possible to conduct more complex targeted research in various fields of science and national economy. For example, space makes it possible to produce materials and alloys with improved physical and chemical properties, similar production of which on Earth is very expensive. Or it is known that in conditions of weightlessness, freely floating liquid metal (and other materials) are easily deformed by weak magnetic fields. This makes it possible to obtain ingots of a given shape of high frequency, without crystallization and internal stresses. And crystals grown in space are highly durable and large in size. For example, sapphire crystals can withstand pressures of up to 2000 tons per 1 mm 2, which is approximately 10 times the strength of earthly materials.

The creation and operation of orbital complexes necessarily leads to the development of space science and technology, the development of new technologies and the improvement of scientific equipment.