Speed ​​of a satellite in space. How does a regular space rocket work?

However, in space everything is different, some phenomena are simply inexplicable and cannot be subject to any laws in principle. For example, a satellite launched several years ago, or other objects will rotate in their orbit and will never fall. Why is this happening? At what speed does a rocket fly into space?? Physicists suggest that there is a centrifugal force that neutralizes the effect of gravity.

Having done a small experiment, we can understand and feel this ourselves, without leaving home. To do this, you need to take a thread and tie a small weight to one end, then unwind the thread in a circle. We will feel that the higher the speed, the clearer the trajectory of the load, and the more tension the thread will have; if we weaken the force, the speed of rotation of the object will decrease and the risk that the load will fall increases several times. With this little experience we will begin to develop our topic - speed in space.

It becomes clear that high speed allows any object to overcome the force of gravity. Regarding space objects, no matter what, they each have their own speed, it’s different. There are four main types of such speed and the smallest of them is the first. It is at this speed that the ship flies into Earth orbit.

In order to fly beyond its limits you need a second speed in space. At the third speed, gravity is completely overcome and you can fly out of the solar system. Fourth rocket speed in space will allow you to leave the galaxy itself, this is approximately 550 km/s. We have always been interested rocket speed in space km h, when entering orbit it is equal to 8 km/s, beyond it - 11 km/s, that is, developing its capabilities to 33,000 km/h. The rocket gradually increases speed, full acceleration begins from an altitude of 35 km. Speedspacewalk is 40,000 km/h.

Speed ​​in space: record

Maximum speed in space- the record, set 46 years ago, still stands, it was achieved by astronauts who took part in the Apollo 10 mission. Having flown around the Moon, they returned back when speed of a spaceship in space was 39,897 km/h. In the near future, it is planned to send the Orion spacecraft into zero-gravity space, which will launch astronauts into low Earth orbit. Perhaps then it will be possible to break the 46-year-old record. Speed ​​of light in space- 1 billion km/h. I wonder if we can cover such a distance with our maximum available speed of 40,000 km/h. Here what is the speed in space develops in the light, but we don’t feel it here.

Theoretically, a person can move at a speed slightly less than the speed of light. However, this will entail colossal harm, especially for an unprepared organism. After all, first you need to develop such a speed, make an effort to safely reduce it. Because rapid acceleration and deceleration can be fatal to a person.

In ancient times, it was believed that the Earth was motionless; no one was interested in the question of the speed of its rotation in orbit, because such concepts did not exist in principle. But even now it is difficult to give an unambiguous answer to the question, because the value is not the same in different geographical locations. Closer to the equator, the speed will be higher; in the region of southern Europe it is 1200 km/h, this is the average Earth's speed in space.

Hello, if you have questions about the International space station and how it functions, we will try to answer them.

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Today you will learn about such an interesting NASA project as the ISS online web camera in HD quality. As you already understand, this webcam works live and video is sent to the network directly from the international space station. On the screen above you can look at the astronauts and a picture of space.

The ISS webcam is installed on the station's shell and broadcasts online video around the clock.

I would like to remind you that the most ambitious object in space created by us is the International Space Station. Its location can be observed on tracking, which displays its real position above the surface of our planet. The orbit is displayed in real time on your computer; literally 5-10 years ago this would have been unimaginable.

The dimensions of the ISS are amazing: length - 51 meters, width - 109 meters, height - 20 meters, and weight - 417.3 tons. The weight changes depending on whether the SOYUZ is docked to it or not, I want to remind you that the Space Shuttle space shuttles no longer fly, their program has been curtailed, and the USA uses our SOYUZs.

Station structure

Animation of the construction process from 1999 to 2010.

The station is built on a modular structure: various segments were designed and created by the efforts of the participating countries. Each module has its own specific function: for example, research, residential, or adapted for storage.

3D model of the station

3D construction animation

As an example, let's take the American Unity modules, which are jumpers and also serve for docking with ships. At the moment, the station consists of 14 main modules. Their total volume is 1000 cubic meters, and their weight is about 417 tons; a crew of 6 or 7 people can always be on board.

The station was assembled by sequentially docking the next block or module to the existing complex, which is connected to those already operating in orbit.

If we take information for 2013, then the station includes 14 main modules, of which the Russian ones are Poisk, Rassvet, Zarya, Zvezda and Piers. American segments - Unity, Domes, Leonardo, Tranquility, Destiny, Quest and Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

This diagram shows all the major, as well as minor modules that are part of the station (shaded), and those planned for delivery in the future - not shaded.

The distance from Earth to the ISS ranges from 413-429 km. Periodically, the station is “raised” due to the fact that it is slowly decreasing, due to friction with the remnants of the atmosphere. At what altitude it is also depends on other factors, such as space debris.

Earth, bright spots - lightning

The recent blockbuster “Gravity” clearly (albeit slightly exaggeratedly) showed what can happen in orbit if space debris flies in close proximity. Also, the altitude of the orbit depends on the influence of the Sun and other less significant factors.

There is a special service that ensures that the ISS flight altitude is as safe as possible and that nothing threatens the astronauts.

There have been cases when, due to space debris, it was necessary to change the trajectory, so its height also depends on factors beyond our control. The trajectory is clearly visible on the graphs; it is noticeable how the station crosses seas and continents, flying literally over our heads.

Orbital speed

Spaceships of the SOYUZ series against the backdrop of the Earth, filmed with long exposure

If you find out how fast the ISS flies, you will be horrified; these are truly gigantic numbers for the Earth. Its speed in orbit is 27,700 km/h. To be precise, the speed is more than 100 times faster than a standard production car. It takes 92 minutes to complete one revolution. Astronauts experience 16 sunrises and sunsets in 24 hours. The position is monitored in real time by specialists from the Mission Control Center and the flight control center in Houston. If you are watching the broadcast, please note that the ISS space station periodically flies into the shadow of our planet, so there may be interruptions in the picture.

Statistics and interesting facts

If we take the first 10 years of the station’s operation, then in total about 200 people visited it as part of 28 expeditions, this figure is an absolute record for space stations (our Mir station was visited by “only” 104 people before that). In addition to holding records, the station became the first successful example of the commercialization of space flight. The Russian space agency Roscosmos, together with the American company Space Adventures, delivered space tourists into orbit for the first time.

In total, 8 tourists visited space, for whom each flight cost from 20 to 30 million dollars, which in general is not so expensive.

According to the most conservative estimates, the number of people who can go on a real space journey is in the thousands.

In the future, with mass launches, the cost of the flight will decrease, and the number of applicants will increase. Already in 2014, private companies are offering a worthy alternative to such flights - a suborbital shuttle, a flight on which will cost much less, the requirements for tourists are not as stringent, and the cost is more affordable. From the altitude of suborbital flight (about 100-140 km), our planet will appear to future travelers as an amazing cosmic miracle.

Live broadcast is one of the few interactive astronomical events that we see not recorded, which is very convenient. Remember that the online station is not always available; technical interruptions are possible when flying through the shadow zone. It is best to watch video from the ISS from a camera that is aimed at Earth, when you still have the opportunity to view our planet from orbit.

The Earth from orbit looks truly amazing; not only continents, seas, and cities are visible. Also presented to your attention are auroras and huge hurricanes, which look truly fantastic from space.

To give you at least some idea of ​​what the Earth looks like from the ISS, watch the video below.

This video shows a view of the Earth from space and was created from time-lapse photographs of astronauts. Very high quality video, watch only in 720p quality and with sound. One of the best videos, assembled from images from orbit.

The real-time webcam shows not only what is behind the skin, we can also watch the astronauts at work, for example, unloading the Soyuz or docking them. Live broadcasts can sometimes be interrupted when the channel is overloaded or there are problems with signal transmission, for example, in relay areas. Therefore, if the broadcast is impossible, then a static NASA splash screen or “blue screen” is shown on the screen.

The station in the moonlight, SOYUZ ships are visible against the background of the Orion constellation and auroras

However, take a moment to look at the view from the ISS online. When the crew is resting, users global network the Internet can watch how the starry sky is broadcast online from the ISS through the eyes of astronauts - from a height of 420 km above the planet.

Crew work schedule

To calculate when astronauts are asleep or awake, it is necessary to remember that in space Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is used, which in winter lags behind Moscow time by three hours, and in summer by four, and accordingly the camera on the ISS shows the same time.

Astronauts (or cosmonauts, depending on the crew) are given eight and a half hours to sleep. The rise usually begins at 6.00, and the end at 21.30. There are mandatory morning reports to Earth, which begin at approximately 7.30 - 7.50 (this is on the American segment), at 7.50 - 8.00 (in Russian), and in the evening from 18.30 to 19.00. The astronauts' reports can be heard if the web camera is currently broadcasting this particular communication channel. Sometimes you can hear the broadcast in Russian.

Remember that you are listening and watching a NASA service channel that was originally intended only for specialists. Everything changed on the eve of the station’s 10th anniversary, and the online camera on the ISS became public. And, so far, the International Space Station is online.

Docking with spacecraft

The most exciting moments broadcast by the web camera occur when our Soyuz, Progress, Japanese and European cargo spaceships dock, and in addition, cosmonauts and astronauts go into outer space.

A small nuisance is that the channel load at this moment is enormous, hundreds and thousands of people are watching the video from the ISS, the load on the channel increases, and the live broadcast may be intermittent. This spectacle can sometimes be truly fantastically exciting!

Flight over the surface of the planet

By the way, if we take into account the regions of flight, as well as the intervals at which the station is in areas of shadow or light, we can plan our own viewing of the broadcast using the graphical diagram at the top of this page.

But if you can only devote to views certain time, remember that the webcam is online all the time, so you can always enjoy the cosmic landscapes. However, it is better to watch it while the astronauts are working or the spacecraft is docking.

Incidents that happened during work

Despite all the precautions at the station, and with the ships that served it, unpleasant situations occurred; the most serious incident was the Columbia shuttle disaster that occurred on February 1, 2003. Although the shuttle did not dock with the station and was conducting its own mission, this tragedy led to all subsequent space shuttle flights being banned, a ban that was only lifted in July 2005. Because of this, the completion time for construction increased, since only the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft were able to fly to the station, which became the only means of delivering people and various cargo into orbit.

Also, in 2006, there was a small amount of smoke in the Russian segment, computer failures occurred in 2001 and twice in 2007. The autumn of 2007 turned out to be the most troublesome for the crew, because... I had to fix a solar battery that broke during installation.

International Space Station (photos taken by astro enthusiasts)

Using the data on this page, finding out where the ISS is now is not difficult. The station looks quite bright from Earth, so that it can be seen with the naked eye as a star that is moving, and quite quickly, from west to east.

The station was shot with a long exposure

Some astronomy enthusiasts even manage to get photos of the ISS from Earth.

These pictures look quite high quality; you can even see docked ships on them, and if astronauts go into outer space, then their figures.

If you are planning to observe it through a telescope, then remember that it moves quite quickly, and it is better if you have a go-to guidance system that allows you to guide the object without losing sight of it.

Where the station is flying now can be seen in the graph above.

If you don’t know how to see it from Earth or you don’t have a telescope, the solution is video broadcast for free and around the clock!

Information provided by the European Space Agency

Using this interactive scheme, the observation of the station's passage can be calculated. If the weather cooperates and there are no clouds, then you will be able to see for yourself the charming glide, a station that is the pinnacle of the progress of our civilization.

You just need to remember that the station’s orbital inclination angle is approximately 51 degrees; it flies over cities such as Voronezh, Saratov, Kursk, Orenburg, Astana, Komsomolsk-on-Amur). The further north you live from this line, the worse the conditions for seeing it with your own eyes will be or even impossible. In fact, you can only see it above the horizon in the southern part of the sky.

If we take the latitude of Moscow, then the most best time to observe it - a trajectory that will be slightly above 40 degrees above the horizon, this is after sunset and before sunrise.

International Space Station

International Space Station, abbr. (English) International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multi-purpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project in which 14 countries participate (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. The original participants included Brazil and the UK.

The ISS is controlled by the Russian segment from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, and by the American segment from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The control of the laboratory modules - the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibo - is controlled by the Control Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American orbital station. In 1988, the projected station was named “Freedom”. At the time, it was a joint project between the United States, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one into the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. The USSR, which already had experience in creating and placing into orbit the Salyut orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned to create the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States entered into an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program provided for flights of American reusable space shuttles to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

During the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of ​​unifying national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

In March 1993, RSA General Director Yuri Koptev and General Designer of NPO Energia Yuri Semyonov proposed to NASA head Daniel Goldin to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, many politicians in the United States were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not adopted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for building the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a “truly international space station.” From that moment on, the official name of the station became “International Space Station”, although at the same time the unofficial name was also used - the Alpha space station.

ISS, July 1999. At the top is the Unity module, at the bottom, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, RSA and NASA signed a “Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station.”

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington the “Interim Agreement to Conduct Work Leading to Russian Partnership in a Permanent Civilian Manned Space Station,” under which Russia officially joined work on the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were concluded with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia. S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - station configuration approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (a modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, member countries of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the Zarya functional cargo block, which was launched by a Proton-K rocket (FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the shuttle Endeavor docked the American module Unity (“Unity”, “Node-1”) to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch to the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the United States and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - the Zvezda service module (SM) was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - the manned transport spacecraft (TPS) Soyuz TM-31 delivered the crew of the first main expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Zvezda and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - the crew of the shuttle Atlantis during the STS-98 mission attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - NASA head Michael Griffin, at a hearing of the Senate Space and Science Committee, announced the need for a temporary reduction scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned vehicle (CEV). A new manned spacecraft was needed to ensure independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of long-term ISS crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the station was supplied with materials necessary for the life of the crew only by Russian Progress cargo ships.

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the Discovery shuttle. Until the end of the shuttle's operation, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010; during these flights, the equipment and modules necessary both for completing the station and for upgrading some of the equipment, in particular the Canadian manipulator, were delivered to the ISS.

The second shuttle flight after the Columbia disaster (Shuttle Discovery STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle, German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived at the ISS and joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, after a three-year break, three cosmonauts again began working on a long-term expedition to the ISS.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the Atlantis shuttle delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, as well as radiators for the thermal control system of the American segment.

On October 23, 2007, the American module Harmony arrived on board the Discovery shuttle. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After redocking on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was permanently connected to the Destiny module. Construction of the main American segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, commissioned by the European Space Agency, was docked, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Kibo laboratory module, developed by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, were docked - the pressurized section of the Experimental Cargo Bay (ELM) PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport vehicles began: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, payload - 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(the first launch took place on September 10, 2009, payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the long-term ISS-20 crew of six people began work, delivered in two stages: the first three people arrived on Soyuz TMA-14, then they were joined by the Soyuz TMA-15 crew. To a large extent, the increase in crew was due to the increased ability to deliver cargo to the station.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, the small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, shortly before launch it was named “Poisk”. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking hub. The capabilities of the module allow it to carry out some scientific experiments, as well as simultaneously serve as a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian small research module Rassvet (MIR-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock Rassvet to the Russian functional cargo block Zarya was carried out by the manipulator of the American space shuttle Atlantis, and then by the ISS manipulator.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the Multilateral Management Council for the International Space Station confirmed that there were no currently known technical restrictions on the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration had envisaged continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this deadline until at least 2024, with a possible extension until 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin stated: “Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020.”

In 2011, flights of reusable spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 rocket carrying a private space cargo ship, Dragon, was launched from the Cape Canaveral Space Center. This is the first-ever test flight of a private spacecraft to the International Space Station.

On May 25, 2012, the Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial spacecraft to dock with the ISS.

On September 18, 2013, the private automatic cargo supply spacecraft Cygnus approached the ISS for the first time and was docked.

ISS, March 2011

Planned Events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) Nauka to the ISS. It will take the place of the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will completely take over the functions of Pirs.

“NEM-1” (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned in 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (node ​​module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station structure

The station design is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding another module or block to the complex, which is connected to the one already delivered into orbit.

As of 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian ones - “Zarya”, “Zvezda”, “Pirs”, “Poisk”, “Rassvet”; American - "Unity", "Destiny", "Quest", "Tranquility", "Dome", "Leonardo", "Harmony", European - "Columbus" and Japanese - "Kibo".

• "Zarya"- functional cargo module “Zarya”, the first of the ISS modules delivered into orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar panels. The module's service life is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $250 million, the Russian one - over $150 million;
• P.M. panel- anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
• "Star"- the Zvezda service module, which houses flight control systems, life support systems, an energy and information center, as well as cabins for astronauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking points. All its systems and units are Russian, with the exception of the on-board computer complex, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules “Poisk” and “Rassvet”, designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. "Poisk" is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and "Rassvet" is docked to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
• "Science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides conditions for storing scientific equipment, conducting scientific experiments, and temporary accommodation for the crew. Also provides the functionality of the European manipulator;
• ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be assigned to the Russian MLM scientific laboratory;
• Pressurized adapter- a sealed docking adapter designed to connect ISS modules to each other and to ensure docking of shuttles;
• "Calm"- ISS module performing life support functions. Contains systems for water recycling, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the Unity module;
• "Unity"- the first of three connecting modules of the ISS, acting as a docking node and power switch for the modules “Quest”, “Nod-3”, farm Z1 and transport ships docked to it through Pressurized Adapter-3;
• "Pier"- mooring port intended for docking of Russian Progress and Soyuz aircraft; installed on the Zvezda module;
• VSP- external storage platforms: three external non-pressurized platforms intended exclusively for the storage of goods and equipment;
• Farms- a combined truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators are installed. Also designed for non-hermetic storage of cargo and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian system of remote manipulators, serving as the main tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
• "Dextre"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest"- a specialized gateway module designed for spacewalks by cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out nitrogen from human blood);
• "Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking unit and power switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docked to it via Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
• "Columbus"- a European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed, providing communication between computer equipment stations. Docked to the Harmony module;
• "Destiny"- American laboratory module docked with the Harmony module;
• "Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for conducting physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in sealed and non-sealed conditions. In addition, thanks to its special design, it allows for unplanned experiments. Docked to the Harmony module;

ISS observation dome.

• "Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for conducting experiments, observing space and docking spacecraft, and also as a control panel for the station's main remote manipulator. Rest area for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the Tranquility node module;
• TSP- four unpressurized platforms fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. Provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module- storage room for cargo storage, docked to the nadir docking port of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Raphael and Donatello, which are periodically delivered into orbit to equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules with a common name "Multi-purpose supply module", were delivered in the cargo compartment of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. Since March 2011, the converted Leonardo module has been one of the station's modules called the Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM).

Power supply to the station

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is the light from which the station's solar panels convert into electricity.

The Russian segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz spacecraft. Electricity is generated directly by the solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian one through an ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the RACU voltage converter ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be supplied with electricity using the Russian module of the Scientific Energy Platform (NEP). However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, they also refused to deliver and install NEP, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the American segment, solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible folding solar panels form the so-called solar wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW), a total of four pairs of such wings are located on the station's truss structures. Each wing has a length of 35 m and a width of 11.6 m, and its useful area is 298 m², while the total power generated by it can reach 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary DC voltage of 115 to 173 Volts, which is then, using DDCU units, Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized direct voltage of 124 Volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar battery on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and spends about half of this time in the Earth's shadow, where solar panels do not work. Its power supply then comes from nickel-hydrogen buffer batteries, which are recharged when the ISS returns to sunlight. The battery life is 6.5 years, and it is expected that they will be replaced several times during the life of the station. The first battery change was carried out on the P6 segment during the astronauts' spacewalk during the flight of the shuttle Endeavor STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, the US sector's solar arrays track the Sun to maximize energy production. Solar panels are aimed at the Sun using “Alpha” and “Beta” drives. The station is equipped with two Alpha drives, which rotate several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of truss structures: the first drive turns sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own Beta drive, which ensures rotation of the wing relative to its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) (“Night planning mode”), in which case they turn with their edges in the direction of movement in order to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere that is present at the station’s flight altitude.

Communications

The transmission of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communications. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations; they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of the astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multi-purpose communication systems.

The Russian segment of the ISS communicates directly with Earth using the Lyra radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. "Lira" makes it possible to use the "Luch" satellite data relay system. This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but it fell into disrepair in the 1990s and is not currently used. To restore the system's functionality, Luch-5A was launched in 2012. In May 2014, 3 multifunctional missions were operating in orbit. space system rebroadcasts “Luch” - “Luch-5A”, “Luch-5B” and “Luch-5V”. In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Another Russian communications system, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communications between the Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk modules and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communications with ground control centers using external antennas. module "Zvezda".

In the American segment, for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), two separate systems are used, located on the Z1 truss structure. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to American geostationary TDRSS satellites, which allows for almost continuous contact with mission control in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo module are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, astronauts use a UHF VHF transmitter. VHF radio communications are also used during docking or undocking by the Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle spacecraft (although the shuttles also use S- and K u-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spacecraft receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from the ISS crew members. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own means of communication. Thus, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is carried out through two completely independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function, starting from relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and is turned off after the ATV is docked to the ISS and switches to interaction via the on-board MIL-STD-1553 bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and the ISS, a laser rangefinder system mounted on the ATV is used, making precise docking with the station possible.

The station is equipped with approximately one hundred ThinkPad laptop computers from IBM and Lenovo, models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU/Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the ISS, in particular, the connectors and cooling system have been redesigned, the 28 Volt voltage used at the station has been taken into account, and the safety requirements for working in zero gravity have been met. Since January 2010, the station has provided direct Internet access for the American segment. Computers on board the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi to a wireless network and are connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbit/s for downloading and 10 Mbit/s for downloading, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women; it looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet is equipped with leg clamps and thigh holders, and powerful air pumps are built into it. The astronaut is fastened with a special spring mount to the toilet seat, then turns on a powerful fan and opens the suction hole, where air flow removes all waste.

On the ISS, the air from the toilets is necessarily filtered before entering the living quarters to remove bacteria and odor.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity are being officially included on the International Space Station menu for the first time. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will try lettuce collected from the orbital Veggie plantation. Many media outlets reported that for the first time, astronauts tried their own homegrown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals when creating the ISS was the ability to conduct experiments at the station that require unique space flight conditions: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation not weakened by the earth’s atmosphere. Major areas of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. Research is carried out using scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories; some of the equipment for experiments requiring vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its hermetic volume.

ISS scientific modules

Currently (January 2012), the station includes three special scientific modules - the American laboratory Destiny, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo " The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some racks are specialized and equipped for research in the fields of biology, biomedicine and fluid physics. The remaining racks are universal; the equipment in them can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module Kibo consists of several parts that were sequentially delivered and installed in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental transport compartment. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered a leaky experimental transport compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two “Small Research Modules” (SRMs) at the orbital station - “Poisk” and “Rassvet”. It is also planned to deliver the multifunctional laboratory module “Nauka” (MLM) into orbit. Full-fledged scientific opportunities Only the latter will have it; the amount of scientific equipment located at the two MIMs is minimal.

Collaborative experiments

The international nature of the ISS project facilitates joint scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Russian Federal Space Agency. Well-known examples of such cooperation were the “Plasma Crystal” experiment, dedicated to the physics of dusty plasma, and conducted by the Institute of Extraterrestrial Physics of the Max Planck Society, the Institute of High Temperatures and the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of others scientific institutions Russia and Germany, the medical and biological experiment “Matryoshka-R”, in which mannequins - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine - are used to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments of ESA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts tested the ROKVISS robotic experimental system. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechanotronics, located in Wessling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and in microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. In eleven main areas of research, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After RSC Energia specialists assessed the technical feasibility of these applications, in 1999 the “Long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned on the Russian segment of the ISS” was adopted. The program was approved by the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Osipov and the General Director of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the initial design of the ISS, it was planned to launch two large Russian research modules (RM). The electricity needed to conduct scientific experiments was to be provided by the Scientific Energy Platform (SEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of building a single scientific module, which did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research carried out by Russia on the ISS is contractual or joint with foreign partners.

Currently, various medical, biological, and physical studies are being carried out on the ISS.

Research on the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus shown using fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of research carried out during shuttle flights with the Spacelab modules and in the joint Mir-Shuttle program with Russia. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the adult US population are carriers of the latent form of this virus. In conditions of space flight, the work weakens immune system, the virus can become active and cause illness in a crew member. Experiments to study the virus began on the flight of the shuttle STS-108.

European studies

Solar observatory installed on the Columbus module

The European Science Module Columbus has 10 integrated payload racks (ISPRs), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment is installed in the racks: the Biolab laboratory for conducting biological experiments, the Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, the European Physiology Modules installation for physiological experiments, as well as the universal European Drawer Rack containing equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental facilities were also installed for the Columbus module: the EuTEF remote technology experiment platform and the SOLAR solar observatory. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory, Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The research program carried out on the Kibo module includes studying the processes of global warming on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, and conducting astronomical research in the X-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals, which are intended to help understand the mechanisms of diseases and develop new treatments. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, and experiments will also be conducted in robotics, communications and energy.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata conducted a series of experiments on the ISS, which were selected from those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut attempted to "swim" in zero gravity using a variety of strokes, including crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. The astronaut noted that “even they won’t be able to correct the situation.” large sheets papers if you pick them up and use them as flippers.” In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back over his head. Having completed these difficult exercises in zero gravity, the Japanese astronaut tried push-ups and rotations on the spot.

Security Issues

Space debris

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS moves in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain probability that the station or astronauts going into outer space will collide with so-called space debris. This can include both large objects such as rocket stages or failed satellites, and small ones such as slag from solid rocket engines, coolants from reactor installations of US-A series satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects such as micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering the cosmic speeds in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in a cosmonaut’s spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the casing and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of elements of space debris is carried out from Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a corresponding warning. The astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. When the engines are turned on, they can propel the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuation occurred on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds people on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. Crew members receive a radiation dose of about 1 millisievert per day, which is approximately equivalent to the radiation exposure of a person on Earth in a year. This leads to increased risk development malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakened immune system. The weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite attempts to improve radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much compared to previous studies conducted, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During an inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, traces of the vital activity of marine plankton were found on scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows. The need to clean the outer surface of the station due to contamination from the operation of spacecraft engines was also confirmed.

Legal side

Legal levels

The legal framework governing the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

• First The level establishing the rights and obligations of the parties is the “Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station” (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - I.G.A. ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article No. 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
  This agreement is a long-term international framework based on genuine partnership for the comprehensive design, creation, development and long-term use of a manned civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law. When writing this agreement, the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, ratified by 98 countries, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law, was taken as a basis.
• The first level of partnership is the basis second level, which is called “Memorandums of Understanding” (eng. Memoranda of Understanding - MOU s ). These memoranda represent agreements between NASA and the four national space agencies: FSA, ESA, CSA and JAXA. Memorandums are used for more detailed description roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the designated manager of the ISS, there are no direct agreements between these organizations, only with NASA.
• TO third This level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, the 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roscosmos, the terms of which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut on the crew of Soyuz spacecraft and a portion of the payload for American cargo on unmanned " Progress."
• Fourth the legal level complements the second (“Memorandums”) and puts into effect certain provisions from it. An example of this is the “Code of Conduct on the ISS,” which was developed in pursuance of paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The project's ownership structure does not provide for its members a clearly established percentage for the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article No. 5 (IGA), the jurisdiction of each partner extends only to that component of the station that is registered with it, and violations legal norms personnel, inside or outside the plant, are subject to proceedings according to the laws of the country of which they are citizens.

Interior of the Zarya module

Agreements for the use of ISS resources are more complex. The Russian modules "Zvezda", "Pirs", "Poisk" and "Rassvet" are manufactured and owned by Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered into orbit by the Russian side, but this was done with US funds, so NASA is officially the owner of this module today. To use Russian modules and other components of the station, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the above-mentioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, truss structures, solar panels and two robotic arms) is used as agreed by the parties as follows (as a % of total time of use):

1. Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. "Kibo" - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
• Under an agreement with NASA, KSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Crew working time, solar power, use of support services (loading/unloading, communications services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Before the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework governing private space flights. But after the flight of Dennis Tito, the countries participating in the project developed “Principles” that defined such a concept as a “Space Tourist” and all the necessary issues for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical indicators, psychological fitness, language training, and a monetary contribution.

The participants of the first space wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress passed legislative act on the non-proliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase from Russia the equipment and ships necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the Columbia disaster, when the fate of the project depended on the Russian Soyuz and Progress, on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to adopt amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions on “any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts” , until January 1, 2012.

Costs

The costs of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much higher than originally planned. In 2005, ESA estimated that around €100 billion ($157 billion or £65.3 billion) would have been spent between the start of work on the ISS project in the late 1980s and its then expected completion in 2010. However, as of today, the end of operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, due to the request of the United States, which is unable to undock its segment and continue to fly, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to accurately estimate the cost of the ISS. For example, it is unclear how Russia's contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Assessing the project as a whole, the largest costs for NASA are the complex of flight support activities and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, current operating costs account for a much larger portion of the funds spent than the costs of building modules and other station equipment, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA's spending on the ISS, excluding Shuttle costs, from 1994 to 2005 was $25.6 billion. 2005 and 2006 accounted for approximately $1.8 billion. Annual costs are expected to increase, reaching $2.3 billion by 2010. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budget funds

An itemized list of NASA's costs can be assessed, for example, from a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment- 70 million dollars. This amount was, in particular, spent on the development of navigation systems, information support, and technologies to reduce environmental pollution.
• Flight support- 800 million dollars. This amount included: on a per-ship basis, $125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional $150 million was spent on the flights themselves, avionics, and crew-ship interaction systems; the remaining $250 million went to general management of the ISS.
• Launching ships and conducting expeditions- $125 million for pre-launch operations at the cosmodrome; $25 million for health care; $300 million spent on expedition management;
• Flight program- $350 million was spent on developing the flight program, maintaining ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Cargo and crews- $140 million was spent on acquisition consumables, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz aircraft.

Cost of the Shuttle as part of the cost of the ISS

Of the ten planned flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the station's main cost item, since it positions it as a separate project, independent of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 of 31 shuttle flights were not associated with the ISS, and of the remaining eleven planned flights until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and astronaut crews to the ISS were:

• Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, costs amounted to $24 billion. Of these, 20% ($5 billion) were not related to the ISS. Total - 19 billion dollars.
• From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend $20.5 billion on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to Hubble from this amount, we end up with the same 19 billion dollars.

That is, NASA’s total costs for flights to the ISS for the entire period will be approximately $38 billion.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, we can obtain an average annual expenditure of $2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will be $27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 ($25.6 billion) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - $53 billion.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant costs of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in the joint program with Russia to use the Mir station in the 1990s. The developments from these two projects were repeatedly used during the construction of the ISS. Considering this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttles, we can talk about a more than double increase in the amount of expenses compared to the official one - more than 100 billion dollars for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over the 15 years of the project's existence will be 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed 1.4 billion euros (approximately $2.1 billion), including costs for ground control and command and control systems. The total development cost for the ATV is approximately €1.35 billion, with each Ariane 5 launch costing approximately €150 million.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experiment Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The annual operating costs of the Japanese experimental module are 350-400 million dollars. In addition, JAXA has committed to developing and launching the H-II transport vehicle, at a total development cost of $1 billion. JAXA's expenses over the 24 years of its participation in the ISS program will exceed $10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant portion of the Russian Space Agency's budget is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen flights of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft have been made, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia spends on the station (in US dollars) is not simple. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs of their development are much lower than for other modules, however, in this case, by analogy with the American programs, the costs of developing the corresponding station modules should also be taken into account. World". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of ​​the Russian space agency's expenses on the ISS can be obtained from its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31.806, for 2007 - 32.985 and for 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the station costs less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a long-term partner of NASA, so Canada has been involved in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is a mobile maintenance system consisting of three parts: a mobile cart that can move along the station's truss structure, a robotic arm called Canadarm2 (Canadarm2), which is mounted on a mobile cart, and a special manipulator called Dextre. ). Over the past 20 years, CSA is estimated to have invested C$1.4 billion into the station.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project. Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or dispute it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, with its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and increases humanity’s experience in space flight, spending enormous financial resources on it.

Criticism in the US

The American side's criticism is mainly directed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $100 billion. This money, according to critics, could be better spent on automated (unmanned) flights to explore near space or on scientific projects carried out on Earth. In response to some of these criticisms, human spaceflight advocates say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted and that the return on human spaceflight and space exploration is in the billions of dollars. Jerome Schnee (English) Jerome Schnee) estimated the indirect economic component of additional revenues associated with space exploration to be many times greater than the initial government investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists argues that NASA's profit margin on spin-off revenue is actually very low, except for aeronautical developments that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often counts among its achievements the development of third-party companies whose ideas and developments may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. What is truly useful and profitable, according to critics, are unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites. NASA covers it extensively additional income from the construction of the ISS and from the work performed on it, while the official list of NASA expenses is much more brief and secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park Robert Park), most of the planned scientific research is not of primary importance. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in a space laboratory is to conduct it in microgravity conditions, which can be done much more cheaply in conditions of artificial weightlessness (in a special plane that flies along a parabolic trajectory). reduced gravity aircraft).

The ISS construction plans included two high-tech components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module. Centrifuge Accommodations Module) . The first one has been working at the station since May 2011. The creation of a second one was abandoned in 2005 as a result of a correction in plans for completing construction of the station. Highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were carried out on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, touching on such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (cyclicality of biological processes in the human body), the influence of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that these studies have little practical value, since the reality of today's near-space exploration is unmanned robotic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust Jeff Foust) argued that maintenance of the ISS required too many expensive and dangerous spacewalks. Pacific Astronomical Society The Astronomical Society of the Pacific) At the beginning of the design of the ISS, attention was paid to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. While this makes launches cheaper for the Russian side, it is unprofitable for the American side. The concession that NASA made for the Russian Federation due to geographical location Baikonur may ultimately increase the total costs of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society boils down to a discussion of the feasibility of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that, in addition to its scientific value, it is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with proper effort and improvements, make flights more cost-effective. One way or another, the main essence of the statements in response to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS; rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FSA) in defending Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always strictly monitors compliance with its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own orbital station project, and why money is being spent on a project owned by the United States, while these funds could be spent on completely Russian development. According to Vitaly Lopota, head of RSC Energia, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became for the United States a source of experience in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and cosmonauts to the station, almost single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to critical statements addressed to the FKA about underestimating the role of Russia in the project. For example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia’s scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that the partnership agreement with NASA does not meet national interests financially. However, it is worth considering that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the Russian segment of the station was paid for by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only at the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists note the small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply the necessary equipment to the station due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS increases to 6 people. In addition, questions are being raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the station. Thus, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, it will not be able to be flooded like the Mir station.

International cooperation, which is one of the main selling points for the station, is also controversial, according to critics. As is known, by condition international agreement, countries are not required to share their scientific developments at the station. During 2006-2007, there were no new major initiatives or major projects in the space sector between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country that invests 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which is also its main competitor in the struggle for a leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds have been allocated to manned programs, and a number of satellite development programs have failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev, in an interview with Izvestia, stated that for the sake of the ISS, space science again remained on Earth.

In 2014-2015, experts in the Russian space industry formed the opinion that the practical benefits of orbital stations had already been exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries had been made:

The era of orbital stations, which began in 1971, will be a thing of the past. Experts do not see any practical feasibility either in maintaining the ISS after 2020, or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical returns from the Russian segment of the ISS are significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes.” Scientific organizations are not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Expert magazine 2015

Delivery ships

The crews of manned expeditions to the ISS are delivered to the station at the Soyuz TPK according to a “short” six-hour schedule. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day schedule. Until July 2011, cargo delivery, installation of station elements, crew rotation, in addition to the Soyuz TPK, were carried out within the framework of the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	Type	Agency/country	First flight	Last flight	Total flights

Surprisingly, we have to return to this issue due to the fact that many people have no idea where the International “Space” Station actually flies and where “cosmonauts” go into outer space or into the Earth’s atmosphere.

This is a fundamental question - do you understand? People are drummed into their heads that representatives of humanity, who are proudly defined as “astronauts” and “cosmonauts,” freely carry out “outer space” walks and, moreover, there is even a “Space” station flying in this supposed “space.” And all this at a time when all these “achievements” are being realized in the Earth's atmosphere.

All manned orbital flights take place in the thermosphere, mainly at altitudes from 200 to 500 km - below 200 km the braking effect of air is strongly affected, and above 500 km radiation belts extend, which have a harmful effect on people.

Unmanned satellites also mostly fly in the thermosphere - launching a satellite into a higher orbit requires more energy, and for many purposes (for example, for remote sensing of the Earth), low altitude is preferable.

The high air temperature in the thermosphere is not dangerous for aircraft, since due to the strong rarefaction of the air, it practically does not interact with the skin of the aircraft, that is, the air density is not enough to heat the physical body, since the number of molecules is very small and the frequency of their collisions with the hull of the vessel (and, accordingly, the transfer of thermal energy) is small. Thermosphere research is also carried out using suborbital geophysical rockets. Auroras are observed in the thermosphere.

Thermosphere(from the Greek θερμός - “warm” and σφαῖρα - “ball”, “sphere”) - atmospheric layer , next to the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 80-90 km and extends up to 800 km. The air temperature in the thermosphere fluctuates at different levels, increases rapidly and discontinuously and can vary from 200 K to 2000 K, depending on the degree solar activity. The reason is absorption ultraviolet radiation The sun at altitudes of 150-300 km, due to the ionization of atmospheric oxygen. In the lower part of the thermosphere, the temperature rises by to a strong extent is caused by the energy released when oxygen atoms combine (recombine) into molecules (in this case, the energy of solar UV radiation, previously absorbed during the dissociation of O2 molecules, is converted into the energy of thermal motion of particles). At high latitudes, an important source of heat in the thermosphere is Joule heat generated by electric currents of magnetospheric origin. This source causes significant but uneven heating of the upper atmosphere in subpolar latitudes, especially during magnetic storms.

Outer space (outer space)- relatively empty areas of the Universe that lie outside the boundaries of the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Contrary to popular belief, space is not completely empty space - there is very low density some particles (mainly hydrogen), as well as electromagnetic radiation and interstellar matter. The word "space" has several different meanings. Sometimes space is understood as all space outside the Earth, including celestial bodies.

400 km - orbital altitude of the International Space Station
500 km is the beginning of the internal proton radiation belt and the end of safe orbits for long-term human flights.
690 km is the boundary between the thermosphere and exosphere.
1000-1100 km is the maximum height of the auroras, the last manifestation of the atmosphere visible from the Earth’s surface (but usually clearly visible auroras occur at altitudes of 90-400 km).
1372 km - the maximum altitude reached by man (Gemini 11 on September 2, 1966).
2000 km - the atmosphere does not affect the satellites and they can exist in orbit for many millennia.
3000 km - the maximum intensity of the proton flux of the internal radiation belt (up to 0.5-1 Gy/hour).
12,756 km - we have moved away to a distance equal to the diameter of planet Earth.
17,000 km - outer electron radiation belt.
35,786 km is the altitude of the geostationary orbit; a satellite at this altitude will always hang above one point of the equator.
90,000 km is the distance to the bow shock wave formed by the collision of the Earth's magnetosphere with the solar wind.
100,000 km is the upper boundary of the Earth’s exosphere (geocorona) observed by satellites. The atmosphere is over, open space and interplanetary space began.

Therefore the news" NASA astronauts repaired the cooling system during a spacewalk ISS "should sound different -" NASA astronauts repaired the cooling system during entry into the Earth's atmosphere ISS ", and the definitions of "astronauts", "cosmonauts" and "International Space Station" require adjustments, for the simple reason that the station is not a space station and astronauts with cosmonauts, rather, atmospheric nauts :)

Duration of continuous stay of a person in space flight conditions:

During the operation of the Mir station, absolute world records were set for the duration of continuous human presence in space flight conditions:
1987 - Yuri Romanenko (326 days 11 hours 38 minutes);
1988 - Vladimir Titov, Musa Manarov (365 days 22 hours 39 minutes);
1995 - Valery Polyakov (437 days 17 hours 58 minutes).

The total time a person spends in space flight conditions:

Absolute world records have been set for the duration of the total time a person spent in space flight conditions at the Mir station:
1995 - Valery Polyakov - 678 days 16 hours 33 minutes (for 2 flights);
1999 - Sergey Avdeev - 747 days 14 hours 12 minutes (for 3 flights).

Spacewalks:

78 spacewalks were performed on the Mir OS (including three spacewalks into the depressurized Spektr module) total duration 359 hour 12 min. The following participants took part in the exits: 29 Russian cosmonauts, 3 US astronauts, 2 French astronauts, 1 ESA astronaut (German citizen). Sunita Williams, a NASA astronaut, became the world record holder among women for the longest duration of work in outer space. The American worked on the ISS for more than six months (November 9, 2007) together with two crews and made four spacewalks.

Space longevity:

According to the authoritative scientific digest New Scientist, Sergei Konstantinovich Krikalev, as of Wednesday, August 17, 2005, had been in orbit for 748 days, thereby breaking the previous record set by Sergei Avdeev - during his three flights to the Mir station (747 days 14 hours 12 min). The various physical and mental stresses Krikalev endured characterize him as one of the most resilient and successfully adapting astronauts in the history of astronautics. Krikalev's candidacy was repeatedly elected to carry out rather complex missions. University of Texas physician and psychologist David Masson describes the astronaut as the best one you can find.

Duration of space flight among women:

Among women, world records for space flight duration under the Mir program were set by:
1995 - Elena Kondakova (169 days 05 hours 1 min); 1996 - Shannon Lucid, USA (188 days 04 hours 00 minutes, including at the Mir station - 183 days 23 hours 00 minutes).

The longest space flights of foreign citizens:

Among foreign citizens, the longest flights under the Mir program were made by:
Jean-Pierre Haignere (France) - 188 days 20 hours 16 minutes;
Shannon Lucid (USA) - 188 days 04 hours 00 minutes;
Thomas Reiter (ESA, Germany) - 179 days 01 hours 42 minutes.

Cosmonauts who have completed six or more spacewalks on the Mir station:

Anatoly Solovyov - 16 (77 hours 46 minutes),
Sergey Avdeev - 10 (41 hours 59 minutes),
Alexander Serebrov - 10 (31 hours 48 minutes),
Nikolay Budarin - 8 (44 hours 00 minutes),
Talgat Musabaev - 7 (41 hours 18 minutes),
Victor Afanasyev - 7 (38 hours 33 minutes),
Sergey Krikalev - 7 (36 hours 29 minutes),
Musa Manarov - 7 (34 hours 32 minutes),
Anatoly Artsebarsky - 6 (32 hours 17 minutes),
Yuriy Onufrienko - 6 (30 hours 30 minutes),
Yuri Usachev - 6 (30 hours 30 minutes),
Gennady Strekalov - 6 (21 hours 54 minutes),
Alexander Viktorenko - 6 (19 hours 39 minutes),
Vasily Tsibliev - 6 (19 hours 11 minutes).

First manned spacecraft:

The first manned space flight registered by the International Federation of Aeronautics (IFA founded in 1905) was made on the Vostok spacecraft on April 12, 1961 by USSR pilot cosmonaut Major of the USSR Air Force Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin (1934...1968). From the official documents of the IFA it follows that the ship launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 6:07 a.m. GMT and landed near the village of Smelovka, Ternovsky district, Saratov region. USSR in 108 min. The maximum flight altitude of the Vostok ship, with a length of 40868.6 km, was 327 km s maximum speed 28260 km/h.

First woman in space:

The first woman to fly around the Earth in space orbit was junior lieutenant of the USSR Air Force (now lieutenant colonel engineer pilot cosmonaut of the USSR) Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova (born March 6, 1937), launched on the Vostok 6 spacecraft from the Baikonur Cosmodrome Kazakhstan USSR, at 9:30 min GMT on June 16, 1963 and landed at 08:16 on June 19 after a flight that lasted 70 hours and 50 minutes. During this time, it made more than 48 complete revolutions around the Earth (1,971,000 km).

Oldest and youngest astronauts:

The oldest among the 228 cosmonauts on Earth was Karl Gordon Henitze (USA), who at the age of 58 took part in the 19th flight of the Challenger reusable spacecraft on July 29, 1985. The youngest was a major in the USSR Air Force (currently Lieutenant General pilot USSR cosmonaut) German Stepanovich Titov (born September 11, 1935) who was launched on the Vostok 2 spacecraft on August 6, 1961 at the age of 25 years 329 days.

First spacewalk:

The first to enter outer space on March 18, 1965 from the Voskhod 2 spacecraft was Lieutenant Colonel of the USSR Air Force (now Major General, pilot cosmonaut of the USSR) Alexei Arkhipovich Leonov (born May 20, 1934). He moved away from the ship at a distance of up to 5 m and spent 12 min 9 s in open space outside the airlock chamber.

First female spacewalk:

In 1984, Svetlana Savitskaya was the first woman to go into outer space, working outside the Salyut 7 station for 3 hours and 35 minutes. Before becoming an astronaut, Svetlana set three world records in parachuting in group jumps from the stratosphere and 18 aviation records in jet aircraft.

Record for longest spacewalk among women:

NASA astronaut Sunita Lyn Williams has set a record for the longest spacewalk for women. She spent 22 hours and 27 minutes outside the station, exceeding the previous achievement by more than 21 hours. The record was set during work on the outer part of the ISS on January 31 and February 4, 2007. Williams prepared the station for continued construction along with Michael Lopez-Alegria.

First autonomous spacewalk:

US Navy Captain Bruce McCandles II (born June 8, 1937) was the first person to work in outer space without a tether. On February 7, 1984, he left the Challenger space shuttle at an altitude of 264 km above Hawaii in a spacesuit with an autonomous backpack. propulsion system. The development of this space suit cost $15 million.

Longest manned flight:

Colonel of the USSR Air Force Vladimir Georgievich Titov (born January 1, 1951) and flight engineer Musa Khiramanovich Manarov (born March 22, 1951) launched on the Soyuz-M4 spacecraft on December 21, 1987 to the Mir space station and landed on the Soyuz-TM6 spacecraft (together with French cosmonaut Jean-Loup Chrétien) at an alternate landing site near Dzhezkazgan, Kazakhstan, USSR, on December 21, 1988, having spent 365 days 22 hours 39 minutes 47 seconds in space.

Farthest journey in space:

Soviet cosmonaut Valery Ryumin spent almost a whole year in the spacecraft, which completed 5,750 revolutions around the Earth in those 362 days. At the same time, Ryumin traveled a distance of 241 million kilometers. This is equal to the distance from Earth to Mars and back to Earth.

The most experienced space traveler:

The most experienced space traveler is Colonel of the USSR Air Force, pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR Yuri Viktorovich Romanenko (born in 1944), who spent 430 days 18 hours 20 minutes in space in 3 flights in 1977...1978, in 1980 and in 1987 gg.

Largest crew:

The largest crew consisted of 8 astronauts (including 1 woman), who launched on October 30, 1985 on the Challenger reusable spacecraft.

Largest number of people in space:

The largest number of astronauts ever in space at the same time is 11: 5 Americans aboard Challenger, 5 Russians and 1 Indian aboard Salyut 7 in April 1984, 8 Americans aboard Challenger and 3 Russians aboard the Salyut 7 orbital station in October 1985, 5 Americans aboard the space shuttle, 5 Russians and 1 French aboard the Mir orbital station in December 1988.

Highest speed:

The highest speed at which a person has ever moved (39,897 km/h) was achieved by the main module of Apollo 10 at an altitude of 121.9 km from the surface of the Earth when the expedition returned on May 26, 1969. On board the spacecraft were the crew commander, Colonel US Air Force (now Brigadier General) Thomas Patten Stafford (b. Weatherford, Oklahoma, USA, September 17, 1930), US Navy Captain 3rd Class Eugene Andrew Cernan (b. Chicago, Illinois, USA, 14 March 1934) and US Navy Captain 3rd Class (now retired Captain 1st Class) John Watte Young (b. San Francisco, California, USA, September 24, 1930).
Of the women, the highest speed (28,115 km/h) was achieved by junior lieutenant of the USSR Air Force (now lieutenant colonel engineer, pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR) Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova (born March 6, 1937) on the Soviet spaceship Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963.

Youngest cosmonaut:

The youngest astronaut today is Stephanie Wilson. She was born on September 27, 1966 and is 15 days younger than Anousha Ansari.

The first living creature to travel into space:

The dog Laika, which was launched into orbit around the Earth on the second Soviet satellite on November 3, 1957, was the first living creature in space. Laika died in agony from suffocation when the oxygen ran out.

Record time spent on the Moon:

The Apollo 17 crew collected a record weight (114.8 kg) of rock and pound samples during 22 hours 5 minutes of work outside the spacecraft. The crew included US Navy Captain 3rd Class Eugene Andrew Cernan (b. Chicago, Illinois, USA, March 14, 1934) and Dr. Harrison Schmitt (b. Saita Rose, New Mexico, USA, July 3 1935), becoming the 12th man to walk on the Moon. The astronauts were on the lunar surface for 74 hours 59 minutes during the longest lunar expedition, lasting 12 days 13 hours 51 minutes from December 7 to 19, 1972.

The first man to walk on the moon:

Neil Alden Armstrong (b. Wapakoneta, Ohio, USA, August 5, 1930, Scottish and German ancestors), commander of the Apollo 11 spacecraft, became the first person to set foot on the surface of the Moon in the region of the Sea of ​​​​Tranquility at 2 o'clock 56 minutes 15 seconds GMT July 21, 1969 Following him from the Eagle lunar module was US Air Force Colonel Edwin Eugene Aldrin Jr. (born in Montclair, New Jersey, USA, January 20, 1930).

Highest space flight altitude:

The crew of Apollo 13 reached the highest altitude, being in apopulation (i.e. at the farthest point of its trajectory) 254 km from the lunar surface at a distance of 400187 km from the Earth’s surface at 1 hour 21 minutes Greenwich Mean Time on April 15, 1970. The crew included US Navy Captain James Arthur Lovell Jr. (b. Cleveland, Ohio, USA, March 25, 1928), Fred Wallace Hayes Jr. (b. Biloxi, Missouri, USA, November 14, 1933). ) and John L. Swigert (1931...1982). The altitude record for women (531 km) was set by American astronaut Katherine Sullivan (born in Paterson, New Jersey, USA, October 3, 1951) during a flight on a reusable spacecraft on April 24, 1990.

Highest speed of a spacecraft:

The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity 3, allowing it to go beyond the solar system, was Pioneer 10. The Atlas-SLV ZS launch vehicle with a modified 2nd stage Centaur-D and 3rd stage Thiokol-Te-364-4 left the Earth on March 2, 1972 at an unprecedented speed of 51682 km/ h. The spacecraft speed record (240 km/h) was set by the American-German solar probe Helios-B, launched on January 15, 1976.

Maximum approach of the spacecraft to the Sun:

On April 16, 1976, the Helios-B automatic research station (USA - Germany) approached the Sun at a distance of 43.4 million km.

The first artificial satellite of the Earth:

The first artificial Earth satellite was successfully launched on the night of October 4, 1957 into an orbit at an altitude of 228.5/946 km and at a speed of more than 28,565 km/h from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, north of Tyuratam, Kazakhstan, USSR (275 km east of the Aral Sea). The spherical satellite was officially registered as the object “1957 Alpha 2”, weighed 83.6 kg, had a diameter of 58 cm and, having supposedly existed for 92 days, burned up on January 4, 1958. The launch vehicle, modified P 7, 29.5 m long, was developed under the leadership of Chief designer S.P. Korolev (1907...1966) who also led the entire IS3 launch project.

Most distant man-made object:

Pioneer 10 launched from Cape Canaveral Space Center. Kennedy, Florida, USA, crossed the orbit of Pluto on October 17, 1986, which is 5.9 billion km from Earth. By April 1989 it was beyond the farthest point of Pluto's orbit and continues to move into space at a speed of 49 km/h. In 1934 e. it will approach the minimum distance to the star Ross-248, which is 10.3 light years away from us. Even before 1991, the Voyager 1 spacecraft, moving at a higher speed, will be further away than Pioneer 10.

One of the two space “Travelers” Voyager, launched from Earth in 1977, moved 97 AU from the Sun during its 28-year flight. e. (14.5 billion km) and is today the most remote artificial object. Voyager 1 crossed the boundary of the heliosphere, the region where the solar wind meets the interstellar medium, in 2005. Now the path of the device, flying at a speed of 17 km/s, lies in the shock wave zone. Voyager-1 will be operational until 2020. However, it is very likely that information from Voyager-1 will stop coming to Earth at the end of 2006. The fact is that NASA plans to cut the budget by 30% in terms of research of the Earth and the solar system.

The heaviest and largest space object:

The heaviest object launched into low-Earth orbit was the 3rd stage of the American Saturn 5 rocket with the Apollo 15 spacecraft, which weighed 140,512 kg before entering the intermediate selenocentric orbit. The American radio astronomy satellite Explorer 49, launched on June 10, 1973, weighed only 200 kg, but the span of its antennas was 415 m.

Most powerful rocket:

The Soviet space transport system "Energia", first launched on May 15, 1987 from the Baikonur cosmodrome, has a full load weight of 2400 tons and develops a thrust of more than 4 thousand tons. The rocket is capable of delivering a payload weighing up to 140 m into low-Earth orbit, maximum diameter - 16 m. Basically a modular installation used in the USSR. 4 accelerators are attached to the main module, each of which has 1 RD 170 engine running on liquid oxygen and kerosene. A modification of the rocket with 6 accelerators and an upper stage is capable of placing a payload weighing up to 180 tons into low-Earth orbit, delivering a payload weighing 32 tons to the Moon and 27 tons to Venus or Mars.

Flight range record among solar-powered research vehicles:

The Stardust space probe set a kind of flight range record among all solar-powered research vehicles - it is currently 407 million kilometers away from the Sun. Main goal automatic device- approaching the comet, collecting dust.

The first self-propelled vehicle on extraterrestrial space objects:

The first self-propelled vehicle designed to operate on other planets and their satellites in automatic mode was the Soviet “Lunokhod 1” (weight - 756 kg, length with open lid - 4.42 m, width - 2.15 m, height - 1. 92 m), delivered to the Moon by the Luna 17 spacecraft and began moving into the Mare Monsim on command from the Earth on November 17, 1970. In total, it traveled 10 km 540 m, overcoming climbs of up to 30°, until it stopped on October 4, 1971. , having worked 301 days 6 hours 37 minutes. The cessation of work was caused by the depletion of the resources of its isotope heat source. Lunokhod-1 examined in detail the lunar surface with an area of ​​80 thousand m2, transmitted to Earth more than 20 thousand of its images and 200 telepanoramas.

Record for speed and distance of movement on the Moon:

The record for speed and range of movement on the Moon was set by the American wheeled rover Rover, delivered there by the Apollo 16 spacecraft. He reached a speed of 18 km/h down the slope and traveled a distance of 33.8 km.

Most expensive space project:

The total cost of the American human spaceflight program, including the last mission to the Moon, Apollo 17, was approximately $25,541,400,000. The first 15 years of the USSR space program, from 1958 to September 1973, according to Western estimates, cost $45 billion. The cost of NASA's Shuttle program (launching reusable spacecraft) before the launch of Columbia on April 12, 1981 was 9.9 billion dollars