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All about Portugal geography. Where is Portugal: features of the geographical location

Portugal is a country for people who, above all, value comfort and pleasure. While leisurely strolling through the Portuguese streets, you can feel the atmosphere of France or Spain. There is no rush here, which is usual for large tourist cities.

The country honors traditions, a rich historical and architectural heritage, and the main value for the Portuguese is family. Of course, the country's residents know how to enjoy life, surrounding themselves with comfort and creating it for travelers. If you want to see the real Europe - proud and beautiful - come to Portugal, enjoy the aroma of eucalyptus and oranges, try the famous Portuguese wine and plunge into the atmosphere of sad Fado music.

General information

Portugal is the westernmost European country, located on the Iberian Peninsula. On two sides - west and south - the state is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, in the east and north - it borders on Spain. The country covers an area of 92.1 square kilometers and is home to 10.7 million people.

City of Porto

In addition to the mainland, the country includes the Azores and. , the single state language is Portuguese.

Portugal is a unique state; during its existence, the country has experienced rapid ups and downs into a deep abyss. In the 16th century it was a powerful superpower, it included many colonies, but soon the state found itself on the outskirts of Europe. Today Portugal is experiencing another boom.

Great discoveries

It's safe to say that sailors from Portugal changed the world forever. It was the Portuguese who were the first to venture into the waters of the Atlantic and follow the coast of Africa.

Vasco da Gama

The famous navigator Vasco da Gama was the first to reach the western shores of India. His fleet was the first to set foot on the shores of Ceylon and Sumatra. This event marked the beginning of trade relations between Portugal, China and Japan.

Portuguese sailors were the first to reach the shores of South America and land in Brazil. According to some historical data, it was sailors from Portugal who sailed to the shores of North America before Columbus's expedition.

The first sea voyage around the world was carried out by the Spaniards, but it was led by the Portuguese Fernando Magellan. The captain did not manage to return triumphantly to his homeland, but the Portuguese sailors gained worldwide fame.

Manueline style

Manueline style, Hotel Bussaco

The Portuguese became famous not only for the courage of their sailors. A unique style of architecture, called Manueline, is the personal contribution of masters from Portugal to world architecture. A distinctive feature of the style is stone carving. The style first appeared in the second half of the 15th century during the reign of monarch Manuel I, after whom the style was named. The architects drew inspiration from the achievements of seafarers. The basis of the style is Gothic, complemented by a lot of decor and decorations. Skilled craftsmen carved amazing marine-themed patterns from stone. The first buildings designed in Manueline style:

Temple of Jesus in Setubal;
Belem Tower in Lisbon;
Jeronimo monastery;
Chapels of the Batalha Temple.

Interesting to know! In the 16th century, the Manueline style lost its relevance, since in the middle of the century the country became part of Europe, where the Renaissance style was revered.

Traditions and contrasts

Portugal is a country of amazing contrasts. Wanting to keep up with modern Europe, some regions of the country look stylish in a European way. There are also regions where traditions are respected. There are still settlements in Portugal where the land is plowed with oxen and people continue to wear black clothes.

Portuguese girl

The centuries-old history of the state left an indelible mark on the appearance of regions, cities and people. The Phoenicians were the first to settle in the country, then the Romans came to power, leaving new cities and high-quality roads as a legacy. Jews worked as medical specialists and artisans. The Moors were skilled builders of fortresses, grew amazing gardens and built settlements where narrow streets were intricately intertwined.

Interesting to know! In the north of the country there live people with white skin and blue eyes - descendants of the Celts and Germanic tribes. Residents of the southern regions are characterized by olive skin and black eyes.

During difficult times, many residents emigrated from Portugal, but today, during a period of economic prosperity, the country is growing stronger again - new residential buildings are appearing (mainly in the northern regions). The state attracts many immigrants. This is the best proof that Portugal has become a truly democratic, European, stable country.

Brief history

The first ancestors of the Portuguese settled on the territory of the modern state in the 4th century BC. Later the Romans conquered the land. The name Portugal comes from the Roman settlement of Portus Calais. In the 5th century the state was under the control of the Visigoths. Two centuries later, power in the territory of the state was consolidated with the Arabs.

Antonio Salazar

At the beginning of the 12th century, the country received the status of an independent kingdom. 30 years later, the independence of Portugal was recognized by the Pope. The following years became a great challenge for the Portuguese, as the country fought fierce battles with the Moors.

Since the 15th century, the state has been actively expanding its territory and strengthening its borders - Madeira and Brazil were also included.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the Methuen Agreement was signed, in accordance with this provision, Portugal became completely dependent on England. 100 years later, Napoleon's troops invaded Portuguese territory. However, a year later the invaders left Portugal.

The 19th and 20th centuries were revolutionary for the country. At the beginning of the 20th century, a revolution took place that changed the form of government - Portugal received the status of a republic.

From 1932 and for forty years, the country was ruled by Antonio Salazar. His dictatorial regime was overthrown during the April Revolution. Since then, the country has been moving along the path of democratic reforms.

Economy

In the second half of the 20th century, Portugal was on the list of underdeveloped industrial-agrarian states. In 1986, the state became a member of the EU, after which its economy stabilized.

Solar farm

The country's share of the EU's gross domestic product is about 2%. Portugal has the lowest unemployment and inflation rates.

Interesting facts:

the country occupies a leading position in the EU in the production of copper concentrate;
the country produces almost 5% more electricity than it actually consumes;
most of the electricity is generated through hydropower resources;
a specific industrial sector, characteristic only of Portugal, is the production of cork;
The country confidently ranks first in the list of European countries for the extraction and processing of seafood, production of wine, port and olive oil.

Most industrial enterprises are located between the capital and Porto. Water transport is of greatest importance for the country. The country also has 67 airports, the length of roads is 60 thousand km, and the length of railways is only 3 thousand km.

This is interesting! In terms of living standards, Portugal is included in the list of the best thirty countries in the world.

Regions, cities and resorts

Regions of Portugal

Many tourists completely in vain limit themselves to visiting only Lisbon and a beach holiday in the Algarve. The most striking and memorable sights are located next to the usual tourist trails; it is enough to move away from the usual route.

Despite the fact that the area of Portugal is half the size of Britain, hundreds of historical and architectural attractions have been preserved here. In addition, the country surprises with its variety of landscapes.

In Portugal you can visit about 200 palaces and fortresses, which were built for the ruling monarchs to protect their possessions from attacks by enemies from the sea and land. Each castle is a luxurious, majestic structure, many of them are now hotels and welcome guests in luxurious rooms decorated in historical style.

Street in Lisbon

Of course, the most beautiful city in the country is the capital, Lisbon. After the earthquake in 1755, it was completely restored, turning it into a luxurious European capital.

The beaches of the Algarve are located 160 km from Lisbon; Europeans, accustomed to comfort and a mild climate, like to come here. Those who like a relaxing holiday on a sandy beach under the warm sun choose the southern regions of the country, where they can find secluded beaches with golden sand, the clearest ocean, and picturesque bays surrounded by steep cliffs.

One of the beaches of the Algarve

To the north of the Algarve is the province of Alentejo, famous for its agricultural lands.

University of Évora

The main administrative city of the province is one of the oldest. The city is ideal for exploring the original national cuisine. The region is borderland, ancient castles have been preserved here, there are many wheat fields, olive groves, and oak trees grow - raw materials for the production of cork.

To the north of the capital, along the Atlantic coast, there are two regions - Estremadura and Ribatejo. Fishing families live here, the coast is comfortable for a beach holiday, and there is a lot of agricultural land. Tourists come here to visit religious monuments and attractions.

Coimbra in the evening

Even further north is the region of forests and mountains - Beiras. This is where tourists come to conquer the highest point of continental Portugal. Beiras is famous for its unique variety of Serra cheese, which is produced only here. Travelers are attracted by fortified cities, amazing lagoons and one of the oldest European universities - the University.

The northern part of the state is radically different from the provinces located in the south and center. The north of the country is covered with hills, where traditions are revered; on the banks of the Douro River, grapes are grown, from which the world-famous port wine is produced.

Madeira Island

Golf course in the Algarve

Portugal attracts sports lovers; the country has comfortable golf courses. You can also practice horse riding, tennis, and water sports.

Excellent conditions for surfing and fishing are created in the west of Portugal.

Portugal is a country of festivals and various holidays. A distinctive feature of Portuguese festive events is street markets. Major tourist cities have nightclubs, luxury restaurants, and casinos.

Wine cellar

If you are planning a gastronomic tour of the country, choose the western regions. Here you will be fed tasty and satisfying food in any restaurant or small cafe. Tourists are offered to taste wines directly at the vineyards.

The most spectacular sports are bullfighting and football. The main difference between Portuguese bullfighting is that the animal remains alive. Fights take place from May to October.

Portugal is a favorite travel destination for the whole family. The hotels have children's pools and sandbanks on the beaches. Older children enjoy exploring the rocky coves.

Interesting to know! The beaches have a flag that indicates the state of the sea. A green flag means the beach is safe and the water is suitable for swimming. A yellow flag warns that it is better to refrain from swimming. A red flag prohibits swimming.

Cork products

Shoppers often come to Portugal to buy unique items presented in ancient souvenir shops. Crafts have been preserved in many regions; local craftsmen make beautiful jewelry and ceramics. You can purchase natural wool carpets, handmade baskets and, of course, cork products.

Street markets are a special place with a colorful atmosphere. A visit to such a market will be real fun. Street markets operate in many Portuguese cities.

This is important! Residents of countries that are not members of the EU have the right to refund VAT.

To do this, in a store where there is a Tax Free sign, you need to fill out documents. The amount is returned to the card at the airport or after the tourist returns from the trip.

Azulejo tiles

products made of copper and bronze;
handmade carpets;
ceramics and azulejos;
cork products;
embroidery;
famous sweets from the Algarve;
jewelry;
leather goods;
music – if you are a true music connoisseur and want to bring back a piece of the soul of Portugal from your trip, be sure to buy a recording of classical fado;
wine, port, food.

Shops are open from Monday to Friday from 9-00 to 19-00, on Saturday only until 13-00. During the day, all shops close from 13-00 to 15-00. Sunday is a day off. Large shopping centers are open every day, opening at 10-00 and closing around midnight. Markets open at 8-00, trading stops at 12-00.

Culture

The culture of Portugal was formed under the influence of many peoples. The territory of modern Portugal was ruled at different times by Arabs, Romans, Moors, and Spaniards. The Portuguese language comes from a mixture of Arabic and Latin.

The diversity of peoples and traditions has left its mark on the appearance of the provinces and regions of the country. Many cities have retained their original, ancient atmosphere. The northern provinces have a traditional appearance for Portugal. The southern part of Portugal is warm, sunny, and attracts with a mild Mediterranean climate.

Women's national costume

Part of the local color, of course, is the national costume; each region has its own. In Portugal, it is customary to wear national clothes on holidays. For women, this is a striped or checkered skirt with a brightly colored apron, as well as a snow-white blouse. Men wear short trousers, leggings, a wide belt, a loose shirt and a vest.

Religion and the Catholic faith are especially revered in the country. The facades of many buildings are decorated with the faces of saints and crucifixes. Religion for local residents is a way of life, most holidays and celebrations are of a religious nature, but this does not stop residents from having fun, which is why all events are accompanied by cheerful music, fireworks, theatrical performances and dancing.

The country treats family with special respect. For every Portuguese, family is not only parents and children, but also all relatives. Until recently, large families in Portugal were common, but today parents, as a rule, raise no more than two children. The entire family often gathers for lunch and dinner. Family traditions are revered here - the man is the head of the family, and the woman is the keeper of the hearth.

Interesting features of the Portuguese character:

local residents like to talk a lot and emotionally, accompanying the conversation with gestures;
There is a certain leisureliness in the character of the Portuguese, they are often late, however, meal time is sacred for them;
every meal is a kind of ritual, during which you can drink a glass of wine and discuss the news;
coffee is the national drink of the Portuguese;
the country sincerely loves football, there are many women among fans of this sport;
A distinctive feature of the Portuguese is their responsiveness and politeness; in every store it is customary to say hello.

Kitchen

The cuisine of Portugal is wonderful in every sense, and it doesn’t matter where or what you want to eat. The luxurious restaurant and small cafe will serve you delicious dishes.

National tuna dish

Spices are used sparingly in dishes, only to highlight the taste of the main ingredients. Almost no hot pepper is added. Portuguese cuisine can be described in two words: simple and delicious.

In each province, tourists are treated to specialties. You can safely order fish and seafood, since the freshest products are used for cooking. Sweet lovers, of course, will not be able to resist the abundance of various desserts.

Of course, it is impossible to visit Portugal without trying wine and port. Port wine is considered the hallmark of the country, white varieties are served as an aperitif, and red varieties are perfect for desserts.

If you're on holiday in Madeira, be sure to try their swordfish dishes.

There are as many wines in Portugal as there are dishes in the national cuisine. Red, white and green varieties are produced here. Green wines are young, dry drinks that are produced in the province of Minho.

Geography

Mountain range in Portugal

From a landscape point of view, the state is visually divided into two zones - northern and southern. The north is dominated by the ancient Meseta massif. Mountainous regions rise above the sea to a height of up to 1200 meters. The highest point on the mainland of the country is Mount Estrela (1993 meters).

The south is dominated by low hills and plains. In the east you can find hills up to 1000 meters high.

Two large rivers are the Douro and Tagus. The Douro flows through fertile lands, where grapes for the world-famous port wine are grown. On the banks of the calm Tagus you can see numerous herds of horses.

There are protected areas in Portugal. Most of it is located near the Spanish border, along the coast, also in the north. The authorities strictly protect areas of bird colonies and nesting areas located in river deltas and swamps.

Climate and weather

The landscape of Portugal is heterogeneous, but the country has a typical Mediterranean climate. The exception is the Algarve coast, where it is hot in summer, but in winter you will need warm clothes because it can be cold.

Useful advice! Lisbon and Alentejo get quite hot in the summer, so always take water with you. For traveling in the mountains (north of the country), stock up on warm clothes.

Weather in the north:

in summer the weather is clear, there is practically no precipitation, the temperature does not rise above +27 °C, in the mountains - +18, the average water temperature is +17 °C;
In winter, the temperature varies from +7 to +14 °C, and there is a high probability of precipitation.

The least precipitation falls in July, while the rainiest month is January.

Weather in the south:

In the southern provinces it remains warm throughout the year, without precipitation:

in summer the average temperature varies from +25 to +29 °C;
in winter the temperature does not fall below +5 and does not rise above +17 °C.

From June to August it rains extremely rarely, there is practically no rain. Most precipitation falls in November.

the best period for traveling is from May to October, the weather is warm and comfortable enough for relaxing on the beach and for educational excursions, there is no rain;
you need to swim carefully, since cool ocean currents pass near the coast;
the best place for swimming is south of the capital of Portugal, where the water temperature is several degrees higher;
Surfers traditionally come to Portugal in the spring.

Currency

The currency of Portugal is the euro. You can exchange currency at points marked banco or cambio.

Almost all bank branches are open from Monday to Friday from 8-30 to 15-00. Some branches are open on weekends for money exchange transactions.

Exchange offices are located in airport buildings and in large populated areas and operate around the clock.

This is important! To receive money using traveler's checks at any exchange office, you need to pay a commission (up to 13%). It is more profitable to use an ATM (multibancos) - in this case you do not need a passport and the exchange rate is the most favorable.

credit cards are not accepted in all stores; as a rule, non-cash payment is possible only in large cities;
Traveler's checks are cashed by each bank branch;
It’s better to come to Portugal with euros or exchange currency at the airport;
the exchange rate in different banking organizations differs significantly;
It is strictly not recommended to change money on city streets;
in some cases you can pay in dollars.

Transport

Metro in Porto

Buses and trams

All stops are equipped with a route map and a complete list of routes that pass through this stop. The ticket is purchased directly from the driver; you can purchase a travel card at kiosks or at the tourist office.

There are 4 metro lines built in Lisbon. The Porto metro has about 70 stops. Travel is permitted only with a validated ticket.

This is what a taxi looks like

Portuguese taxis are black cars with a bright, green roof and traditional markings - Taxi. Cars that travel in cities have meters installed. In the period from 23-00 to 7-00 the tariff increases by an average of 20%. You will also have to pay extra for luggage. Don't forget to tip the driver - 10% of the trip amount. If the car does not have a meter, the fare will be fixed; it is important to agree on it before the trip.

Good to know! Many travel companies offer special taxi excursions; you can rent a car with a driver for the whole day for a fixed fee.

Intercity buses

Transport connections between cities in Portugal are well established. In addition, the fare is quite affordable. There are several carrier companies operating in the country, but all flights depart from the bus station. It should be taken into account that in large settlements, as a rule, there are several bus stations. The bus route network is more extensive and comfortable than the railway network.

Rail transportation in the country is carried out by a state-owned company. Local trains make all stops along the route. Travel on intercity trains is more expensive, and such flights do not stop at all stops. There are express trains from Lisbon to Porto. On any train you can buy a ticket for a first or second class carriage.

To cross the Douro and Tagus, you can take a ferry. This is one of the most convenient ways to get to Troy and other islands.

Important! In all major cities you can rent a bicycle, but you should keep in mind that riding on the streets of Portugal is quite difficult - there are many narrow streets, climbs, and sharp turns.

You can rent a car; driving experience must be more than one year and the client must be at least 21 years old.

It should be noted that quite often there are no markings on the roads. There are toll roads, as a rule, these are new, high-speed highways.

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Visas

Residents of Ukraine who have a biometric passport do not require a visa to visit Portugal. Other citizens of CIS countries need to apply for a Schengen visa. Visa centers accept documents. Package of required documents:

passport;
three photos;
questionnaire;
standard fee – 35 euros.

You will also need to submit fingerprints. All data is valid for five years, after which the procedure is repeated. As a rule, a visa is issued within 5 working days.

Note! The Portuguese-Spanish border is quite arbitrary; with a passport you can easily visit the two countries.

Communications and Wi-Fi

There are three mobile operators in the country that provide mobile communication services:

Vodafone;
Optimus;

The price of the card is on average 10 euros; it can be purchased in specialized mobile phone stores or in regular stores. There are special machines on the streets for paying for telephone calls. To do this you need a Creditofone card.

Free Wi-Fi zone is available in all hotels, cafes, large shopping malls, train stations and airport buildings. In the capital, free Wi-Fi is available in parks. Mobile Internet costs an average of 15 euros per month.

Terrain

Flora and fauna

Population

Ethnic composition

Demography

Religion

State system

State structure

Local government

Political parties

Judicial system

Armed forces

Foreign policy

Economy

Economic history

Economic geography

Energy

Mineral Resources and Mining

Manufacturing industry

Agriculture and forestry

Forestry

Fishing

Transport

Foreign trade and payments

Integration with the EU

Financial and banking systems

SOCIETY

Lifestyle

Religion

Labor movement and trade unions

Culture

Education

Literature

Media, sports, folk culture

Ancient period

Roman period

Muslim period

Founding of the Portuguese Kingdom

Age of Discovery

Three Philips

Restoration

Napoleonic Wars

Liberalism

Restoration of the monarchy

Republic

New State

Revolution

Assessing the results of the transition period

Portugal in the 1990s and 2000s

Portugal is a state in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. The capital is the city of Lisbon. The area including the islands is 92.3 thousand square meters. km. The country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the south and west, and borders on Spain in the north and east. In addition, Portugal includes the Azores Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,450 km west of Lisbon, and the Madeira Archipelago, 970 km southwest of Lisbon.

Portugal. The capital is Lisbon. Population – 10.10 million people (2003). Population density – 115 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population – 30%, rural – 70%. Area – 92.3 thousand square meters. km. The highest point is Mount Estrela (1993 m). The official language is Portuguese. The main religion is Catholicism. Administrative division: 18 districts and 2 autonomous regions. Currency: euro. Public holiday: Portugal Day – June 10th. National anthem: "A Portuguesa".

The name of the country comes from the name of the Roman settlement Portus Cale at the mouth of the Douro River. In 1139 Portugal became a kingdom independent from Spain. At that time it occupied only the northern third of its modern territory. In 1249 the last Muslim ruler in the south of the country was expelled, and since then its borders have changed little. In the 15th century Portugal was the leading maritime power of Europe, and in the next century the first European country to create a huge empire with overseas possessions in South America, Africa, India and the East Indies. In 1910, the monarchy was overthrown in Portugal, and in 1974, a democratically minded military junta put an end to the dictatorial regime that had existed since 1926. The constitution adopted in 1976 proclaimed Portugal a parliamentary republic with direct elections and universal suffrage for adults. In addition to modern administrative divisions, districts, the division into 11 historical provinces is often used in Portugal.

Nature

Terrain. On the territory of Portugal, the valleys of the Douro (Duero) and Tagus (Tajo) rivers are clearly distinguished. In the upper reaches they are narrow and deeply incised, downstream they widen and near the shore of the Atlantic Ocean they turn into flat lowlands. These rivers are the natural boundaries of five of the country's six geographic regions. At the same time, the border between Portugal and Spain is almost never associated with natural boundaries.

The topography of the provinces of Minho in the west and Traz-os-Montes and Alto Douro in the east, located north of the Douro River, is rugged and mountainous. The province of Beira, stretching from the Douro River to the upper section of the Tagus River, with the exception of the coastal plain, is also occupied by mountains. In its central part is the highest point of Portugal - Mount Estrela (1993 m above sea level). The fertile plains in the lower reaches of the Tagus River (Ribatejo province) and in the coastal area north and south of the capital Lisbon belong to the province of Estremadura. To the east and south of it lies the province of Alentejo, with soft hilly terrain, and the entire southern part of Portugal is occupied by the plains of the Algarve province, whose natural conditions are similar to the Mediterranean zone of North Africa.

The soils of Portugal are mainly sandy, acidic, formed mainly on volcanic rocks. The exception is the fertile loamy soils of the alluvial plain in the lower reaches of the Tagus River. There are several seismically active zones in Portugal, the largest of which are located in the Algarve, Minho and near Lisbon.

Climate. Influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, Portugal has a temperate Mediterranean climate. Several climatic regions can be distinguished: northwestern with heavy rains, mild winters and short summers; the northeast with longer, cold, snowy winters and hot summers, and the south with deficient precipitation, long, hot, dry summers and mild winters. In Lisbon, humidity is low and average temperatures range from 10°C in January to 23°C in August. The average annual precipitation here is 700 mm.

Flora and fauna. The natural vegetation of Portugal, although greatly modified by man, reflects the listed climatic features. Where oceanic influence predominates, pine grows in abundance. On the northern and central coasts it forms significant forest areas, in the tree layer of which Portuguese oak (Quercus lusitanica) is also found, and in the shrub layer - broom. In areas with long, hot and dry summers, cork and holm oaks are common.

Forests cover 1/5 of Portugal's territory; almost half of them are coniferous, mainly pine. Approximately 607 thousand hectares are occupied by cork oak plantations. Portugal supplies half of the world's cork production. The area of eucalyptus plantations, characterized by rapid growth, is rapidly expanding; it is the most important source of raw materials for the pulp and paper industry. Forests are important to Portugal's economy and foreign trade.

Among the animals in the country there are species typical of Central Europe (lynx, wild forest cat, wolf, fox, wild boar, bear, various rodents), as well as representatives of the North African fauna (genetta, chameleon, etc.). Portugal is located on one of the main migration routes of migratory birds, so many species of birds can be found here. The coastal waters are home to more than 200 species of fish, including commercial ones, including sardines, anchovies and tuna.

Population

Ethnic composition. The country's population is mononational, 99% are Portuguese. Many peoples have long settled on the Iberian Peninsula. The most ancient inhabitants - the Iberians - were short and dark-skinned. Over the centuries, the appearance of the Portuguese was shaped by the influence of the Celts, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, as well as Germanic tribes, in particular the Visigoths and Alemanni.

Demography. Over the course of a century and a half, the population of Portugal grew from 3.4 million people in 1841 to 10.10 million people in 2003. Per 1000 inhabitants, the birth rate was approx. 11.45, and mortality 10.21. Natural population growth was partly compensated by emigration. Throughout the 20th century. the largest number of emigrants headed to America. However, in the 1960s, many Portuguese left in search of work in France, Germany and other Western European countries. From 1960 to 1972 almost 1.5 million Portuguese emigrated. In the late 1970s, emigration fell sharply, and after the Portuguese colonies in Africa gained independence, several hundred thousand Portuguese returned to their homeland.

Cities. The largest and most important city in Portugal is Lisbon (2.1 million inhabitants and suburbs, 1996). It is the capital and main port of the country, an industrial center, a junction of roads, railways, and air communications. The growth of the suburbs was so rapid that by the 1990s, the Lisbon metropolitan area was home to almost 2.3 million people, i.e. almost a quarter of the country's population. Petrochemical plants, shipyards and many other industries form a powerful industrial complex covering suburbs such as Amadora (140 thousand people in 1991), Barreiro (59.5 thousand) and Almada (22.6 thousand). Porto, the main city of the North, is the second most populous in the country (302.5 thousand in 1991; in the entire agglomeration about 1.2 million people). Porto, located on the right bank of the Douro River, the former capital of Portugal and the country's major port, is famous for its port wine. On the opposite bank of the Douro River is the city of Vila Nova di Gaia (31.5 thousand inhabitants in 1991), where many warehouses of wine companies are concentrated. To the north of Porto there is its suburb, Matosinhos (29.8 thousand), the center of sardine fishing and canning.

The main city of central Portugal, Coimbra (118.9 thousand) is famous for its university, founded in 1290. It is also a trade and transport center. Braga (102.7 thousand) is the residence of the Roman Catholic primate of Portugal; there are small factories and handicraft workshops here. Setubal (85.3 thousand) is the center of the fish processing industry, fruit processing and car assembly.

List of cities in the Portuguese Republic.

Abrantes (port. Abrantes)

Aveiro (port. Aveiro)

Águeda (port. Águeda)

Agualva-Cacém (port. Agualva-Cacém)

Albufeira (port. Albufeira)

Alverca do Ribatejo (port. Alverca do Ribatejo)

Alcácer do Sal (port. Alcácer do Sal)

Alcobaça (port. Alcobaça)

Almada (port. Almada)

Almeirim (port. Almeirim)

Amadora (port. Amadora)

Amarante (port. Amarante)

Amora (port. Amora)

Angra do Heroísmo (port. Angra do Heroísmo)

Barreiro (port. Barreiro)

Barcelos (port. Barcelos)

Beja (port. Beja)

Borba (port. Borba)

Braga (port. Braga)

Braganca (port. Bragança)

Valbon (port. Valbom)

Vale de Cambra (port. Vale de Cambra)

Valenca (port. Valença)

Valongo (port. Valongo)

Valpaços (port. Valpaços)

Vendas-Novas (port. Vendas Novas)

Viana do Castelo (port. Viana do Castelo)

Vizela (port. Vizela)

Viseu (port. Viseu)

Vila Baleira (port. Vila Baleira)

Vila do Conde (port. Vila do Conde)

Vila Nova de Gaia (port. Vila Nova de Gaia)

Vila Nova de Santo André (port. Vila Nova de Santo André)

Vila Nova de Famalicão (port. Vila Nova de Famalicão)

Vila Nova de Foz Coa (port. Vila Nova de Foz Côa)

Vila Real (port. Vila Real)

Vila Real de Santo António (port. Vila Real de Santo António)

Vila Franca de Xira (port. Vila Franca de Xira)

Gandra (port. Gandra)

Gafanha da Nazaré (port. Gafanha da Nazaré)

Guimarães (port. Guimarães)

Gouveia (port. Gouveia)

Gondomar (port. Gondomar)

Guarda (port. Guarda)

Ilyavu (Port. Ílhavo)

Caldas da Rainha (port. Caldas da Rainha)

Câmara de Lobos (port. Câmara de Lobos)

Caniço (port. Caniço)

Cantanhede (port. Cantanhede)

Cartasha (port. Cartaxo)

Quarteira (port. Quarteira)

Castelo Branco (port. Castelo Branco)

Queluz (port. Queluz)

Covilhã (port. Covilhã)

Coimbra (port. Coimbra)

Costa da Caparica (port. Costa da Caparica)

Lagua (port. Lagoa)

Lagos (port. Lagos)

Lamego (port. Lamego)

Leiria (port. Leiria)

Lisbon (port. Lisboa) - capital

Lisha (port. Lixa)

Loulé (port. Loulé)

Loresh (port. Loures)

Lorosa (port. Lourosa)

Maya (port. Maia)

Mangualde (port. Mangualde)

Marinha Grande (port. Marinha Grande)

Marco de Canaveses (port. Marco de Canaveses)

Macedo de Cavaleiros (port. Macedo de Cavaleiros)

Matosinhos (port. Matosinhos)

Machiku (port. Machico)

Mealhada (port. Mealhada)

Miranda do Douro (port. Miranda do Douro)

Mirandela (port. Mirandela)

Montemor-o-Novo (port. Montemor-o-Novo)

Montijo (port. Montijo)

Mora (port. Moura)

Ovar (port. Ovar)

Odivelash (port. Odivelas)

Oliveira de Azeméis (port. Oliveira de Azeméis)

Oliveira do Bairro (port. Oliveira do Bairro)

Oliveira do Hospital

Olhão da Restauração (port. Olhão da Restauração)

Oren (port. Ourem)

Horta (port. Horta)

Paredesh (port. Paredes)

Pacos de Ferreira (port. Paços de Ferreira)

Peso da Regua (port. Peso da Régua)

Penafiel (port. Penafiel)

Peniche (port. Peniche)

Pinhel (port. Pinhel)

Póvoa de Varzim (port. Póvoa de Varzim)

Póvoa de Santa Iria (port. Póvoa de Santa Iria)

Pombal (port. Pombal)

Ponta Delgada (port. Ponta Delgada)

Ponte de Sor (port. Ponte de Sor)

Portalegre (port. Portalegre)

Portimão

Porto (port. Porto)

Praia da Vitória (port. Praia da Vitória)

Rebordosa (port. Rebordosa)

Reguengos de Monsaraz (port. Reguengos de Monsaraz)

Ribeira Grande (port. Ribeira Grande)

Rio Maior (port. Rio Maior)

Rio Tinto (port. Rio Tinto)

Sabugal (port. Sabugal)

Sakaven (port. Sacavém)

Samora Correia (port. Samora Correia)

São João da Madeira (port. São João da Madeira)

São Mamede de Infesta (port. São Mamede de Infesta)

São Pedro do Sul (port. São Pedro do Sul)

San Salvador de Lordelo (port. São Salvador de Lordelo)

Santa Comba Dan (port. Santa Comba Dão)

Santa Cruz (port. Santa Cruz)

Santa Maria da Feira (port. Santa Maria da Feira)

Santana (port. Santana)

Santarem (port. Santarém)

Santo Tirso (port. Santo Tirso)

Santiago do Cacém (port. Santiago do Cacém)

Seixal (port. Seixal)

Seia (port. Seia)

Senhora da Hora (port. Senhora da Hora)

Serpa (port. Serpa)

Setúbal (port. Setúbal)

Silves (port. Silves)

Sines (port. Sines)

Tavira (port. Tavira)

Taroka (port. Tarouca)

Tomar (port. Tomar)

Tondela (port. Tondela)

Torres Vedras (port. Torres Vedras)

Torres Novas (port. Torres Novas)

Trancoso (port. Trancoso)

Trofa (port. Trofa)

Faro (port. Faro)

Fatima (port. Fátima)

Fafe (port. Fafe)

Felgueiras (port. Felgueiras)

Fiães (port. Fiães)

Figueira da Foz (port. Figueira da Foz)

Freamunde (port. Freamunde)

Fundan (port. Fundão)

Funchal (port. Funchal)

Chaves (port. Chaves)

Evora (port. Évora)

Ezmores (port. Esmoriz)

Elvas (port. Elvas)

Entroncamento (port. Entroncamento)

Ermesinde (port. Ermesinde)

Espinho (port. Espinho)

Esposende (port. Esposende)

Estarreja (port. Estarreja)

Estremoz (port. Estremoz)

Language. Portugal is a monolingual country. The official language is Portuguese. Portuguese is spoken approx. 184 million people on three continents. This language has similarities with Spanish, both of which are derived from the Latin language. However, Portuguese differs significantly from Spanish in pronunciation and grammar. The vocabulary of the Portuguese language was enriched by Arabic and German words, as well as the vocabulary of the languages of Asian peoples with whom Portuguese pioneer travelers and traders came into contact. The most significant work of medieval Portuguese literature is the epic poem Lusiad (1572), created by Luis de Camões. It tells the story of Portuguese geographical discoveries and glorifies Portugal and its people.

Religion. Portugal, by its history and traditions, is a Roman Catholic country; Almost 94% of its residents profess Catholicism. However, the church is separated from the state and does not receive direct financial support from it. Less than 1% of residents are Protestants. There are Jewish communities (200 thousand people) in Lisbon and Porto. About 5% of the country's residents consider themselves atheists.

Lifestyle. The population of Portugal is quite homogeneous in ethnic, religious and linguistic composition. Regional differences were mainly determined by economic factors. Wealthy families, middle-class professionals, and industrial workers were concentrated in the main industrial centers of Lisbon and Porto. In coastal areas, the population was mainly engaged in fishing and fish processing. In the interior of the country, agriculture predominated, although there was significant regional variation.

To the north of the Tagus River, small landholdings dominated - the so-called. minifunds. Family farms were often fragmented as a result of inheritance, with each plot of land divided among several heirs. Most of the Portuguese emigrant workers came from the northern regions. The population of this region was distinguished by its conservatism in religion, social views and politics. In southern Portugal, latifundia predominated, mostly owned by landowners. In 1974–1975, peasants expropriated many landholdings, especially in the Alentejo, where cooperative peasant farms were organized.

Religion. Although almost 94% of Portuguese are Catholic, church attendance has declined, especially in the cities and south of the country. Catholicism in Portugal has always been linked to local traditions, with the population venerating many popular local saints. The memorial days of these saints are celebrated solemnly, like church holidays. Even long-dead famous doctors and healers are revered as saints. The village of Fatima, where the Virgin Mary appeared to three children in 1917, has become a popular place of pilgrimage. The church of Nossa Senhora do Remedios near Lamego, built in the Baroque style, is also a shrine.

Labor movement and trade unions. During the years of dictatorship, the government regulated relations between workers and entrepreneurs. Strikes were prohibited. In 1974, collective agreements were established, mainly with the leadership of the unions. The trade union federation Intersindical, which was led by the PCP, quickly grew into the largest trade union organization in the country - the General Confederation of Portuguese Workers - National Intersyndicate (CGTU-NI). She was influential among industrial workers. Another trade union federation, the General Union of Workers (GTU), associated with the SP and SDP, is even more authoritative. In 1990, an agreement was reached between the government, employers and union leaders to increase the minimum monthly wage for agricultural and industrial workers by 15%, to the equivalent of approximately $275.

State structure

From 1926 to 1974, Portugal had a conservative dictatorship, the so-called. "new state". In fact, the country was ruled for 36 years by Antonio de Oliveira Salazar, who served as Prime Minister. He banned all political organizations except the National Union, which he founded, and sought to keep the entire population under control through a network of youth organizations, veterans' associations, and other institutions officially supported by the state. Salazar made extensive use of propaganda and censorship, and suppressed dissent with the help of the secret police.

During the dictatorship of Salazar and the six-year rule of his successor Marcelo Caetano, the ever-increasing costs of maintaining power in the recalcitrant African colonies led to the impoverishment of the majority of workers and peasants in Portugal itself. At the same time, the profits from the colonies went to a small commercial, industrial and landowning oligarchy. By many measures, Portugal was the poorest country in Western Europe. On April 25, 1974, a group of young officers who made up the Armed Forces Movement (MAM) and opposed the endless wars in Africa and the repressive policies at home, overthrew the Caetano regime and formed a provisional government. The officers demanded negotiations with representatives of the liberation movements, an end to the police state and censorship, the formation of political parties, and holding elections to the Constituent Assembly within a year after the transition to civilian government.

The initial two-year transition period was marked by political instability. During this time, six provisional governments were replaced, attempts were made to carry out two coups d'etat (one was inspired by right-wing forces, the other by left-wing forces); the country was swept by strikes and demonstrations. However, on the first anniversary of the Rose Revolution, the Portuguese elected a Constituent Assembly, which drafted a constitution that came into force on April 2, 1976.

State structure. In contrast to Salazar's corporate regime, the political system provided for by the 1976 constitution was based on democratic principles with elements of socialism.

The legislative body is a unicameral parliament (Assembly of the Republic), consisting of 250 deputies elected in general elections for a four-year term. The Assembly passes laws and approves the budget. Executive power is divided between the president and the government headed by the prime minister. The President is elected by general election for a term of five years and cannot be re-elected for a third term. The president's powers include the appointment and removal of the prime minister and other ministers, and he can veto bills passed by parliament. The government determines the country's policies, forms the budget and oversees public administration.

From 1976 to 1982, there was a State Council under the President, which was subsequently replaced by three new bodies: the Constitutional Court, the Advisory Council of State, headed by the President and staffed by political and public figures, and the Supreme Council of National Defense.

In 1989, a number of amendments to the 1976 constitution were adopted: the goal was proclaimed to be the building of a “free and fair society that cares for others,” instead of the previous wording of “building a classless society.” A clause was introduced allowing the sale of previously nationalized companies, and a new course for agricultural reform was determined. Some articles of the constitution were revised in 1992.

Portugal has a centralized management system. The continental part of the country is divided into 18 administrative districts. Smaller administrative units are municipalities and parishes.

Local control. The representative organizations of the parish are the assembly and the parish junta. The Assembly is elected by all citizens of the parish. The Junta is the executive body of the parish and is elected by secret ballot of the assemblies from among its members. The chairman of the junta is the citizen who heads the list of candidates and received the largest number of votes in the elections to the assembly.

Municipalities are governed by municipal assemblies and chambers. Municipal assemblies are composed of the chairmen of the zhunts (executive bodies) of the parishes and at least the same number of elected deputies. The Municipal Chamber is the executive body of government and is headed by the candidate from the leading party that receives the majority of votes. Municipalities can create associations and federations to resolve economic, social, cultural and other issues.

The representative bodies of administrative districts are the assembly and the district council. The Assembly consists of members elected by direct universal suffrage and members chosen by an electoral college composed of members of the municipal assemblies. The executive collegial body, the junta, is elected by secret ballot by the district assembly from among its members. There is a government representative at the district council.

The Azores and Madeira enjoy self-government and have the status of autonomous regions. They are also divided into municipalities and parishes. Regional assemblies are elected by direct general and secret elections in accordance with the principle of proportional representation.

Political parties. With the establishment of the Salazar dictatorship in the early 1930s and until the April Revolution of 1974, political parties were banned. Nevertheless, the communist and socialist parties, as well as small political groups of the left, operated underground. After 1974, a number of new parties emerged. The largest of them - the People's Democratic Party (later renamed the Social Democratic Party, SDP) and the Social Democratic Center (SDC) - were formed by politicians who played an active role under the previous regime. Most major parties have received significant financial assistance from foreign political partners.

During the first few months after the revolution, approx. 80 political groups. By the time the first ballots were distributed, the political spectrum had narrowed to 12 parties. In the elections, the following parties received the largest number of votes: Socialist (SP, 35%), PSD (24%), SDC (16%) and Portuguese Communist Party (PCP, 14%).

Political instability rocked Portugal in the first decade after the revolution. From 1974 to 1976 there were six provisional governments. General António Ramalho Eanês, a moderate member of the Armed Forces Movement (AFM), provided some stability to society during his presidency from 1976 to 1986. The prime minister during these years was Mario Soares. He led the first SP minority government and then led an unstable government coalition. In 1979, the president was forced to hold special elections.

From 1979 to 1983, most parties grouped into three coalitions that represented the center right, center left, and extreme left; while the SDP dominated. This situation changed in 1983, when a centrist coalition led by the socialists, who received a majority of votes, and the social democrats came to power. This coalition government collapsed in 1985, after the weakening of the SDP's position.

Although the Socialist candidate Soares was elected president in 1986 (the first civilian head of state in 60 years) with the support of the revolutionary democratic party DVS Eanish and the Communist-led United People's Union, the Social Democrats continued to lead parliament in the mid-1980s. In 1987, after censorship was abolished and new elections were held, the SDP won a majority of seats in parliament for the first time in 13 years. The socialists won the municipal elections of 1989, and Soares was elected president in the elections on January 13, 1991, receiving 70.4% of the vote. Nevertheless, the SDP again received an absolute majority of votes in the parliamentary elections on October 6, 1991.

In 1995, the Socialists managed to win the presidential elections and gain a majority of seats in parliament. The government was headed by SP leader Antonio Gutteres. In January 1996, Jorge Sampaio, the former socialist mayor of Lisbon, won the presidential election. The Socialists also won the 1997 municipal elections.

The 2002 elections led to a new change of power in the country. Having suffered defeat, the socialists were forced to go into opposition. The new government was headed by PSD leader Jose Manuel Durán Barroso.

Currently, there are parties and organizations in Portugal that represent the entire spectrum of political and ideological forces.

After the elections in March 2002, the Social Democratic Party (SDP) became the largest in the country, winning 102 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The SDP was created in May 1974 under the name of the People's Democratic Party. The program adopted at that time was centrist in nature. The main goal of the NDP was to build a “society of equal opportunities” and pluralistic democracy; Anyone who supported the “fundamental values of democratic and humane socialism” could become a party member. In October 1976, the NDP was renamed the SDP.

Over time, the SDP abandoned its “social democratic” image. Under the leadership of its secretary general Francisco Carneiro, the party has moved increasingly to the right and currently occupies positions similar to European liberal parties. She advocates the preferential development of private initiative.

After the adoption of a democratic constitution in 1976, the SDP led the right-wing opposition to the Socialist government. In 1979, under the leadership of the PSD, a center-right bloc emerged - the Democratic Alliance, which also included the Social Democratic Center (SDC), the People's Monarchist Party, and others. Having won the elections in December 1979, the alliance formed a government led by PSD leader Sa Carneiro , who died in a plane crash in December 1980. According to a later parliamentary inquiry, the cause of the accident was a terrorist attack. Until December 1982, the country was ruled by a cabinet led by the new PSD leader Francisco Pinto Balsemão. It was replaced first by a coalition of the SP and PSD, and from November 1985 by the one-party government of PSD leader Anibal Cavaco Silva, which remained in power until October 1995, again giving way to the socialists. In 2002, the SDP returned to power in a coalition with the People's Party (formerly the SDC). She received 40.1% of the vote and 105 of the 230 seats in the Assembly of the Republic.

The People's Party (until the end of the 1990s was called the Social Democratic Center) was founded in July 1974 as an organization of Christian democratic orientation. According to its first program (1975), the SDC was “a centrist party advocating a rotation of parties in the government.” In his activities, he intended to be guided by an “exclusively Christian spirit”, the desire to ensure “the freedom and security of Portuguese citizens.” In the economic field, the party advocated the priority development of “planned private initiative”, “supported and controlled by the state.” The SDC was considered the most right-wing of the country's major parties, which did not prevent it from entering a coalition with the socialists in 1978. This government did not last long, and the PSD, led by Diogo Freitas do Amaral, became the PSD's junior partner in the Democratic Alliance and participated in center-right cabinets from 1980–1985. In 2002, the party, transformed into the People's Party in the 1990s, campaigned under the slogans of a “firm hand” and called for decisive measures to limit immigration. Having received 8.8% of the vote and 14 seats in the Assembly of the Republic, the People's Party entered the coalition government led by the Social Democratic Party.

The Socialist Party was formed in May 1973 in exile. The founding congress of the party took place in Germany with the support and assistance of German Social Democracy. The SP continued the tradition of the Portuguese Socialist Action that had existed since 1964. In its first program, the party declared its goal to be “building socialism” in conditions of “political and ideological pluralism.” The SP of Portugal is a member of the Socialist International.

From the very beginning, various internal currents were at work in the joint venture. The founder and first leader of the party, Mario Soares, belonged to the “right” wing. Having won the first parliamentary elections under a democratic constitution in 1976, the Socialists formed a government led by Soares, which, first as a minority cabinet and then in coalition with the SDC, lasted until July 1978. In December 1979, the SP went into opposition and remained there until December 1982. In 1983–1985, Soares headed a coalition government consisting of representatives of his own party and the PSD. At the 1985 elections, the SP came out with demands to strengthen relations with the European Community, early revision of the 1976 constitution (including the elimination of provisions on the nationalization of key sectors of the economy, as well as a review of agrarian reform and the powers of parliament), but suffered a heavy defeat. After this, she again found herself in the opposition. In 1995, having won the parliamentary elections, the SP returned to govern the country (the government of António Guterres), which lasted until 2002, when it gained only 37.9% of the votes and lost to the PSD. It currently has 96 seats in parliament.

The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) was founded at the founding conference in March 1921. In 1926–1974 it acted illegally. Unlike other major communist parties in Western European countries, the PCP has never leaned toward “Eurocommunism.” Under the leadership of its long-time general secretary, Alvaro Cunhal, it sought to maintain close ties with the CPSU. During the revolution of 1974–1975, the Portuguese communists tried several times to achieve predominant influence in society, but they failed. Since 1976, the PCP has focused primarily on defending the revolutionary provisions of the 1976 constitution, the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and agrarian reform. Under the leadership of the party, the “Union for the Unity of the People” bloc was created, which also included the Greens and the small leftist organization “Portuguese Democratic Movement”. In 1987 the union was transformed into the Coalition for Democratic Unity (with the participation of communists, greens and the Association for Democratic Action). However, the influence of the communists gradually fell: if in the 1980s they collected, together with their allies, from 12 to 19% of the votes, then in the 1990s their support fell to 9%. In the 2002 elections, the bloc of the PKP and the Greens suffered a major defeat: it received only 7% of the votes, losing 5 of the 17 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The coalition lost its status as the country's third political force (having lost to the PP). After Cunhal's resignation in 1992, internal divisions within the PKP began to intensify. By 2002, about 500 prominent members, including the majority of PKP deputies, demanded an emergency congress and a bloc with the socialists. But leadership remains in the hands of hardliners.

Left Bloc (LB) is a coalition of a number of radical left organizations. The bloc emerged on the eve of the 1999 general elections in an attempt to reorganize the fragmented camp of the Portuguese far left, popular in the 1970s but then lost influence. The LB included the Trotskyist Revolutionary Socialist Party (chaired by Francisco Lousa), the former Maoist Popular Democratic Union (secretary general Luis Fazenda), the small left-wing group Politika XXI (chaired by Miguel Portas), which broke away from the PCP, as well as independent leftists . In 1999, LB collected 2.5% of the votes and sent 2 deputies to the Assembly of the Republic, breaking the monopoly of the four main political forces on parliamentary representation for the first time in many years. The bloc went to the 2002 elections under the slogans of carrying out social reforms in the fields of education and health care, the fight against drug addiction, the tax system, the administrative sphere and the right to abortion. LB managed to get 2.8% of the votes and increase its representation in the Assembly to 3 deputies.

The heirs to the once powerful anarchist movement in Portugal are the Portuguese sections of the Iberian Anarchist Federation and the International Workers' Association (anarcho-syndicalist International).

Judicial system. Under Salazar's regime, freedom of the press and the right to associate, assemble, protest or strike were severely restricted. In the 1976 constitution these restrictions were lifted. The provision of personal immunity was introduced into both civil and military laws. The criminal law system is organized at the national level under the direction of the Ministry of Justice in 217 judicial districts. For a number of cases, the prosecution or defense has the right to demand a jury trial.

In Portugal, the courts are independent and subject only to the law. The Constitutional Court exists completely independently. The highest body in the hierarchy of courts is the Supreme Court. In addition, the court system includes courts of general jurisdiction of the first and second instances, the Supreme Administrative Court and other administrative and fiscal courts, the Accounts Chamber, military tribunals, maritime courts, and arbitration courts.

Armed forces. The Salazar-Caetano regime constantly increased the military power of Portugal. Under Caetano, almost 2/5 of the total amount of government spending was allocated to the armed forces. After the revolution of 1974, due to the liquidation of the colonial system, there was no longer a need for a large army. In 1990, 44 thousand people served in the army, 16 thousand people served in the navy. The air force numbered approx. 15 thousand personnel.

Army, Navigation (Portuguese Navy, including the Maritime Command), Air Force (Portuguese Air Force - FAP), National Guard of the Republic. Volunteers can enlist from the age of 18, since universal compulsory military service was abolished in 2004. Women have been allowed to serve in the Portuguese military and navy since 1993, but are prohibited from serving in any combat occupation (2005 order).

Human resources for the armed forces: men (16-49 years old) - 2,573,913; women (16-49) - 2,498,262.

Human resources available for service in the Portuguese armed forces: men (16-49) - 2,099,647; women (16-49) - 2,060,559.

Every year, 64,910 men (ages 16 to 49) and 58,599 women (ages 16 to 49) enroll in the Portuguese Armed Forces.

Military spending accounts for 2.3% of annual GDP.

Foreign policy. Portugal has long had particularly close relations with England. This tradition dates back to a trade treaty signed in 1373. In 1386, the two countries signed a treaty of mutual cooperation at Windsor, and close economic ties were cemented by the Treaty of Methuen in 1703. British support helped Portugal assert its independence after 1640 and retain much of its overseas empire. . However, this ancient alliance did not influence the Portuguese policy of neutrality in World War II, although Great Britain and the United States were given bases in the Azores. Subsequently, the American air base in Lajes came under the control of NATO, which Portugal joined in 1949.

Due to the USSR's veto in the UN Security Council, Portugal was not accepted into this organization until 1955. From 1960 to 1986, Portugal was a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

The Portuguese colonies in 1970 occupied an area of over 2 million square meters. km. The largest of these were Angola and Mozambique in Africa. In Asia, Portugal owned the colonies of Macau in southeast China and East Timor in the Malay Archipelago. In 1974–1975 all African colonies became independent.

After the liquidation of the Portuguese colonial system in Africa, relations with the USSR, the countries of Eastern Europe and many countries in Africa and Asia were restored.

Relations with Indonesia became strained after it occupied East Timor in 1975 and facts of brutal treatment of residents of this former Portuguese colony became known. In 1999, Indonesia, under public pressure, withdrew its troops from East Timor.

According to the 1987 agreement, control of the Portuguese colony of Macao was to pass to China in December 1999.

In the late 1970s, Portugal's ties with NATO strengthened. On January 1, 1986, Portugal joined the European Community (EC). Portugal is part of the union of Portuguese-speaking countries, which also includes Brazil and the former Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Sao Tome and Principe, and Cape Verde.

Economy

The gross domestic product (GDP) of Portugal in 2002 was $195.2 billion. National income per capita is $19,400 thousand. By sector of GDP - agriculture 3.6%, industry 28.7%, other services 67, 7%.

Economic history. The Portuguese economy was affected by two events - the overthrow of the Salazar-Caetano regime in 1974 and accession to the EU in 1986. Under the previous regime (from 1926 to 1974), capital was concentrated in the hands of a few industrial and financial family groups. Upward mobility was only possible for members of the educated middle class. Portugal's industry and agriculture remained ineffective, and labor productivity remained low. Investments were directed mainly to African colonies. Profits earned in the colonies were used to maintain trade and fiscal surpluses.

The revolutionary government first weakened the economic base of the former elite by granting independence to the African colonies. After the failure of the right-wing coup in 1975, large landholdings in the southern and central regions were expropriated. Banks and insurance companies were nationalized, followed by the nationalization of most large and medium-sized industrial enterprises. Most of the new state-owned enterprises faced extremely difficult organizational and financial problems. As a result, the overall government budget deficit and external public debt increased. Foreign investment in Portugal was withdrawn from the nationalization process, and subsidiaries of foreign corporations became important in the country's economy.

EU membership was the driving force behind changes in the country's economy in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The tax structure in Portugal has been revised.

Economic geography. Industry is concentrated in two areas, around Lisbon and Setubal in the south and around Porto, Aveiro and Braga in the north. The Lisbon area is dominated by heavy industry, producing steel, petroleum products, machine tools, automobiles, chemicals and cement. The shipbuilding docks of Lishnavi are known throughout the world. Electronic equipment is also produced in Lisbon County. Porto has the country's largest oil refinery, but northern cities specialize in the production of goods such as textiles, shoes, furniture, wines and food. The ancient center of the cotton industry is located in the north-west (Porto, Guimarães and Braga), the main centers of the wool industry are in the mountainous region around the cities of Guarda and Covilhã. Many industrial enterprises in the chemical, pulp and paper, cement and food industries are concentrated in the coastal strip between Porto and Lisbon. Both cities mentioned are centers of metallurgy and mechanical engineering.

Portugal is divided by the Tagus River into two agricultural regions that differ in land use. Small-scale intensive agriculture predominates in the northern region. Here, with high population densities and the prevalence of archaic agricultural methods, tiny farms are common, producing little more than is needed for one family's consumption. The southern region is dominated by large landholdings employing sharecroppers and landless wage labourers. A significant part of the land expropriation program in 1974–1975 was carried out in this area. Many large landholdings that belonged to landowners who lived in cities became the property of cooperatives.

The economy of the Azores and Madeira is based on agriculture. Vineyards, citrus plantations and dairy farms play an important role. Corn, sugar cane, sugar beets, tobacco, wheat, vegetables and tea are also grown in the Azores. Lace and Madeira wine are exported from Madeira.

Energy. Portugal is heavily dependent on imported fuel (accounting for 80% of total energy consumption). Low-grade anthracite is mined near Porto. Portugal's hydroelectric potential is well developed, and hydroelectric power plants provide half of the country's electricity consumption.

Mineral resources and mining industry. Portugal's mineral resources are varied, but small deposits predominate. The largest mines are located in the north of the country; tungsten, tin, chromium and other non-ferrous metals, as well as uranium, are mined in significant quantities. In the eastern part of the Douro River valley, iron ore deposits are being developed.

The manufacturing industry produces approx. 40% of GDP, it accounts for 32.6% of all employed. Traditional industries - textiles, clothing, footwear, ceramics, shipbuilding. They are characterized by low labor productivity and outdated technologies. New industries - automotive, electronics, electrical, chemical. Industrial productivity in Portugal is lower than in other EU countries.

Agriculture and forestry contribute only 6.5% of Portugal's GDP and account for 11.5% of employment. Gross agricultural output per worker is significantly lower than in other EU countries; The exception is the fertile valley of the Tagus River and the irrigated areas of the Alentejo province. To meet food needs, Portugal is forced to import many agricultural products, especially grains, sunflower seeds and meat.

The main grain crop in Portugal is wheat, followed by corn. Wheat is grown mainly in the south of the country, corn in the north. In addition, legumes, oats, rye, barley and rice are of commercial value. Potatoes are an important food crop. Portugal is one of the main exporters of ketchup. Olives are used in large quantities for food, but mainly serve as raw material for the production of olive oil.

Viticulture and winemaking play a huge role in agriculture. Portugal is one of the leading Western European wine exporting countries. The most important viticulture areas are the valleys of the northern rivers Douro, Mondego and Lima. Vineyards are also located in the Algarve and on the Setúbal Peninsula, immediately south of Lisbon. Portuguese dessert wines, especially port and muscat, as well as rosé table wines, are famous throughout the world.

Sheep, pigs, cattle and goats are the most numerous domestic animals raised in Portugal. Cattle farming is most developed in Ribatejo; dairy farming - in the north. The demand for meat and meat products is 90% satisfied by local products.

Forestry plays a significant role in the Portuguese economy. Commercially valuable species are pine and cork oak. Portugal produces more cork oak every year than the rest of the world. Eucalyptus trees, imported from Australia, are the main source of raw material for pulp production.

Fishing. In Portugal, which has a long coastline and a long seafaring tradition, fishing is an important industry, but incomes and jobs in the industry declined in the early 1990s. Sardines predominate in the catch. The main fishing ports and fish processing centers are Lisbon, Setubal, Matosinhos and Portimão.

Transport. The length of the railway network is 3.7 thousand km, and the road network is 42 thousand km. By Western European standards, the transport network is underdeveloped. Extensive investment in roads and railways was channeled through EU subsidies and loans. Lisbon and Porto have modern port facilities. International airports operate in Lisbon, Porto, Faro, the Azores and Madeira.

Foreign trade and payments. After the revolution of 1974, Portugal's trade balance had a cyclical structure: years with a surplus alternated with years with a deficit. Trade deficits were usually compensated by income from tourism and remittances from Portuguese emigrant workers. In 1995, income from foreign tourism amounted to 4.8% of GDP. The main types of export goods are textiles, clothing, footwear, timber (including cork), ships, electrical equipment, chemical products. They import mainly energy resources, raw materials for a number of industries and food. Portugal's main trading partners are EU countries (Germany, France and Great Britain).

Portugal remits significant interest and dividend payments annually in line with international debt and rising foreign direct investment. Portugal's external debt in 1997 was 63.2% of GDP.

Integration with the EU. Participation in the EU (since 1986) required the abolition of protectionist policies. In 1991, Portugal remained the poorest of the EU countries, but membership in this organization allowed new capital to be injected into the country's economy. The amount of foreign direct investment has doubled annually since 1986.

Financial and banking systems. The Bank of Portugal, as the central bank, participates in the implementation of monetary and financial policies and has the exclusive right to issue money. Until 2002, the monetary unit of Portugal was the escudo. Since January 1, 2002, the currency of Portugal is the euro (EURO). Although a number of Portuguese banks were sold to private investors in the early 1990s, over 80% of all monetary transactions were carried out by state-owned banks. The tax system is based on the value added tax (introduced in 1986) and the new income tax (introduced in 1989). The state budget deficit in 1997 was 2.9% of GDP.

Culture

Education. In 1990, the illiteracy rate in Portugal was almost 20%, the highest in Western Europe. The government has allocated significant funds to education, and as a result, the number of illiterate people has decreased by 1/3 compared to 1974. In Portugal, primary education is universal, compulsory and free. However, the country lacks teachers, teaching aids, school equipment, classrooms are overcrowded, and curricula are outdated. Considerable difficulties arise due to the deterioration of the quality of life in cities, the spread of drugs, and the influx of students from former colonies.

When entering universities and other higher education institutions, the state guarantees equal opportunities to all citizens. There are 16 universities in Portugal, among them the largest in Porto (founded in 1911), Lisbon (1930) and Coimbra (1307); there is also a large technical university in Lisbon (1930).

Literature. Portugal has a rich literary tradition, especially in poetry. Among the Portuguese poets, the most famous are Luis de Camões (1524–1580), author of the epic poem Lusiad (1572), and Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935), author of the poetry collections Antony and 35 Sonnets (1918), English Poems (1921), Interregnum ( 1928) etc.

During the dictatorship, literature was under strict control. The leaders of the revolution in 1974 announced the abolition of censorship. Soon after, Maria Velho di Costa, Maria Teresa Orta and Maria Isabel Barreno, accused of violating public morals, were acquitted. These "three Marys", as they were called, wrote the feminist erotic novel New Portuguese Letters (1972), which achieved great success in the country.

Contemporary Portuguese writers who have won worldwide recognition include José Saramago (b. 1922), author of the novels Monument to the Convention (1982) and The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis (1984), and António Lubo Antunes, author of the novels South of Nothing (1979) and Fado Aleshandrin (1990).

Museums. The National Museum of Ancient Art (founded 1884) in Lisbon exhibits Portuguese art from the 12th to the 19th centuries. The capital also houses the K. Gulbenkian Museum (1969) and the associated Center for Contemporary Art (1979). The National Coach Museum (1905) houses a collection of royal coaches, some of which are over 300 years old.

Lisbon also has other famous museums: ancient art, archaeology, ethnology, theater, and naval museums. The historical district of Belem with the famous Bethlehem Tower and the Jeronimos Monastery is a masterpiece of the Manueline architectural style (Gothic 15-16 centuries), declared by UNESCO a heritage of world culture.

Among the monuments of church architecture, the Cathedral, the Church of St. Vicente di Fora, Conceição Vella (Manueline style), St. Roque and the Museum of Ecclesiastical Art. In the vicinity of Lisbon, the baroque architectural complex of Mafra with the royal palace of the 18th century and the summer royal residence of Queluz of the 18th century deserve special attention. and the National Palace in Sintra. The largest monument of ancient Roman architecture in Portugal, the ruins of Conimbriga, are located 16 km south of the university city of Coimbra.

Media, sports, folk culture. Thanks to the media, particularly radio and television, Portugal's isolation was overcome.

Several radio companies are state-owned, and there are also more than 280 private radio stations. There are two state television channels, and private television broadcasters have been operating since 1990. Brazilian soap operas are very popular. Despite the high level of illiteracy, in the early 1990s, approx. 30 daily newspapers, the leading ones being “Publica”, “Diario de Noticias” and “Jornal de Noticias”. The privatization of the print media, which ended in 1991, has promoted diversity in the media.

Football remains the most popular sport in Portugal. Thanks to radio and television coverage, the popularity of athletics, cycling and other sports has increased.

Bullfighting is popular, especially in Ribatejo, where bulls are bred. In Portugal, these competitions feature riders on horses who aim their spears at the bull's neck and, protecting the horse, dodge the horns. Bulls are not killed in the arena, but are subdued by special wrestlers - furkadush.

Fado, folk songs still popular in big cities, is famous for its saudadi melodies. Fado originated in the poorest neighborhoods of Lisbon; they are performed by male or female fadists to the accompaniment of two guitarists.

Story

Ancient period. Although numerous traces of human activity from the Paleolithic era have been discovered on the territory of what is now Portugal, the cultures of the western and southwestern parts of the Iberian Peninsula began to form only in the last 10 thousand years. Primitive people who ate mammals, fish and edible shellfish settled in the 8th millennium BC. in the valleys of the Tagus and other rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Neolithic civilization arose in the 3rd millennium BC, when polished stone tools and pottery, as well as agriculture and metalworking, spread here, apparently from Andalusia and other areas of the Mediterranean.

After 1000 BC Indo-European peoples, mainly Celts, crossed the Pyrenees in several successive waves and mixed with the local tribes. In the south, the Phoenicians and Greeks began to trade with the peoples of Andalusia and Portugal. The Phoenicians were driven out by the Carthaginians, who closed the Strait of Gibraltar to their rivals. Subsequently, the inhabitants of Portugal were influenced by the Andalusians, Carthaginians and Celts, possibly coming from Brittany and Britain. Hamilcar and Hannibal captured the southern part of Portugal and annexed it to the Carthaginian Empire, which existed on the Iberian Peninsula in 240–220 BC.

Roman period. At this time, the central part of Portugal was dominated by Lusitanian tribes of Celtic origin, engaged in cattle breeding. Their leader Viriatus resisted the Romans for a long time. After his treacherous murder in 139 AD. resistance was suppressed, the Roman army passed through the central part of Portugal and entered what is now Galicia, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. The Romans pushed part of the Lusitanians into the lowlands south of the Tagus River and founded the city of Emerita (Merida) on the Guadiana River in what is now Spain. It became the capital of the large province of Lusitania. Julius Caesar gave the city the name Pax Iulia (now Beja) and supported the cities of Olisippo (now Lisbon) and Ebora (Evora); Olisippo was the residence of the Roman governor. The Romans built roads, their customs became established in the country, and local languages disappeared. The remote area north of the Douro River formed the separate province of Gallecia, which included what is now Galicia in northwestern Spain and northern Portugal. The main city of southern Gallaecia (now northern Portugal) was Bracara (now Braga). Under Emperor Vespasian (68–79 AD), the main cities received Latin rights, and in 212 AD. under the edict of Caracalla, their inhabitants became full Roman citizens. Christianity apparently entered Portugal in the 2nd century. In the 3rd century. Christian communities existed in the cities of Osonobe, Merida and Evora.

In the 5th century The Roman Empire was conquered by barbarians who crossed Gaul, invaded Spain and from there headed west. Two tribes - the Suevi and the Vandals - seized lands in Gallaecia and Lusitania. They fought among themselves and raided neighboring territories. In 415 AD The Romans used the larger Visigoth tribe to restore order and drove the Vandals into Africa. The Suevi remained and made Braga their capital, while the Visigoths occupied the rest of the Iberian Peninsula and eventually overthrew the rule of the Romans in 468. In 585 the Visigoths conquered the Sueves, however, granting them local autonomy. Some traces of the Suevian language survive in the Portuguese language, and some agricultural techniques that still survive are attributed to this tribe.

Muslim period. In 711, the Muslims, who by that time had already conquered North Africa, invaded the Iberian Peninsula and conquered the Visigothic state. They made Cordoba in Andalusia their capital, and Arabs from Yemen settled in the southern part of Portugal. The Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba, who ruled from 756 to 1031, appointed military governors in cities along the northern border of the state and stationed their garrisons there; southern cities were ruled by local clans. The Mozarabs - Christians who recognized the caliph and received the right to adhere to their faith - retained their religious communities.

There were few Muslim settlers in the north. The Christians, who retained their independence in Asturias, were protected by the mountain ranges bordering the northern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, and formed an independent state led by a Visigothic ruler. They soon retook Galicia in the northwest, killing many inhabitants in the border areas and leaving behind a devastated area. In the 9th century Christians moved to southern Galicia, and the border region of Portucale (Portugal), located between the Minho and Douro rivers, protected from Muslim attacks from the south, and the line of defense ran along the Douro River. The ruler of the Cordoba Caliphate, Mansur (Almansor), plundered these areas in 997. After his death, the Cordoba Caliphate fell into a state of anarchy and in its place small Muslim states were formed, which were increasingly subject to attacks by Christians.

Founding of the Portuguese Kingdom. During the Asturian Monarchy, the counts of Portugal had broad powers. The situation changed after the Christian north came under the rule of the rulers of Navarre and Castile. The first king of Castile, Ferdinand I, recaptured Coimbra from the Muslims in 1064 and made it a separate principality. His son Alfonso VI imposed tribute on the Muslim cities of Santarem and Lisbon, but their rulers turned for help to the Almoravids, who owned North Africa, who in 1086 defeated Alfonso's troops. The latter turned for help to the French knights, who were well aware of the skirmishes with Muslims beyond the Pyrenees from pilgrims visiting the tomb of the Apostle St. Jacob of Compostela in Galicia, one of the main shrines of the Christian world. The knights began a holy war with the Muslims. Following the knights, the French clergy appeared, wanting to carry out religious reforms. Under their influence, religious rituals common to Western Europe were adopted on the Iberian Peninsula, and the spirit of tolerance that Alfonso VI showed towards his Muslim subjects was eradicated. Among the knights was Count Henrique of Burgundy, who married Teresa, daughter of Alfonso VI. Enrique and Teresa were given Portugal, including Coimbra and the border lands. From this time the history of Portugal begins.

Portugal now consisted of the northern part, between the Minho and Douro rivers, where the nobles exercised feudal power; the northeastern part, or Traz-os-Montes, sparsely inhabited by border tribes who preserved communal traditions; the county of Coimbra, where both Mozarabs and Muslims lived, and the recently conquered border region along the Tagus River, which was defended by detachments of crusading knights who had taken monastic vows. Here were the Knights of the Templars, Calatrava and Avis, who owned vast estates and castles. Cistercian monks from Alcobaza moved closer to the southern border strip and cultivated the land there. To encourage the settlement of this strip, the king granted many communities privileges, enshrined in charters. The Muslim influence of that time is reflected in tools, textile designs, architecture and some customs.

The strengthening of the Almohad dynasty prevented Alfonso I from conquering Seville. He himself was wounded while attempting to capture the cities of Badajoz, and power passed to his son, Sanchos I (1185–1211), who amassed enormous wealth by collecting tribute from Muslims and the inhabitants of eastern Portugal. Seeking to assert his absolute power in the north, King Alfonso II (1211–1223) appointed officials to seize lands from the nobles and clergy. He was the first king of Portugal to seek advice from the Cortes (Royal Council), convened in the first year of his reign. The Cortes consisted of representatives of the privileged classes - the clergy and nobility. Alfonso II's son, Sancho II (1223–1248), fell under the influence of a clique of nobles and was deposed. The pope passed the crown on to his younger brother Alfonso III (1248–1279). This king, supported by the citizens of Lisbon, vigorously protected royal property and encouraged internal and external trade. The growth of the exchange of goods expanded money circulation, quitrent in kind was replaced by a cash tax. In Leiria in 1254, for the first time, people of humble origin were allowed to attend a meeting of the Cortes. Due to the capture of the Algarve during the reign of Alfonso III, the southern border of Portugal was moved to its modern position; Thus, the territorial formation of the country was completed.

King Dinis I (1279–1325) was a poet and legislator who managed to limit the influence of the clergy and nobles. He founded a university in Lisbon, which was later transferred to Coimbra. Dinis encouraged the development of agriculture and planted a royal pine forest in Leiria in order to later use it in shipbuilding. Portuguese merchants traded with France, England and Flanders, and Italian ships often visited Lisbon.

Alfonso IV (1325–1357) participated in the defeat of the last major Muslim invasion in 1340, but avoided involvement in the civil conflict in Spain. However, his heir Pedro fell under the influence of the Galician Ines de Castro and her brothers, and Alfons contributed to her murder. The drama of Ines became a favorite theme of Portuguese literature, as well as Western European opera, poems and novels. Having inherited the throne, Pedro I (1357–1367) began to travel around the country and administer justice. Pedro I, like his father, did not interfere in Spanish affairs, but his son Ferdinand I (1367–1383) led the Spanish Legitimists against the dictator Henry II. Henry attacked Portugal and forced Ferdinand to accept humiliating peace terms. Henry's son married Ferdinand's daughter and after the latter's death began to lay claim to the Portuguese throne. The townspeople and merchants of Lisbon rejected the claims of the foreign king and declared the illegitimate son of Pedro I, Joao of Aviz, as heir to the throne. The Cortes, meeting in Coimbra in 1385, proclaimed him king. The Castilians attacked Portugal, but John I (1385–1433) won the Battle of Aljubarrota (14 August 1385) and defended Portuguese independence. To commemorate this victory, a large church was erected in Batalha. From this time on, the era of royal absolutism began, marked by the emergence of a new noble class and the strengthening of the bourgeoisie.

John I renewed the alliance with England established by Ferdinand and married Philippa of Lancashire, daughter of John of Gaunt. The customs of the Plantagenet dynasty were established at the Portuguese royal court, and the union of both countries was confirmed by subsequent monarchs. At this time, the philosophical treatises of João Duarte and the historical works of Fernand Lopes were written.

Age of geographical discoveries. For a long time, the main goal of Portuguese policy was to conduct crusades against Muslims in Africa. At the same time, the strengthening of the monarchy and the confirmation of the country's independence awakened the national spirit of the Portuguese. In 1415, John I captured Ceuta, located opposite Gibraltar; this victory was seen as the starting point for expansion in Africa. John's son, Prince Henry the Navigator, became famous as the organizer of sea expeditions to the northwestern shores of Africa. In the city of Sagrish in the extreme south of the country, he founded the famous school of navigators, where the captains of the Portuguese caravels, who later became famous for their geographical discoveries in Africa and Asia, were trained.

Portugal took possession of the Madeira Islands in 1418–1420, and the Azores a few years later. John's heir, King Duarte I (Edward, 1433–1438), supported an expedition against Tangier planned by his brother Prince Henry, but it ended in defeat. After Duarte's death, his second brother Pedro, a famous traveler, became regent under the young Alfonso V (1438–1481). Pedro was challenged by Alfonso's half-brother, Count of Barcelos, who killed him in 1449 at Alfarrobeira. The young Alfonso V then fell under the influence of the Barcelos faction, which acquired large estates and power. Meanwhile, Prince Henry (the Navigator) continued to vigorously organize sea expeditions. By the time of his death (1460), the Portuguese had discovered the African coast as far as Sierra Leone.

Alfonso V undertook several expeditions to Morocco, captured Tangier in 1471 and began to lay claim to the Spanish throne. Rebuffed by Ferdinand and Isabella, he unsuccessfully appealed to France for help and was forced to conclude a humiliating peace treaty at Alcasovas. His son, João II (1481–1495), one of Portugal's most capable rulers, had the treaty annulled, convicted the Barcelos family of treachery, and imposed his power on the nobles. João II continued his policy of encouraging geographical discoveries. In 1482, Fort Mina was built on the Gold Coast, and in the same year Diego Can reached the mouth of the Congo River. Juan then sent Pedro da Covilha and Alfonso di Paiva by land to get acquainted with India and Ethiopia. None of them returned, and Covilha's reports of his travels apparently did not reach Lisbon. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and discovered that India could be reached by sea. Vasco da Gama's expedition of 1497–1498 ended in achieving the desired goal - the sea route to India was opened. Five years earlier, Christopher Columbus reached the New World and laid claim to it for Spain. João II disputed this claim, and, by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, an agreement was reached between Spain and Portugal to divide the undeveloped world. Spain was given power over all lands west of a conditional line running 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, and Portugal received power over all lands located east of this line. The treaty enabled Pedro Alvares Cabral to lay claim to Brazil in 1500.

During the reign of Manuel I (1495–1521), Portugal reaped the benefits of Prince Henry the Navigator and experienced a golden age. The Portuguese had earlier strengthened their strongholds in Morocco, settled on the islands of the Atlantic Ocean and created trading centers on the coast of West Africa. They then discovered the coast of Brazil, captured strategic positions in East Africa, discovered Madagascar, and acquired outposts in India. The Portuguese managed to disrupt Muslim maritime trade in the Indian Ocean and establish control over the sea routes to the East Indies. Portugal monopolized the lucrative spice trade and in just a few years became the leading European maritime power. The viceroy in India, Francisco de Almeida, established his residence in Cochin in 1505, and his successor, Afonso de Albuquerque, one of the great figures of the Portuguese empire, moved this residence to Goa, which later became the capital of Portuguese India. Albuquerque in 1511 captured a large trade market in Malacca, sent expeditions to the Moluccas, established connections with Bengal, Burma, Siam, Java and Sumatra, and in 1515 established control over the Strait of Hormuz at the entrance to the Persian Gulf. His successors established ties with Japan in 1542, and in 1557 acquired the stronghold of Macau in China.

During the reign of Manuel I, the lush Manueliano style with maritime and floral subjects and Asian motifs flourished in Portuguese architecture, and students were sent to study in France and Italy. Gil Vicente, the founder of the Portuguese theater, invented entertainment for the royal court, and Sa di Miranda and other poets introduced Italian poetic forms into circulation. The judicial system was unified; the influence of the Cortes began to wane, and after the death of João I they met less and less often. Lisbon was one of the richest cities in Europe, and the king maintained a luxurious court.

Under John III (1521–1557), the country began to experience a shortage of public funds. The costs of annually equipping a fleet to India and manning military fortresses and bases from Brazil to China, falling prices for eastern goods and the provision of numerous privileges burdened the country with debt. Under these conditions, the Portuguese monopoly on trade with the East was challenged by French and then English merchants. There was a need to occupy the whole of Brazil, allocating captaincy along the coast, and in 1549 a government was established in Bahia (now Salvador), which quickly became a center of sugar trading. The lavish wealth of the Portuguese Renaissance and the glory of colonial expansion and entrepreneurship were left behind. They were immortalized in Luis de Camões' heroic epic poem The Lusiada (1572), considered a masterpiece of Portuguese literature. The time has come to return to economy and discipline. The Inquisition was introduced and the Jesuits began to influence the royal family and the educational system, taking control of the university in Coimbra and founding the university in Évora.

John III's minor grandson, Sebastian (1557–1578), inherited the throne, and the regency was passed first to John's widow, Catherine, and then to his brother, Cardinal Enrique. When Sebastian came of age, he fell out with both of them. Strongly attracted by the ideas of knight errantry, he dreamed of a crusade against Muslims in North Africa. When the deposed prince of Morocco asked for his help, he raised an army, landed in Africa and faced a stronger army at Alcazarquivir (El Ksar el Kebire). Sebastian, his protégé as prince, and the Emperor of Morocco died in the battle on August 4, 1578, and many Portuguese soldiers were killed or captured. Sebastian's successor, Cardinal Enrique, died in 1580. The Council of Governors had to decide the issue of succession to the throne. The Spanish king Philip II, himself half-Portuguese, began to lay claim to the throne using bribery and power. His opponents sat out for some time in the Azores and asked for help from France and England. The English attack on Lisbon in 1589 under the leadership of Francis Drake ended in failure. Nevertheless, faith in the restoration of Portuguese independence was not lost, and no less than four impostors pretended to be the murdered Sebastian.

Three Philips. Philip II, recognized in Portugal as King Philip I (1580–1598), promised that Portuguese national institutions would be preserved. He attended meetings of the Portuguese Cortes, and in all higher government institutions it was customary to use his native language. However, the unification of the two states deprived Portugal of its own foreign policy, and the enemies of Spain became the enemies of Portugal. Because of Spain's war with Holland and England, the port of Lisbon had to be closed to Portugal's former trading partners. The Dutch then launched attacks on Portuguese settlements in Brazil, as well as in Africa and Asia.

During the reign of Philip's son, Philip III (1598–1621), Spain negotiated a truce with the Dutch. Dutch and English merchants began to frequent Lisbon again, and trade with Brazil expanded, but Portuguese autonomy suffered as a result. During the reign of Philip IV (1621–1640), his favorite Count-Duke Olivares renewed the war with the Dutch, who attacked Bahia in 1624, and in 1630 occupied Pernambuco (Recife) and its neighboring plantations. Meanwhile, Portuguese possessions in Asia were lost due to the invasion of the Dutch and English. The Portuguese were now unwilling to deal with Olivares, who was trying to destroy their independent institutions and impose new taxes in order to increase Spanish influence in Portugal and use its resources in the war with France. In 1640, after Catalonia rebelled and turned to France for help, a general uprising broke out in Portugal. The Spaniards were driven out almost without bloodshed, and Duke John of Braganza was proclaimed King of Portugal under the name of John IV (1640–1656).

Restoration. João IV was Sebastian's closest Portuguese collateral descendant and the largest landowner in Portugal, but he had no army and the treasury was empty. Since Spain was at that time embroiled in a war with France and engaged in an uprising in Catalonia, he managed to organize the country's defense and find allies. Portugal's alliance with England was restored in 1642. The French, who had pushed Portugal to regain independence, refused to enter into a formal union. The Dutch, despite their hostile attitude towards Spain, continued to occupy Portuguese possessions in Brazil until the Brazilians raised an armed uprising against them. Brazilian governor Salvador Correa de Sa organized an expedition to Africa to expel the Dutch from Angola. The papal throne, under the influence of Spain, refused to recognize John IV. In this difficult environment, efforts were made to expand Brazilian trade. After significant concessions to the Dutch, peace was concluded with them. In 1654, an agreement was signed with England, according to which privileges in Lisbon were returned to English merchants, the trading post located there was recognized and freedom of religion was granted.

After the death of John IV, his eldest son Alfonso VI (1656–1683) was still a minor, and John IV's widow Louise exercised the regency. She fought in vain for a treaty with France, but concluded an alliance with England, by which Charles II married her daughter Catherine of Braganza, receiving as a dowry not only a large sum of money, but also Tangier and Bombay. In return, he pledged to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Charles II sent soldiers to strengthen the protection of Portugal's borders, and English diplomats in 1668 got Spain to recognize Portugal's independence.

Meanwhile, it turned out that Alfonso VI was not capable of governing the country, and Count Castelo Melur did this on his behalf. He arranged Alphonse's marriage to the French princess Marie-Françoise Isabella of Savoy, who provoked the resignation of Castelo Melure and obtained a divorce on the grounds of Alphonse's impotence. She then married his younger brother Pedro, who in 1667 was confirmed as regent, and after the death of Alfonso became King Pedro II (1683–1706). Portugal established good relations with England and France in order to disrupt Spain's plans. However, Spain has now become less dangerous. The marriage to Marie-Françoise-Isabella was regarded as a success of French politics, but after her death, Pedro II married an Austrian. When it became clear that the Spanish king Charles II would not have an heir, the French king Louis XIV began to make claims against Spain and, after the death of Charles in 1700, placed his grandson, entitled Philip V, on the Spanish throne. This caused alarm in other European states, and, when England and the Netherlands supported the claims of the Austrian Archduke Charles, Portugal joined the great alliance formed to expel the Bourbons from Spain. The Archduke arrived in Portugal, but although Anglo-Portuguese troops entered Madrid twice, they were unable to either hold the city or inspire the Spaniards to fight the French. In accordance with the Peace of Utrecht of 1713, the Bourbons remained on the Spanish throne, and the Portuguese strengthened their alliance with England and Austria.

18th century The period of poverty in the first years of restoration was left behind. Although at the end of the 17th century. Most of the once vast Portuguese colonial empire in the East was lost, and gold deposits were discovered in central Brazil. The Minas Gerais region was gripped by a gold rush: miners from other parts of Brazil and from Portugal itself flocked here, and the administration of the colony had to be transferred from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. In 1728, diamonds were discovered in the Minas Gerais region. With such wealth at his disposal, John V (1706–1750) patronized the arts, established academies and libraries, and organized public works. Architecture received a great impetus for its development. Political treaties with the Great Alliance ended with the conclusion of the Treaty of Methuen in 1703, according to which England gave preference to Portuguese wines and woolen fabrics. The wars with France opened up a large market in England for port and other wines, and the influx of jewelry from Brazil led to a rapid expansion of English trade in Lisbon. The Cortes, which had been convened regularly since the Restoration, now lost their importance, and the king exercised absolute power through his ministers.

After the death of John V, his son José (1750–1777) had little interest in government and appointed Sebastian José de Carvalho (later Marquis of Pombal), a talented administrator and representative of the Age of Enlightenment in Portugal, as minister. His abilities manifested themselves when Lisbon was severely damaged by an earthquake on November 1, 1755. Thousands of people died, and palaces, churches and residential buildings were destroyed. Carvalho, given emergency powers, provided housing for the homeless and rebuilt the center of the capital. His power aroused jealousy among the hereditary nobles, but he executed the Duke of Aveiro and the Marquis of Tavora, who tried to kill King Jose. Carvalho also campaigned against the Jesuits, removing them from their positions as royal confessors, and eventually expelled the Jesuit order from Portugal and its colonies. Pombal carried out a reform of the university in Coimbra, established a noble college and tried to spread the system of secular education throughout Portugal. He also tried to support the country's merchants, established a company selling port wine, maintained prices and introduced standards for growing grapes. Meanwhile, the flow of gold from Brazil began to dry up, and attempts to revive trade at the expense of other goods through the organization of monopoly companies were unsuccessful.

The fall of Pombal after the death of the king led to a change in political course, although many of his supporters remained in their posts. José's daughter, Maria I (1777–1816), refused to accuse him of abuse of power, but felt remorse, torn between loyalty to her father and the complaints of Pombal's victims. Her fears increased after receiving news of the revolution in France, and in 1792 she went mad. Her son, later King João VI, became regent.

Napoleonic Wars. At the very beginning of the unrest in France, the Portuguese police took measures to suppress revolutionary propaganda. The Spanish Bourbons, who tried to save their French cousins (which they failed), were drawn into war with the French Republic and were defeated. The French captured Madrid and sought to destroy the alliance between Portugal and England, as well as to close Portuguese ports to English ships. An ultimatum from France to grant advantages in trade and pay tribute was rejected by Portugal in 1797. In 1801, Napoleon encouraged Spain to attack Portugal, but both countries came to a peace agreement. The French demanded a change in power in Lisbon, and in 1807 Napoleon, who now dominated Europe, decided to deal with this issue himself and ordered General Andoche Junot to march on Lisbon. When the French were already approaching the city, the Portuguese royal court sailed on ships to Brazil, leaving a regency council in its place. Its chairman, the Duke of Abrantis, recognized the de facto authority of France.

In 1808 Portugal was in uprising. General Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, landed with a large English army and forced Junot to abandon Portugal under the terms of the truce at Sintra. The Regency Council was restored. When Marshal Nicola Soult marched from Galicia to Porto in 1809, Wellesley stopped him and pushed him back. Another French army advanced along the Tagus River valley, but was defeated at Talavera. In 1810, Marshal André Macena was placed in charge of a large French army, which Wellesley held near Busacou until it withdrew to the fortifications at Torres Vedras, north of Lisbon. The French were forced to retreat to Santarem, and in March 1811 they left Portugal altogether.

Liberalism. In subsequent years, the Portuguese royal family lived in Brazil, which by this time had become part of the united kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. John VI (1816–1826) inherited the throne after the death of his mother. In Lisbon, a liberal movement arose against the regency council, organized by the Masonic lodge, which demanded the removal of the English general William Bursford, commander of the Portuguese army. Ultimately, the uprising of the garrison on August 24, 1820 in Porto marked the beginning of the Portuguese Revolution. The Regency Council first compromised and then capitulated. The military prevented the return of Bursford, who was in Brazil at the time, and civilian revolutionaries insisted on the adoption of a constitution. These events forced John VI to return, having agreed in advance to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. He left his eldest son Pedro to rule Brazil. The Brazilians opposed the king's departure and, when Lisbon liberals ignored Brazil's constitutional demands, declared the country's independence in 1822 under the leadership of Pedro.

The first Portuguese constitution, which asserted that supreme power belongs to the people, was adopted in 1822 by the founding Cortes. However, she proved ineffective, and her absolutist enemies rallied around João VI's wife, Carlota Joaquina, who was of Spanish descent, and their youngest son, Miguel. In Lisbon, Miguel tried to lead the movement for the restoration of absolutism, but failed and was expelled from the country. Meanwhile, John VI agreed to negotiate with Brazil and in 1825 recognized its independence, retaining the title of emperor.

After his death in 1826, the crowns of Portugal and Brazil passed to Pedro IV, who remained in Brazil. Pedro gave the Portuguese throne to his infant daughter Maria on the condition that she marry his brother Miguel and that Miguel accept the constitution prepared by Pedro in 1826. This constitution, known as the Charter of Government, confirmed the limited power of the monarch. Miguel returned to Portugal in 1828 only to prevent Mary from landing, reject the Charter and declare himself an absolute monarch. When he convened the Cortes and revoked the Charter, the liberals rebelled but were defeated. However, in 1831 Pedro quarreled with Brazilian leaders, abdicated the throne of Brazil in favor of his son, and headed to Europe to restore his daughter to the throne of Portugal. Pedro hired people, raised money in England and France and set up a residence in the Azores. In 1832 he landed near Porto and entered the city after a three-month siege. He then landed troops in the Algarve and entered Lisbon in 1833. England and France entered into an alliance with the liberals of Portugal and Spain, and Miguel abdicated the throne at Évora Monti. Pedro died in 1834 shortly after the Cortes recognized his daughter as queen.

Mary II (1833–1853) inherited the throne at the age of 15, and a constitutional monarchy was established in the country. Liberals in the cities received support from political clubs and newspapers. The rural population remained devoted to the old system and took almost no part in public life. The civil war that followed Napoleonic campaigns and the loss of Brazil left Portugal impoverished and heavily indebted. Liberals proposed to overcome these difficulties by confiscating the property of the church, but the result was the transfer of large estates to wealthy liberals or companies.

In September 1836, a more radical faction, the so-called. September. She accepted the constitution of 1822 and made attempts to reduce government spending. In 1837, the marshals (the Dukes of Saldanha and Terceira) rebelled to oust the Septabrists. However, it was defeated, although in subsequent years the Septemberists lost popular support. The elections of 1842 showed a clear trend towards Chartism, the more conservative doctrine of the proponents of the Charter, which gave the king broad powers and provided for the appointment (rather than election) of the upper house. The defection of the former radical António Bernardo Costa Cabral to the conservative side led to the restoration of the Charter by the Duke of Terceira. The Chartist government purged the National Guard of political influences, introduced press censorship, and took control of radical clubs. Local government was reformed and the administrative code was approved. Costa Cabral provoked an opposition movement in the countryside. In 1845, a law was passed prohibiting burials in churches. In response to these actions, a peasant uprising led by the innkeeper Maria da Fonti arose in the north of the country, which was brutally suppressed.

Discontent grew in the country, and in 1846 the queen dismissed Costa Cabral. The Septemberists tried to take advantage of the favorable situation and published a manifesto directed against royal power. Then Maria II postponed the elections and turned to Duke Saldanha with a request to form a government. The Septemberists responded to this by creating a revolutionary junta in Porto. Both groups were armed, although they took almost no military action. After negotiations in Gramida, thanks to the intervention of England and Spain, a truce was reached in 1847. This made it possible for Saldanha and Costa Cabral to return to power, but two years later they quarreled, and Costa Cabral fired the duke. In 1851, Saldanha led the putsch, and Costa Cabral was forced to emigrate.

Restoration of the monarchy. 30 years have passed since the introduction of the first constitutional regime. Although liberalism attracted many prominent figures, including Almeida Garrett, the Romantic poet and playwright, and Alexandri Herculana, the founder of Portuguese historical literature, it enjoyed little political influence. There were no stable political parties in the country, and conservatives and radicals had opposing views on the constitution itself. Saldanha was now creating a movement of national solidarity that championed a conservative revival and prepared a program of economic reform. The Septemberists, who were radical in the past, gradually transformed into the opposition party of historians, or Progressives. The charter, as amended in 1852, was in force until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1910.

The government consolidated debts from the first half of the century and made new loans to pay for public works. Railways and telegraph lines were laid in the country, ports were modernized, highways and bridges were built. To please the urban electorate, the Liberals kept prices low, which in turn curbed economic activity in rural areas. Industrialization unfolded slowly. Imports were paid mainly by the export of port wine and balsa bark. The only way to develop the country was to develop Portuguese Africa, but there was not enough capital for this. The abolition of the slave trade in 1836 forced the search for new forms of economic activity; a solution was found in increasing the profitability of enterprises in Angola. When the Scottish traveler David Livingstone visited Luanda, the capital of Angola, in 1853, he discovered European-style houses and boulevards there.

Maria's eldest son, Pedro V (1853–1861), a serious and charming man, died at the age of 20. His brother Luis (1861–1889) had little interest in politics. The Revivalist (former Chartist) and Progressive parties swapped places, the former led by the economist Fontiches Pereira de Melo, the latter by the Duke of Terceira and the Bishop of Viseu. An aging Saldanha returned to power in 1870, but resigned soon after France became embroiled in war with Germany.

The governments of Portugal were formed by "Revivalists" or through coalitions until 1879, when the "Progressives" came to power, establishing 26 peerages to gain a majority in the upper house of parliament. England's claims to Guinea and Mozambique were eventually considered by an arbitration commission consisting of representatives of the United States and France, which decided the issue in favor of Portugal. The Portuguese explored the region of Central Africa, located between Angola and Mozambique, and in 1886 began to lay claim to territory stretching from the west coast of Africa to the east. However, in 1890, the expansion of the British South Africa Company (led by Cecil Rhodes) to the north led to a crisis, and England issued an ultimatum prohibiting Portuguese occupation of this intermediate territory. This caused outrage in Portugal and greatly weakened the regime. At the same time, Portugal's financial problems worsened. In this situation, Germany saw an opportunity to acquire Portuguese Africa and entered into an agreement with England, which noted claims to these territories in the event of Portugal's bankruptcy. However, when Germany tried to force loans on Portugal to force its bankruptcy, the British government objected and the Anglo-Portuguese alliance was restored.

Carlos I (1889–1908) did much to increase the international prestige of Portugal. During his reign there was a revival of national culture. The most important figure of the time was the realist writer Esa de Queiroz (1845–1900). In 1876 the Republican Party was formed. The two monarchist parties split, and a critical situation arose. In 1906, Carlos I granted dictatorial powers to João Frank, who ruled the country without convening the Cortes. In 1908, Carlos and his eldest son (heir to the throne) were killed in Lisbon by a bomb thrown at the royal carriage. Franco was removed from power. Carlos's youngest son Manuel II (1908–1910) had no political experience, and in a year and a half there were seven governments. In October 1910, an uprising broke out in the country, the monarchy was overthrown and a republic was established.

Republic. Republican leaders included teachers, lawyers, doctors and military officers. In the Republican Cortes, at first there was only one Republican Party, but soon the radicals, or democrats, came to power.

The formation of the first republic in Portugal was enshrined in the constitution of 1911, which contained a wide range of rights and freedoms of citizens. Portugal was declared a parliamentary republic headed by a president. The President was elected by Congress (Parliament) for four years. A bicameral parliament was created, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies (term of office for three years) and the Senate (term of office for six years).

In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, Portugal remained a neutral country. But in February 1916, German ships were requisitioned in Portuguese ports, and Germany declared war on Portugal. Portugal sent an expeditionary force to the Western Front. Meanwhile, more moderate Republicans formed the United and Evolutionist parties, but neither could control the left-leaning Democrats. In 1917 Major Sidonio Pais tried to establish a more conservative regime. He fought to create a stable state by pacifying the warring clerical and monarchist groups. Pais's "presidential" regime ended the following year with his assassination. The war exacerbated financial problems and inflation soared. Society was constantly agitated by strikes, political demonstrations and changes of ministers. In 1921, the prime minister and a number of leading politicians were kidnapped and killed. There were several coup attempts. Of the eight presidents of the republic, only one served the entire term allotted to him by law. The first parliamentary republic in Portugal was the most turbulent and unstable in Western Europe. In less than 16 years, 45 governments have changed there.

In May 1926, General Gomes da Costa managed to carry out a military coup; he entered Lisbon, meeting virtually no resistance, and the president resigned.

A few weeks later, with the participation of England, Costa was overthrown, a military dictatorship was established, and leadership of the country passed to General Antonio Oscar di Fragos Carmona. Carmone became interim president, then was elected president in 1928, 1935, 1942 and 1949 and died in this position in 1951. In 1928, Carmona invited Dr. António de Oliveira Salazar, professor of economics at the University of Coimbra, to join the government. Salazar asked for power and received it. Salazar's tax reforms ensured an increase in the budget surplus. The national debt was consolidated and reduced, and savings were used for economic development, public works, defense and the social sphere. In 1932, Salazar became prime minister and, together with a group of scientists from the University of Coimbra, prepared a draft constitution for 1933, which established an authoritarian regime called the “new state”.

New state. In accordance with the constitution of 1933, Portugal and its overseas provinces were proclaimed a unitary corporate republic headed by a directly elected president for a seven-year term. The Cortes consisted of an elected National Assembly and an advisory body, the Corporate Chamber, organized according to the functional divisions of society: economic, social, intellectual and spiritual. Employers organized themselves into guilds, workers into trade unions. Collective agreements were supervised by the government. This system was aimed at suppressing opposition in society, and political parties were replaced by the National Union.

At the beginning of World War II, Portugal remained neutral by agreement with Great Britain. In 1940, when German troops approached the Pyrenees, Salazar helped Britain maintain Spain's neutrality. In 1943, the British used their alliance with Portugal to gain a base in the Azores.

Portugal emerged from the war with almost no losses. Having received loans from Great Britain, it accumulated foreign exchange reserves in pounds sterling, which made it possible to modernize communications, expand the merchant fleet and develop irrigated agriculture, hydropower and industry. Portugal joined NATO in 1949.

Serious opposition to Salazar first appeared in the presidential elections of 1958. Admiral America Tomas, supported by the National Union, received a large majority of the votes, but General Humberto Delgado, who led the opposition, collected a quarter of all votes. In 1959, in accordance with a constitutional amendment, the power to choose the president was transferred to the electoral college.

The Portuguese territories of Goa, Diu and Daman in Hindustan were occupied by Indian troops in 1961 after Portugal rejected Indian claims to these territories. An even more serious threat to Portugal's overseas possessions arose in the 1960s due to the growth of national liberation movements in Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea. Portugal sent a significant part of the army and large funds to Africa to fight the rebels.

In September 1968, Salazar handed over power to his assistant Marcel Cajetan, who maintained his basic political course. Wars continued in Africa, sucking up almost 40% of the government budget and hampering economic development. One of the consequences of these wars was the emigration of 1.6 million Portuguese, who went to different countries in the world in search of work.

Revolution. On April 25, 1974, a group of left-wing officers, part of the Armed Forces Movement (AFM), in an effort to end the wars in Africa, overthrew the Caetano regime. The junta, led by General Antonio de Spinola, called for an end to military operations in Africa and restored many democratic freedoms, including tolerance of political opinions.

On May 15, a provisional government was formed headed by Spinola; the cabinet included socialists and communists. However, Spinola himself opposed the DVS plans to destroy the colonial empire and implement radical reforms, and in September he was replaced by General Francisco da Costa Gomes. The colonial system in Africa collapsed by the end of 1975.

In April 1975, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held. The Socialists received 38% of the vote, the People's Democrats - 26%, and the Communists - 12%. After the elections, the struggle between socialists, communists and left-wing extremists continued in trade unions, the media and local governments. The communists relied on the support of landless agricultural workers in the south and received assistance from the USSR; The socialists were helped by the USA and Western European countries. In July, the Socialists withdrew from Gonçalves' government after he authorized the transfer of the Socialists' organ, the newspaper La Repubblica, to the left. In August, following a wave of anti-communist demonstrations in the north, Gonçalves was removed from his post. A new cabinet was formed with a predominance of socialists and their allies. Repayment of Western loans, which were denied to Portugal during the rule of the pro-communist DVS, resumed. The communists suffered another setback in November when leftist military officers staged an unsuccessful coup attempt.

In April 1976, the country's new constitution came into force. Political parties were allowed to participate in the "revolutionary" process of creating a classless society. The nationalization of enterprises and expropriation of lands carried out in 1974–1975 were declared irreversible. The constitution established the rights to assembly and strikes, as well as to reasoned refusal from military service. Censorship, torture and the death penalty were abolished. In the elections, the Socialists won a majority of seats in the new assembly. In June, following the election of General António Ramalho Eanês as president, Socialist leader Mário Soares became prime minister.

After 1976, the Portuguese government pursued cautious and moderate policies aimed at restoring economic stability. Soares' government had few supporters for two years and was dominated by ministers from coalition parties. In the elections of December 1979 and October 1980, the alliance of the moderate Social Democratic (formerly People's Democratic) Party and the Social Democratic Center received a slight majority of votes. In 1982, the Revolutionary Council of Officers, which had been an advisory body to the president since 1976, was dissolved and replaced by a civilian council. A severe economic crisis necessitated new elections in April 1983, which were won by the Socialists, who formed a coalition government with the Social Democrats. Mário Soares retained his post as Prime Minister.

In 1985, the Social Democrats refused to support the Soares government and received a majority of votes in the elections. Anibal Cavazu Silva became prime minister of a coalition government with the support of the Christian Democrats. Mário Soares won the presidential election in 1986 and became Portugal's first civilian president in 60 years.

In 1986, Portugal joined the European Community and began to carry out reforms in its economy in accordance with the statute of this organization. In 1987, the Social Democrats received an overwhelming majority of votes in the parliamentary elections. With the support of the socialists, they amended the Constitution in 1989, changing the Marxist phraseology of 1976. In 1991, Soares was re-elected to the presidency. The government elected in 1987 completed the four-year plan in 1991.

Assessing the results of the transition period. The Rose Revolution in Portugal led to a rapid and effective transformation of the political system - from traditional quasi-corporate authoritarian rule to modern parliamentary democracy. The country was freed from the shackles that hindered it; civil liberties and free and fair elections were restored; The parliamentary system functions normally.

However, economic transformation occurred very slowly. All governments, including socialist ones, saw the main task as solving the problem of the external balance of payments, paying less attention to such internal problems as unemployment, inflation and slow economic growth. As a result, during the first decade after the revolution, per capita income fell below pre-revolutionary levels.

Some of the costs of the policies of the late 1980s began to become apparent in the early 1990s. It is true that inflation, which ranged from 9% to 14% in the second half of the 1980s, fell to almost 3% in the first half of the 1990s, but the unemployment rate increased. The country also suffered from an unbalanced trade balance, a balance of payments deficit and an external debt burden. Meanwhile, the economic downturn with periodic currency depreciation and resistance to the government's privatization program led to a crisis in the industry in early 1993, where there was a significant reduction in production.

Amendments to the Constitution in 1988 and 1989, and later to legislation (for example, the privatization law of 1990) erased the socio-economic traces of the Pink Revolution. As a result, the direction of reforms in land tenure and employer-employee relations changed, state ownership was limited to public utilities and production equipment, and government regulation of investment activities was abolished. Economic policy in the mid-1990s was aimed at reducing inflation as well as eliminating the budget deficit.

Portugal in the 1990s and 2000s. The government of Cavaco Silva took a number of steps that were perceived by the left opposition as a restriction of civil liberties and human rights. In September 1992, a law was introduced that limited the right to strike. From now on, in the event of a strike in such vital sectors as passenger transport, energy supply and health care, the government could force strikers to go to work. A new law in 1993 on granting the right to asylum allowed immigrants to be expelled from the country without a court decision. President Soares tried to oppose its adoption, and although parliament overrode the presidential veto, the government amended it to provide those expelled with the opportunity to appeal. The measures taken by the SDP cabinet to reduce spending on social needs caused protests from workers in the affected industries. Thus, in December 1993, 80% of Portuguese doctors went on strike against the government's health policy and for higher wages. In 1994, Cavaco Silva's cabinet ordered an increase in tolls on the key bridge over the Tagus River, linking the capital Lisbon with the south of the country, which caused numerous protests by transport drivers. They continued for several weeks. The opposition accused the government of introducing a “hidden tax” and submitted a proposal to the Assembly of the Republic to express a vote of no confidence in it, but it was rejected in October 1994. The conflict between the ruling PSD and President Mario Soares escalated. In February 1995, the Social Democrats demonstratively elected their future leader Joaquín Fernanda Nogueira, whom the president refused to approve for the post of deputy prime minister.

In the general elections on October 1, 1995, the SDP suffered a heavy defeat. The number of votes cast for her fell from 51% to 34%, and she was able to get only 88 of the 230 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The Socialists won, gaining 44% of the vote and receiving 112 seats in parliament. 15 seats each went to the Coalition of Democratic Unity, led by the PKP, and the People's Party (formerly SDC), which opposed strengthening European integration. The new government, consisting of socialists and non-partisans, was headed by PSP leader Antonio Guterres. In January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio was elected president of the country, receiving about 54% of the vote. Sampaio, a lawyer by training, was one of the leaders of the student opposition against the Salazar regime, acting as a lawyer for opponents of the dictatorship. After the revolution of 1974 he was a member of the Movement of Left Socialists, in 1978 he joined the PSP and the next year he was elected to the Assembly of the Republic. In 1988 he became general secretary of the Socialist Party and served as mayor of Lisbon from 1989–1995. In January 2001, Sampaio was re-elected president for another term. He received 55.8% of the votes, ahead of candidates from the PSD and the People's Party Joaquim Ferreira do Amaral (34.5%), the PCP António de Abreu (5.1%), the Left Bloc of Fernando Rosas (3%) and the Maoist Communist Party of the Portuguese workers António García Pereiro (1.5%).

Socialists also tried to implement a number of reforms in the political system, including the introduction of a quota for women's representation in parliament, reducing the number of deputies, allowing independent candidates in elections, and holding referendums. In 1997, some of the proposed measures were approved by Parliament, but the introduction of a quota for women was rejected by the Assembly on March 5, 1999.

The economic policy of the Guterres government was guided by the Maastricht criteria, defined by the European Union, which included reducing the budget deficit. There was a policy of austerity in most industries and improved tax collection. The government, entrepreneurs and some trade unions concluded a “social pact” that limited the upper limit for salary increases.

In October 1999, the SP strengthened its position in the general parliamentary elections, winning 115 of 230 seats. The PSD received 81 seats, the coalition led by the PCP - 17, the PP - 15, the Left Bloc - 2. There were no significant changes in the new cabinet, but the ministries of finance and economy were merged under the leadership of Pina Moura. The collapse of the social services system (health care, education, social insurance) continued, which caused growing discontent among the population. As a result, the ruling SP was defeated in early parliamentary elections in March 2002. The right-wing parties – the SDP and the PP – returned to power. The post of Prime Minister was taken by PSD leader Jose Manuel Durán Barroso. A lawyer and political scientist by training, he was first elected to parliament from the PSD in 1985, the following year he was appointed Secretary of State in the Ministry of the Interior, and in 1987 - Secretary of State for Cooperation and Foreign Affairs in the Portuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (he was mainly involved in relations with former colonies in Africa). In 1992–1995 he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Sources

Portal do Governo - Website of the Portuguese government

Presidência da República Portuguesa - Official website of the President of Portugal

Exercito Portugues - Website of the Portuguese Armed Forces

Camara Municipal da Lisboa - Lisbon City Hall website

FM radio from Portugal - Radio stations broadcasting from Portugal

Portuguese courses - Portuguese language in Russia

Portuguese wine - Wines of Portugal (Alentejo province)

Spain and Portugal. M., 1947

Biro P. Portugal. M., 1952

Kolomiets G.N. Essays on the modern history of Portugal. M., 1965

Kritsky L.G. Portugal. M., 1981

Stroganov A.O. Economy of Portugal. M., 1985

Pisarets I.G. Portugal is looking for a new path. M., 1986

Varyash O.I., Chernykh A.P. Portugal: roads of history. M., 1990

Kaplanov R.M. Portugal after World War II, 1945–1974. M., 1992

Portuguese Republic, a state in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. The capital is the city of Lisbon. The area including the islands is 92.3 thousand square meters. km. The country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the south and west, and borders on Spain in the north and east. In addition, Portugal includes the Azores Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,450 km west of Lisbon, and the Madeira Archipelago, 970 km southwest of Lisbon.
The name of the country comes from the name of the Roman settlement Portus Cale at the mouth of the Douro River. In 1139 Portugal became a kingdom independent from Spain. At that time it occupied only the northern third of its modern territory. In 1249 the last Muslim ruler in the south of the country was expelled, and since then its borders have changed little. In the 15th century Portugal was the leading maritime power of Europe, and in the next century the first European country to create a huge empire with overseas possessions in South America, Africa, India and the East Indies. In 1910, the monarchy was overthrown in Portugal, and in 1974, a democratically minded military junta put an end to the dictatorial regime that had existed since 1926. The constitution adopted in 1976 proclaimed Portugal a parliamentary republic with direct elections and universal suffrage for adults. In addition to modern administrative divisions, districts, the division into 11 historical provinces is often used in Portugal.

NATURE

Terrain.

On the territory of Portugal, the valleys of the Douro (Duero) and Tagus (Tajo) rivers are clearly distinguished. In the upper reaches they are narrow and deeply incised, downstream they widen and near the shore of the Atlantic Ocean they turn into flat lowlands. These rivers are the natural boundaries of five of the country's six geographic regions. At the same time, the border between Portugal and Spain is almost never associated with natural boundaries.

Climate.

Influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, Portugal has a temperate Mediterranean climate. Several climatic regions can be distinguished: northwestern with heavy rains, mild winters and short summers; the northeast with longer, cold, snowy winters and hot summers, and the south with deficient precipitation, long, hot, dry summers and mild winters. In Lisbon, humidity is low and average temperatures range from 10°C in January to 23°C in August. The average annual precipitation here is 700 mm.

Flora and fauna.

The natural vegetation of Portugal, although greatly modified by man, reflects the listed climatic features. Where oceanic influence predominates, pine grows in abundance. On the northern and central coast it forms significant forests, in the tree layer of which Portuguese oak (Quercus lusitanica) is also found, and in the shrub layer - broom. In areas with long, hot and dry summers, cork and holm oaks are common.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition.

The country's population is mononational, 99% are Portuguese. Many peoples have long settled on the Iberian Peninsula. The most ancient inhabitants - the Iberians - were short and dark-skinned. Over the centuries, the appearance of the Portuguese was shaped by the influence of the Celts, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, as well as Germanic tribes, in particular the Visigoths and Alemanni.

Demography.

Over the course of a century and a half, the population of Portugal grew from 3.4 million people in 1841 to 10.10 million people in 2003. Per 1000 inhabitants, the birth rate was approx. 11.45, and mortality 10.21. Natural population growth was partly compensated by emigration. Throughout the 20th century. the largest number of emigrants headed to America. However, in the 1960s, many Portuguese left in search of work in France, Germany and other Western European countries. From 1960 to 1972 almost 1.5 million Portuguese emigrated. In the late 1970s, emigration fell sharply, and after the Portuguese colonies in Africa gained independence, several hundred thousand Portuguese returned to their homeland.

Cities.

The largest and most important city in Portugal is Lisbon (2.1 million inhabitants and suburbs, 1996). It is the capital and main port of the country, an industrial center, a junction of roads, railways, and air communications. The growth of the suburbs was so rapid that by the 1990s, the Lisbon metropolitan area was home to almost 2.3 million people, i.e. almost a quarter of the country's population. Petrochemical plants, shipyards and many other industries form a powerful industrial complex covering suburbs such as Amadora (140 thousand people in 1991), Barreiro (59.5 thousand) and Almada (22.6 thousand). Porto is the main city of the North - the second most populous in the country (302.5 thousand in 1991; in the entire agglomeration about 1.2 million people). Porto, located on the right bank of the Douro River, the former capital of Portugal and the country's major port, is famous for its port wine. On the opposite bank of the Douro River is the city of Vila Nova di Gaia (31.5 thousand inhabitants in 1991), where many warehouses of wine companies are concentrated. To the north of Porto there is its suburb, Matosinhos (29.8 thousand), the center of sardine fishing and canning.

Language.

Portugal is a monolingual country. The official language is Portuguese. Portuguese is spoken approx. 184 million people on three continents. This language has similarities with Spanish, both of which are derived from the Latin language. However, Portuguese differs significantly from Spanish in pronunciation and grammar. The vocabulary of the Portuguese language was enriched by Arabic and German words, as well as the vocabulary of the languages of Asian peoples with whom Portuguese pioneer travelers and traders came into contact. The most significant work of medieval Portuguese literature is the epic poem Lusiad (1572), created by Luis de Camões. It tells the story of Portuguese geographical discoveries and glorifies Portugal and its people.

Religion.

Portugal, by its history and traditions, is a Roman Catholic country; Almost 94% of its residents profess Catholicism. However, the church is separated from the state and does not receive direct financial support from it. Less than 1% of residents are Protestants. There are Jewish communities (200 thousand people) in Lisbon and Porto. About 5% of the country's residents consider themselves atheists.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

State structure.

In contrast to Salazar's corporate regime, the political system provided for by the 1976 constitution was based on democratic principles with elements of socialism.
The legislative body is a unicameral parliament (Assembly of the Republic), consisting of 250 deputies elected in general elections for a four-year term. The Assembly passes laws and approves the budget. Executive power is divided between the president and the government headed by the prime minister. The President is elected by general election for a term of five years and cannot be re-elected for a third term. The president's powers include the appointment and removal of the prime minister and other ministers, and he can veto bills passed by parliament. The government determines the country's policies, forms the budget and oversees public administration.

In 1989, a number of amendments to the 1976 constitution were adopted: the goal was proclaimed to be the building of a “free and fair society that cares for others,” instead of the previous formulation of “building a classless society.” A clause was introduced allowing the sale of previously nationalized companies, and a new course for agricultural reform was determined. Some articles of the constitution were revised in 1992.

Portugal has a centralized management system. The continental part of the country is divided into 18 administrative districts. Smaller administrative units are municipalities and parishes.

Local control.

The representative organizations of the parish are the assembly and the parish junta. The Assembly is elected by all citizens of the parish. The Junta is the executive body of the parish and is elected by secret ballot of the assemblies from among its members. The chairman of the junta is the citizen who heads the list of candidates and received the largest number of votes in the elections to the assembly.

Political parties.

With the establishment of the Salazar dictatorship in the early 1930s and until the April Revolution of 1974, political parties were banned. Nevertheless, the communist and socialist parties, as well as small political groups of the left, operated underground. After 1974, a number of new parties emerged. The largest of them - the People's Democratic Party (later renamed the Social Democratic Party, SDP) and the Social Democratic Center (SDC) - were formed by politicians who played an active role under the previous regime. Most major parties have received significant financial assistance from foreign political partners.

The more conservative North of Portugal favored the PSD or PP, while the SP and PCP had support in the south. The PCP's influence has waned in recent years, with its constituency formerly consisting of industrial workers in the Lisbon region and poor agricultural workers in the South (Alentejo). About a million returnees from Angola and Mozambique are hostile to the left-wing politicians who granted independence to these African colonies.
Political instability rocked Portugal in the first decade after the revolution. From 1974 to 1976 there were six provisional governments. General António Ramalho Eanis, a moderate member of the Armed Forces Movement (MAF), provided some stability to society during his presidency from 1976 to 1986. The prime minister during these years was Mario Soares. He led the first SP minority government and then led an unstable government coalition. In 1979, the president was forced to hold special elections.

Currently, there are parties and organizations in Portugal that represent the entire spectrum of political and ideological forces.

The People's Party (until the end of the 1990s was called the Social Democratic Center) was founded in July 1974 as an organization of Christian democratic orientation. According to its first program (1975), the SDC was “a centrist party advocating a rotation of parties in the government.” In his activities, he intended to be guided by an “exclusively Christian spirit”, the desire to ensure “the freedom and security of Portuguese citizens.” In the economic field, the party advocated the priority development of “planned private initiative”, “supported and controlled by the state.” The SDC was considered the most right-wing of the country's major parties, which did not prevent it from entering a coalition with the socialists in 1978. This government did not last long, and the SDC, led by Diogo Freitas do Amaral, became the PSD's junior partner in the Democratic Alliance and participated in center-right cabinets from 1980-1985. In 2002, the party, transformed into the People's Party in the 1990s, campaigned under the slogans of a “firm hand” and called for decisive measures to limit immigration. Having received 8.8% of the vote and 14 seats in the Assembly of the Republic, the People's Party entered the coalition government led by the Social Democratic Party.
The Socialist Party was formed in May 1973 in exile. The founding congress of the party took place in Germany with the support and assistance of German Social Democracy. The SP continued the tradition of the Portuguese Socialist Action that had existed since 1964. In its first program, the party declared its goal to be “building socialism” in conditions of “political and ideological pluralism.” The SP of Portugal is a member of the Socialist International.

From the very beginning, various internal currents were at work in the joint venture. The founder and first leader of the party, Mario Soares, belonged to the “right” wing. Having won the first parliamentary elections under a democratic constitution in 1976, the Socialists formed a government led by Soares, which, first as a minority cabinet and then in coalition with the SDC, lasted until July 1978. In December 1979, the SP went into opposition and remained there until December 1982. In 1983-1985, Soares headed a coalition government consisting of representatives of his own party and the PSD. At the 1985 elections, the SP came out with demands to strengthen relations with the European Community, early revision of the 1976 constitution (including the elimination of provisions on the nationalization of key sectors of the economy, as well as a review of agrarian reform and the powers of parliament), but suffered a heavy defeat. After this, she again found herself in the opposition. In 1995, having won the parliamentary elections, the SP returned to govern the country (the government of António Guterres), which lasted until 2002, when it gained only 37.9% of the votes and lost to the PSD. It currently has 96 seats in parliament.

The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) was founded at the founding conference in March 1921. In 1926-1974 it acted illegally. Unlike other major communist parties in Western European countries, the PCP has never leaned toward “Eurocommunism.” Under the leadership of its long-time general secretary, Alvaro Cunhal, it sought to maintain close ties with the CPSU. During the revolution of 1974-1975, the Portuguese communists tried several times to achieve predominant influence in society, but they failed. Since 1976, the PCP has focused primarily on defending the revolutionary provisions of the 1976 constitution, the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and agrarian reform. Under the leadership of the party, the “Union for the Unity of the People” bloc was created, which also included the Greens and the small leftist organization “Portuguese Democratic Movement”. In 1987 the union was transformed into the Coalition for Democratic Unity (with the participation of communists, greens and the Association for Democratic Action). However, the influence of the communists gradually fell: if in the 1980s they collected, together with their allies, from 12 to 19% of the votes, then in the 1990s their support fell to 9%. In the 2002 elections, the bloc of the PKP and the Greens suffered a major defeat: it received only 7% of the votes, losing 5 of the 17 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The coalition lost its status as the country's third political force (having lost to the PP). After Cunhal's resignation in 1992, internal divisions within the PKP began to intensify. By 2002, about 500 prominent members, including the majority of PKP deputies, demanded an emergency congress and a bloc with the socialists. But leadership remains in the hands of hardliners.

Judicial system.

Under Salazar's regime, freedom of the press and the right to associate, assemble, protest or strike were severely restricted. In the 1976 constitution these restrictions were lifted. The provision of personal immunity was introduced into both civil and military laws. The criminal law system is organized at the national level under the direction of the Ministry of Justice in 217 judicial districts. For a number of cases, the prosecution or defense has the right to demand a jury trial.

Armed forces.

The Salazar-Caetano regime constantly increased the military power of Portugal. Under Caetano, almost 2/5 of the total amount of government spending was allocated to the armed forces. After the revolution of 1974, due to the liquidation of the colonial system, there was no longer a need for a large army. In 1990, 44 thousand people served in the army, 16 thousand people served in the navy. The air force numbered approx. 15 thousand personnel.

Foreign policy.

Portugal has long had particularly close relations with England. This tradition dates back to a trade treaty signed in 1373. In 1386, the two countries signed a treaty of mutual cooperation at Windsor, and close economic ties were cemented by the Treaty of Methuen in 1703. British support helped Portugal assert its independence after 1640 and retain much of its overseas empire. . However, this ancient alliance did not influence the Portuguese policy of neutrality in World War II, although Great Britain and the United States were given bases in the Azores. Subsequently, the American air base in Lajes came under the control of NATO, which Portugal joined in 1949.

Due to the USSR's veto in the UN Security Council, Portugal was not accepted into this organization until 1955. From 1960 to 1986, Portugal was a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

After the liquidation of the Portuguese colonial system in Africa, relations with the USSR, the countries of Eastern Europe and many countries in Africa and Asia were restored.

According to the 1987 agreement, control of the Portuguese colony of Macao was to pass to China in December 1999.

In the late 1970s, Portugal's ties with NATO strengthened. On January 1, 1986, Portugal joined the European Community (EC). Portugal is part of the union of Portuguese-speaking countries, which also includes Brazil and the former Portuguese colonies - Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Sao Tome and Principe, Cape Verde.

ECONOMY

The gross domestic product (GDP) of Portugal in 2002 was $195.2 billion. National income per capita was $19,400 thousand.

In 2008, GDP amounted to $236.5 billion. By sector of GDP - agriculture 3.6%, industry 28.7%, other services 67.7%.

Economic history.

The Portuguese economy was affected by two events - the overthrow of the Salazar-Caetano regime in 1974 and accession to the EU in 1986. Under the previous regime (from 1926 to 1974), capital was concentrated in the hands of several industrial and financial family groups. Upward mobility was only possible for members of the educated middle class. Portugal's industry and agriculture remained inefficient and labor productivity low. Investments were directed mainly to African colonies. Profits earned in the colonies were used to maintain trade and fiscal surpluses.

As a member of the EU, Portugal had to accept the EU's common customs tariff on imports from countries outside the organization and implement a common agricultural policy. Portugal also promised to eliminate all barriers to the movement of both goods and capital between itself and other EU members, as well as remove tax subsidies from state-owned enterprises. EU membership was the driving force behind changes in the country's economy in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The tax structure in Portugal has been revised.

Economic geography.

Industry is concentrated in two areas, around Lisbon and Setubal in the south and around Porto, Aveiro and Braga in the north. The Lisbon area is dominated by heavy industry, producing steel, petroleum products, machine tools, automobiles, chemicals and cement. The shipbuilding docks of Lishnavi are known throughout the world. Electronic equipment is also produced in Lisbon County. Porto has the country's largest oil refinery, but northern cities specialize in the production of goods such as textiles, shoes, furniture, wines and food. The ancient center of the cotton industry is located in the north-west (Porto, Guimarães and Braga), the main centers of the wool industry are in the mountainous region around the cities of Guarda and Covilhã. Many industrial enterprises in the chemical, pulp and paper, cement and food industries are concentrated in the coastal strip between Porto and Lisbon. Both cities mentioned are centers of metallurgy and mechanical engineering.

Portugal is divided by the Tagus River into two agricultural regions that differ in land use. Small-scale intensive agriculture predominates in the northern region. Here, with high population densities and the prevalence of archaic agricultural methods, tiny farms are common, producing little more than is needed for one family's consumption. The southern region is dominated by large landholdings employing sharecroppers and landless wage labourers. A significant part of the land expropriation program in 1974-1975 was carried out in this area. Many large landholdings that belonged to landowners who lived in cities became the property of cooperatives.

Energy.

Portugal is heavily dependent on imported fuel (accounting for 80% of total energy consumption). Low-grade anthracite is mined near Porto. Portugal's hydroelectric potential is well developed, and hydroelectric power plants provide half of the country's electricity consumption.

Mineral resources and mining industry.

Portugal's mineral resources are varied, but small deposits predominate. The largest mines are located in the north of the country; tungsten, tin, chromium and other non-ferrous metals, as well as uranium, are mined in significant quantities. In the eastern part of the Douro River valley, iron ore deposits are being developed.

Manufacturing industry gives approx. 40% of GDP, it accounts for 32.6% of all employed. Traditional industries - textiles, clothing, footwear, ceramics, shipbuilding. They are characterized by low labor productivity and outdated technologies. New industries - automotive, electronics, electrical, chemical. Industrial productivity in Portugal is lower than in other EU countries.

Agriculture and forestry represent only 6.5% of Portugal's GDP and account for 11.5% of employment. Gross agricultural output per worker is significantly lower than in other EU countries; The exception is the fertile valley of the Tagus River and the irrigated areas of the Alentejo province. To meet food needs, Portugal is forced to import many agricultural products, especially grains, sunflower seeds and meat.

Forestry plays a significant role in the Portuguese economy. Commercially valuable species are pine and cork oak. Portugal produces more cork oak every year than the rest of the world. Eucalyptus trees, imported from Australia, are the main source of raw material for pulp production.

Fishing.

In Portugal, which has a long coastline and a long seafaring tradition, fishing is an important industry, but incomes and jobs in the industry declined in the early 1990s. Sardines predominate in the catch. The main fishing ports and fish processing centers are Lisbon, Setubal, Matosinhos and Portimão.

Transport.

The length of the railway network is 3.7 thousand km, and the road network is 42 thousand km. By Western European standards, the transport network is underdeveloped. Extensive investment in roads and railways was channeled through EU subsidies and loans. Lisbon and Porto have modern port facilities. International airports operate in Lisbon, Porto, Faro, the Azores and Madeira.

Foreign trade and payments.

After the revolution of 1974, Portugal's trade balance had a cyclical structure: years with a surplus alternated with years with a deficit. Trade deficits were usually compensated by income from tourism and remittances from Portuguese emigrant workers. In 1995, income from foreign tourism amounted to 4.8% of GDP. The main types of export goods are textiles, clothing, footwear, timber (including cork), ships, electrical equipment, chemical products. They import mainly energy resources, raw materials for a number of industries and food. Portugal's main trading partners are EU countries (Germany, France and Great Britain).

Portugal remits significant interest and dividend payments annually in line with international debt and rising foreign direct investment. Portugal's external debt in 1997 was 63.2% of GDP.

Integration with the EU.

Participation in the EU (since 1986) required the abolition of protectionist policies. In 1991, Portugal remained the poorest of the EU countries, but membership in this organization allowed new capital to be injected into the country's economy. The amount of foreign direct investment has doubled annually since 1986.

Financial and banking systems.

The Bank of Portugal, as the central bank, participates in the implementation of monetary and financial policies and has the exclusive right to issue money. Until 2002, the monetary unit of Portugal was the escudo. Since January 1, 2002, the currency of Portugal is the euro (EURO). Although a number of Portuguese banks were sold to private investors in the early 1990s, over 80% of all monetary transactions were carried out by state-owned banks. The tax system is based on the value added tax (introduced in 1986) and the new income tax (introduced in 1989). The state budget deficit in 1997 was 2.9% of GDP.

SOCIETY

Lifestyle.

The population of Portugal is quite homogeneous in ethnic, religious and linguistic composition. Regional differences were mainly determined by economic factors. Wealthy families, middle-class professionals and industrial workers were concentrated in the main industrial centers of Lisbon and Porto. In coastal areas, the population was mainly engaged in fishing and fish processing. In the interior of the country, agriculture predominated, although there was significant regional variation.

To the north of the Tagus River, small landholdings dominated - the so-called. minifunds. Family farms were often fragmented as a result of inheritance, with each plot of land divided among several heirs. Most of the Portuguese emigrant workers came from the northern regions. The population of this region was distinguished by its conservatism in religion, social views and politics. In southern Portugal, latifundia predominated, mostly owned by landowners. In 1974-1975, peasants expropriated many landholdings, especially in Alentejo, where cooperative peasant farms were organized.

Religion.

Although almost 94% of Portuguese are Catholic, church attendance has declined, especially in the cities and south of the country. Catholicism in Portugal has always been linked to local traditions, with the population venerating many popular local saints. The memorial days of these saints are celebrated solemnly, like church holidays. Even long-dead famous doctors and healers are revered as saints. The village of Fatima, where the Virgin Mary appeared to three children in 1917, has become a popular place of pilgrimage. The church of Nossa Senhora do Remedios near Lamego, built in the Baroque style, is also a shrine.

Labor movement and trade unions.

During the years of dictatorship, the government regulated relations between workers and entrepreneurs. Strikes were prohibited. In 1974, collective agreements were established, mainly with the leadership of the unions. The trade union federation Intersindical, which was led by the PCP, quickly developed into the largest trade union organization in the country - the General Confederation of Portuguese Workers - National Intersyndicate (CGTU-NI). She was influential among industrial workers. Another trade union federation is the General Union of Workers (GUT), associated with the SP and SDP, and is even more authoritative. In 1990, an agreement was reached between the government, employers and union leaders to increase the minimum monthly wage for agricultural and industrial workers by 15%, to the equivalent of approximately $275.

CULTURE

Education.

In 1990, the illiteracy rate in Portugal was almost 20%, the highest in Western Europe. The government has allocated significant funds to education, and as a result, the number of illiterate people has decreased by 1/3 compared to 1974. In Portugal, primary education is universal, compulsory and free. However, the country lacks teachers, teaching aids, school equipment, classrooms are overcrowded, and curricula are outdated. Considerable difficulties arise due to the deterioration of the quality of life in cities, the spread of drugs, and the influx of students from former colonies.

Literature.

Portugal has a rich literary tradition, especially in poetry. Among the Portuguese poets, the most famous are Luis de Camões (1524-1580), author of the epic poem Lusiad (1572), and Fernando Pessoa (1888-1935), author of the poetry collections Antony and 35 Sonnets (1918), English Poems (1921), Interregnum ( 1928) etc.

Museums.

The National Museum of Ancient Art (founded in 1884) in Lisbon exhibits Portuguese art from the 12th to the 19th centuries. The capital also houses the K. Gulbenkian Museum (1969) and the associated Center for Contemporary Art (1979). The National Coach Museum (1905) houses a collection of royal coaches, some of which are over 300 years old. Lisbon also has other famous museums: ancient art, archaeology, ethnology, theater, and naval museums. The historical district of Belem with the famous Bethlehem Tower and the Jeronimos Monastery is a masterpiece of the Manueline architectural style (Gothic 15-16 centuries), declared by UNESCO a heritage of world culture. Among the monuments of church architecture, the Cathedral, the Church of St. Vicente di Fora, Conceição Vella (Manueline style), St. Roque and the Museum of Ecclesiastical Art. In the vicinity of Lisbon, the baroque architectural complex of Mafra with the royal palace of the 18th century and the summer royal residence of Queluz of the 18th century deserve special attention. and the National Palace in Sintra. The largest monument of ancient Roman architecture in Portugal - the ruins of Conimbriga - is located 16 km south of the university city of Coimbra.

Media, sports, folk culture.

Thanks to the media, particularly radio and television, Portugal's isolation was overcome. Several radio companies are state-owned, and there are also more than 280 private radio stations. There are two state television channels, and private television broadcasters have been operating since 1990. Brazilian soap operas are very popular. Despite the high level of illiteracy, in the early 1990s, approx. 30 daily newspapers, the leading ones being “Publiku”, “Diario de Noticias” and “Jornal de Noticias”. The privatization of the print media, which ended in 1991, has promoted diversity in the media.

Football remains the most popular sport in Portugal. Thanks to radio and television coverage, the popularity of athletics, cycling and other sports has increased.

STORY

Ancient period.

Although numerous traces of human activity from the Paleolithic era have been discovered on the territory of what is now Portugal, the cultures of the western and southwestern parts of the Iberian Peninsula began to form only in the last 10 thousand years. Primitive people who ate mammals, fish and edible shellfish settled in the 8th millennium BC. in the valleys of the Tagus and other rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Neolithic civilization arose in the 3rd millennium BC, when polished stone tools and pottery, as well as agriculture and metalworking, spread here, apparently from Andalusia and other areas of the Mediterranean.

Roman period.

At this time, the central part of Portugal was dominated by Lusitanian tribes of Celtic origin, engaged in cattle breeding. Their leader Viriatus resisted the Romans for a long time. After his treacherous murder in 139 AD. resistance was suppressed, the Roman army passed through the central part of Portugal and entered what is now Galicia, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. The Romans pushed part of the Lusitanians into the lowlands south of the Tagus River and founded the city of Emerita (Merida) on the Guadiana River in what is now Spain. It became the capital of the large province of Lusitania. Julius Caesar gave the city the name Pax Iulia (now Beja) and supported the cities of Olisippo (now Lisbon) and Ebora (Evora); Olisippo was the residence of the Roman governor. The Romans built roads, their customs became established in the country, and local languages disappeared. The remote area north of the Douro River formed the separate province of Gallecia, which included what is now Galicia in northwestern Spain and northern Portugal. The main city of southern Gallaecia (now northern Portugal) was Bracara (now Braga). Under Emperor Vespasian (68-79 AD), the main cities received Latin rights, and in 212 AD. under the edict of Caracalla, their inhabitants became full Roman citizens. Christianity apparently entered Portugal in the 2nd century. In the 3rd century. Christian communities existed in the cities of Osonobe, Merida and Evora.

In the 5th century The Roman Empire was conquered by barbarians who crossed Gaul, invaded Spain and from there headed west. Two tribes - the Suevi and the Vandals - captured lands in Gallaecia and Lusitania. They fought among themselves and raided neighboring territories. In 415 AD The Romans used the larger Visigoth tribe to restore order and drove the Vandals into Africa. The Suevi remained and made Braga their capital, while the Visigoths occupied the rest of the Iberian Peninsula and eventually overthrew the rule of the Romans in 468. In 585 the Visigoths conquered the Sueves, however, granting them local autonomy. Some traces of the Suevian language survive in the Portuguese language, and some agricultural techniques that still survive are attributed to this tribe.

Muslim period.

In 711, the Muslims, who by that time had already conquered North Africa, invaded the Iberian Peninsula and conquered the Visigothic state. They made Cordoba in Andalusia their capital, and Arabs from Yemen settled in the southern part of Portugal. The Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba, who ruled from 756 to 1031, appointed military governors in cities along the northern border of the state and stationed their garrisons there; southern cities were ruled by local clans. The Mozarabs - Christians who recognized the caliph and received the right to adhere to their faith - retained their religious communities.

Founding of the Portuguese Kingdom.

During the Asturian Monarchy, the counts of Portugal had broad powers. The situation changed after the Christian north came under the rule of the rulers of Navarre and Castile. The first king of Castile, Ferdinand I, recaptured Coimbra from the Muslims in 1064 and made it a separate principality. His son Alfonso VI imposed tribute on the Muslim cities of Santarem and Lisbon, but their rulers turned for help to the Almoravids, who owned North Africa, who in 1086 defeated Alfonso's troops. The latter turned for help to the French knights, who were well aware of the skirmishes with Muslims beyond the Pyrenees from pilgrims visiting the tomb of the Apostle St. Jacob of Compostela in Galicia, one of the main shrines of the Christian world. The knights began a holy war with the Muslims. Following the knights, the French clergy appeared, wanting to carry out religious reforms. Under their influence, religious rituals common to Western Europe were adopted on the Iberian Peninsula, and the spirit of tolerance that Alfonso VI showed towards his Muslim subjects was eradicated. Among the knights was Count Henrique of Burgundy, who married Teresa, daughter of Alfonso VI. Enrique and Teresa were given Portugal, including Coimbra and the border lands. From this time the history of Portugal begins.

After the death of Count Enrique in 1112, Teresa failed to defend the country's independence. In 1128, the barons sided with her youngest son Alfonso I Enriques and defeated his mother's troops at San Mamedi. Alphonse chose Coimbra as his residence. In 1139 he defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Oriki and assumed the title of king. In 1147 Alfonso captured Santarem, and then, after a long siege, in which he was helped by crusaders from England, Flanders and Germany, took Lisbon. Alfonso I received the support of Archbishop John the Strange of Braga and in 1179 was recognized by the pope as king, and his kingdom was taken under the protection of the papal throne. As the founder of the monarchy, and in fact the country, Alfonso I the Conqueror (Henriques) is considered the national hero of Portugal.
Portugal now consisted of the northern part, between the Minho and Douro rivers, where the nobles exercised feudal power; the northeastern part, or Traz-os-Montes, sparsely inhabited by border tribes who preserved communal traditions; the county of Coimbra, where both Mozarabs and Muslims lived, and the recently conquered border region along the Tagus River, which was defended by detachments of crusading knights who had taken monastic vows. Here were the Knights of the Templars, Calatrava and Avis, who owned vast estates and castles. Cistercian monks from Alcobaza moved closer to the southern border strip and cultivated the land there. To encourage the settlement of this strip, the king granted many communities privileges, enshrined in charters. The Muslim influence of that time is reflected in tools, textile designs, architecture and some customs.

The strengthening of the Almohad dynasty prevented Alfonso I from conquering Seville. He himself was wounded while attempting to capture the city of Badajoz, and power passed to his son, Sanchos I (1185-1211), who amassed enormous wealth by collecting tribute from Muslims and the inhabitants of eastern Portugal. Seeking to assert his absolute power in the north, King Alfonso II (1211-1223) appointed officials to seize lands from the nobles and clergy. He was the first king of Portugal to seek advice from the Cortes (Royal Council), convened in the first year of his reign. The Cortes consisted of representatives of the privileged classes - the clergy and nobility. Alfonso II's son, Sancho II (1223-1248), fell under the influence of a clique of nobles and was deposed. The pope passed the crown on to his younger brother Alfonso III (1248-1279). This king, supported by the citizens of Lisbon, vigorously protected royal property and encouraged internal and external trade. The growth of the exchange of goods expanded money circulation, quitrent in kind was replaced by a cash tax. In Leiria in 1254, for the first time, people of humble origin were allowed to attend a meeting of the Cortes. Due to the capture of the Algarve during the reign of Alfonso III, the southern border of Portugal was moved to its modern position; Thus, the territorial formation of the country was completed.

King Dinis I (1279-1325) was a poet and legislator, he managed to limit the influence of the clergy and nobles. He founded a university in Lisbon, which was later transferred to Coimbra. Dinis encouraged the development of agriculture and planted a royal pine forest in Leiria in order to later use it in shipbuilding. Portuguese merchants traded with France, England and Flanders, and Italian ships often visited Lisbon.

Alfonso IV (1325-1357) participated in the defeat of the last major Muslim invasion in 1340, but avoided involvement in the civil conflict in Spain. However, his heir Pedro fell under the influence of the Galician Ines de Castro and her brothers, and Alfons contributed to her murder. The drama of Ines became a favorite theme of Portuguese literature, as well as Western European opera, poems and novels. Having inherited the throne, Pedro I (1357-1367) began to travel around the country and administer justice. Pedro I, like his father, did not interfere in Spanish affairs, but his son Ferdinand I (1367-1383) led the Spanish Legitimists against the dictator Henry II. Henry attacked Portugal and forced Ferdinand to accept humiliating peace terms. Henry's son married Ferdinand's daughter and after the latter's death began to lay claim to the Portuguese throne. The townspeople and merchants of Lisbon rejected the claims of the foreign king and declared the illegitimate son of Pedro I, Joao of Aviz, as heir to the throne. The Cortes, meeting in Coimbra in 1385, proclaimed him king. The Castilians attacked Portugal, but John I (1385-1433) won the Battle of Aljubarrota (August 14, 1385) and defended Portuguese independence. To commemorate this victory, a large church was erected in Batalha. From this time on, the era of royal absolutism began, marked by the emergence of a new noble class and the strengthening of the bourgeoisie.

Age of geographical discoveries.

For a long time, the main goal of Portuguese policy was to conduct crusades against Muslims in Africa. At the same time, the strengthening of the monarchy and the confirmation of the country's independence awakened the national spirit of the Portuguese. In 1415, John I captured Ceuta, located opposite Gibraltar; this victory was seen as the starting point for expansion in Africa. John's son, Prince Henry the Navigator, became famous as the organizer of sea expeditions to the northwestern shores of Africa. In the city of Sagrish in the extreme south of the country, he founded the famous school of navigators, where the captains of the Portuguese caravels, who later became famous for their geographical discoveries in Africa and Asia, were trained.

Portugal took possession of the Madeira Islands in 1418-1420, and the Azores a few years later. John's heir, King Duarte I (Edward, 1433-1438), supported an expedition against Tangier planned by his brother Prince Henry, but it ended in defeat. After Duarte's death, his second brother Pedro, a famous traveler, became regent under the young Alfonso V (1438-1481). Pedro was challenged by Alfonso's half-brother, Count of Barcelos, who killed him in 1449 at Alfarrobeira. The young Alfonso V then fell under the influence of the Barcelos faction, which acquired large estates and power. Meanwhile, Prince Henry (the Navigator) continued to vigorously organize sea expeditions. By the time of his death (1460), the Portuguese had discovered the African coast as far as Sierra Leone.

Alfonso V undertook several expeditions to Morocco, captured Tangier in 1471 and began to lay claim to the Spanish throne. Rebuffed by Ferdinand and Isabella, he unsuccessfully appealed to France for help and was forced to conclude a humiliating peace treaty at Alcasovas. His son, João II (1481-1495), one of the most capable rulers of Portugal, achieved the annulment of this treaty, convicted the Barcelos family of treason and imposed his power on the nobles. João II continued his policy of encouraging geographical discoveries. In 1482, Fort Mina was built on the Gold Coast, and in the same year Diego Can reached the mouth of the Congo River. Juan then sent Pedro da Covilha and Alfonso di Paiva by land to get acquainted with India and Ethiopia. None of them returned, and Covilha's reports of his travels apparently did not reach Lisbon. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and discovered that India could be reached by sea. Vasco da Gama's expedition of 1497-1498 ended in achieving the desired goal - the sea route to India was opened. Five years earlier, Christopher Columbus reached the New World and laid claim to it for Spain. João II disputed this claim, and, by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, an agreement was reached between Spain and Portugal to divide the undeveloped world. Spain was given power over all lands west of a conditional line running 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, and Portugal received power over all lands located east of this line. The treaty enabled Pedro Alvares Cabral to lay claim to Brazil in 1500.

During the reign of Manuel I (1495-1521), Portugal reaped the benefits of Prince Henry the Navigator and experienced a golden age. The Portuguese had earlier strengthened their strongholds in Morocco, settled on the islands of the Atlantic Ocean and created trading centers on the coast of West Africa. They then discovered the coast of Brazil, captured strategic positions in East Africa, discovered Madagascar, and acquired outposts in India. The Portuguese managed to disrupt Muslim maritime trade in the Indian Ocean and establish control over the sea routes to the East Indies. Portugal monopolized the lucrative spice trade and in just a few years became the leading European maritime power. The viceroy in India, Francisco de Almeida, established his residence in Cochin in 1505, and his successor, Afonso de Albuquerque, one of the great figures of the Portuguese empire, moved this residence to Goa, which later became the capital of Portuguese India. Albuquerque in 1511 captured a large trade market in Malacca, sent expeditions to the Moluccas, established connections with Bengal, Burma, Siam, Java and Sumatra, and in 1515 established control over the Strait of Hormuz at the entrance to the Persian Gulf. His successors established ties with Japan in 1542, and in 1557 acquired the stronghold of Macau in China.

Under John III (1521-1557), the country began to experience a shortage of public funds. The costs of annually equipping a fleet to India and manning military fortresses and bases from Brazil to China, falling prices for eastern goods and the provision of numerous privileges burdened the country with debt. Under these conditions, the Portuguese monopoly on trade with the East was challenged by French and then English merchants. There was a need to occupy the whole of Brazil, allocating captaincy along the coast, and in 1549 a government was established in Bahia (now Salvador), which quickly became a center of sugar trading. The lavish wealth of the Portuguese Renaissance and the glory of colonial expansion and entrepreneurship were left behind. They were immortalized in Luis de Camões' heroic epic poem The Lusiada (1572), considered a masterpiece of Portuguese literature. The time has come to return to economy and discipline. The Inquisition was introduced and the Jesuits began to influence the royal family and the educational system, taking control of the university in Coimbra and founding the university in Évora.

John III's minor grandson, Sebastian (1557-1578), inherited the throne, and the regency was transferred first to John's widow, Catherine, and then to his brother, Cardinal Enrica. When Sebastian came of age, he fell out with both of them. Strongly attracted by the ideas of knight errantry, he dreamed of a crusade against Muslims in North Africa. When the deposed prince of Morocco asked for his help, he raised an army, landed in Africa and faced a stronger army at Alcazarquivir (El Ksar el Kebire). Sebastian, his protégé as prince, and the Emperor of Morocco died in the battle on August 4, 1578, and many Portuguese soldiers were killed or captured. Sebastian's successor, Cardinal Enrique, died in 1580. The Council of Governors had to decide the issue of succession to the throne. The Spanish king Philip II, himself half-Portuguese, began to lay claim to the throne using bribery and power. His opponents sat out for some time in the Azores and asked for help from France and England. The English attack on Lisbon in 1589 under the leadership of Francis Drake ended in failure. Nevertheless, faith in the restoration of Portuguese independence was not lost, and no less than four impostors pretended to be the murdered Sebastian.

Three Philips.

Philip II, recognized in Portugal as King Philip I (1580-1598), promised that Portuguese national institutions would be preserved. He attended meetings of the Portuguese Cortes, and in all higher government institutions it was customary to use his native language. However, the unification of the two states deprived Portugal of its own foreign policy, and the enemies of Spain became the enemies of Portugal. Because of Spain's war with Holland and England, the port of Lisbon had to be closed to Portugal's former trading partners. The Dutch then launched attacks on Portuguese settlements in Brazil, as well as in Africa and Asia.

During the reign of Philip's son, Philip III (1598-1621), Spain concluded a truce with the Dutch. Dutch and English merchants began to frequent Lisbon again, and trade with Brazil expanded, but Portuguese autonomy suffered as a result. During the reign of Philip IV (1621-1640), his favorite Count-Duke Olivares renewed the war with the Dutch, who attacked Bahia in 1624, and in 1630 occupied Pernambuco (Recife) and its neighboring plantations. Meanwhile, Portuguese possessions in Asia were lost due to the invasion of the Dutch and English. The Portuguese were now unwilling to deal with Olivares, who was trying to destroy their independent institutions and impose new taxes in order to increase Spanish influence in Portugal and use its resources in the war with France. In 1640, after Catalonia rebelled and turned to France for help, a general uprising broke out in Portugal. The Spaniards were expelled almost without bloodshed, and Duke John of Braganza was proclaimed King of Portugal under the name of John IV (1640-1656).

Restoration.

João IV was Sebastian's closest Portuguese collateral descendant and the largest landowner in Portugal, but he had no army and the treasury was empty. Since Spain was at that time embroiled in a war with France and engaged in an uprising in Catalonia, he managed to organize the country's defense and find allies. Portugal's alliance with England was restored in 1642. The French, who had pushed Portugal to regain independence, refused to enter into a formal union. The Dutch, despite their hostile attitude towards Spain, continued to occupy Portuguese possessions in Brazil until the Brazilians raised an armed uprising against them. Brazilian governor Salvador Correa de Sa organized an expedition to Africa to expel the Dutch from Angola. The papal throne, under the influence of Spain, refused to recognize John IV. In this difficult environment, efforts were made to expand Brazilian trade. After significant concessions to the Dutch, peace was concluded with them. In 1654, an agreement was signed with England, according to which privileges in Lisbon were returned to English merchants, the trading post located there was recognized and freedom of religion was granted.

After the death of John IV, his eldest son Alfonso VI (1656-1683) was still a minor, and John IV's widow Louise exercised the regency. She fought in vain for a treaty with France, but concluded an alliance with England, by which Charles II married her daughter Catherine of Braganza, receiving as a dowry not only a large sum of money, but also Tangier and Bombay. In return, he pledged to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Charles II sent soldiers to strengthen the protection of Portugal's borders, and English diplomats in 1668 got Spain to recognize Portugal's independence.

Meanwhile, it turned out that Alfonso VI was not capable of governing the country, and Count Castelo Melur did this on his behalf. He arranged Alphonse's marriage to the French princess Marie-Françoise Isabella of Savoy, who provoked the resignation of Castelo Melure and obtained a divorce on the grounds of Alphonse's impotence. She then married his younger brother Pedro, who in 1667 was confirmed as regent, and after the death of Alfonso became King Pedro II (1683-1706). Portugal established good relations with England and France in order to disrupt Spain's plans. However, Spain has now become less dangerous. The marriage to Marie-Françoise-Isabella was regarded as a success of French politics, but after her death, Pedro II married an Austrian. When it became clear that the Spanish king Charles II would not have an heir, the French king Louis XIV began to make claims against Spain and, after the death of Charles in 1700, placed his grandson, entitled Philip V, on the Spanish throne. This caused alarm in other European states, and, when England and the Netherlands supported the claims of the Austrian Archduke Charles, Portugal joined the great alliance formed to expel the Bourbons from Spain. The Archduke arrived in Portugal, but although Anglo-Portuguese troops entered Madrid twice, they were unable to either hold the city or inspire the Spaniards to fight the French. In accordance with the Peace of Utrecht of 1713, the Bourbons remained on the Spanish throne, and the Portuguese strengthened their alliance with England and Austria.

18th century

The period of poverty in the first years of restoration was left behind. Although at the end of the 17th century. Most of the once vast Portuguese colonial empire in the East was lost, and gold deposits were discovered in central Brazil. The Minas Gerais region was gripped by a gold rush: miners from other parts of Brazil and from Portugal itself flocked here, and the administration of the colony had to be transferred from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. In 1728, diamonds were discovered in the Minas Gerais region. With such wealth at his disposal, John V (1706-1750) patronized the arts, established academies and libraries, and organized public works. Architecture received a great impetus for its development. Political treaties with the Great Alliance ended with the conclusion of the Treaty of Methuen in 1703, according to which England gave preference to Portuguese wines and woolen fabrics. The wars with France opened up a large market in England for port and other wines, and the influx of jewelry from Brazil led to a rapid expansion of English trade in Lisbon. The Cortes, which had been convened regularly since the Restoration, now lost their importance, and the king exercised absolute power through his ministers.
After the death of John V, his son José (1750-1777) had little interest in government and appointed Sebastian José de Carvalho (later Marquis of Pombal), a talented administrator and representative of the Age of Enlightenment in Portugal, as minister. His abilities manifested themselves when Lisbon was severely damaged by an earthquake on November 1, 1755. Thousands of people died, and palaces, churches and residential buildings were destroyed. Carvalho, given emergency powers, provided housing for the homeless and rebuilt the center of the capital. His power aroused jealousy among the hereditary nobles, but he executed the Duke of Aveiro and the Marquis of Tavora, who tried to kill King Jose. Carvalho also campaigned against the Jesuits, removing them from their positions as royal confessors, and eventually expelled the Jesuit order from Portugal and its colonies. Pombal carried out a reform of the university in Coimbra, established a noble college and tried to spread the system of secular education throughout Portugal. He also tried to support the country's merchants, established a company selling port wine, maintained prices and introduced standards for growing grapes. Meanwhile, the flow of gold from Brazil began to dry up, and attempts to revive trade at the expense of other goods through the organization of monopoly companies were unsuccessful.

The fall of Pombal after the death of the king led to a change in political course, although many of his supporters remained in their posts. José's daughter, Maria I (1777-1816), refused to accuse him of abuse of power, but felt remorse, torn between loyalty to her father and the complaints of Pombal's victims. Her fears increased after receiving news of the revolution in France, and in 1792 she went mad. Her son, later King João VI, became regent.

Napoleonic Wars.

At the very beginning of the unrest in France, the Portuguese police took measures to suppress revolutionary propaganda. The Spanish Bourbons, who tried to save their French cousins (which they failed), were drawn into war with the French Republic and were defeated. The French captured Madrid and sought to destroy the alliance between Portugal and England, as well as to close Portuguese ports to English ships. An ultimatum from France to grant advantages in trade and pay tribute was rejected by Portugal in 1797. In 1801, Napoleon encouraged Spain to attack Portugal, but both countries came to a peace agreement. The French demanded a change in power in Lisbon, and in 1807 Napoleon, who now dominated Europe, decided to deal with this issue himself and ordered General Andoche Junot to march on Lisbon. When the French were already approaching the city, the Portuguese royal court sailed on ships to Brazil, leaving a regency council in its place. Its chairman, the Duke of Abrantis, recognized the de facto authority of France.

Liberalism.

In subsequent years, the Portuguese royal family lived in Brazil, which by this time had become part of the united kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. John VI (1816-1826) inherited the throne after the death of his mother. In Lisbon, a liberal movement arose against the regency council, organized by the Masonic lodge, which demanded the removal of the English general William Bursford, commander of the Portuguese army. Ultimately, the uprising of the garrison on August 24, 1820 in Porto marked the beginning of the Portuguese Revolution. The Regency Council first compromised and then capitulated. The military prevented the return of Bursford, who was in Brazil at the time, and civilian revolutionaries insisted on the adoption of a constitution. These events forced John VI to return, having agreed in advance to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. He left his eldest son Pedro to rule Brazil. The Brazilians opposed the king's departure and, when Lisbon liberals ignored Brazil's constitutional demands, declared the country's independence in 1822 under the leadership of Pedro.
The first Portuguese constitution, which asserted that supreme power belongs to the people, was adopted in 1822 by the founding Cortes. However, she proved ineffective, and her absolutist enemies rallied around João VI's wife, Carlota Joaquina, who was of Spanish descent, and their youngest son, Miguel. In Lisbon, Miguel tried to lead the movement for the restoration of absolutism, but failed and was expelled from the country. Meanwhile, John VI agreed to negotiate with Brazil and in 1825 recognized its independence, retaining the title of emperor.

Maria II (1833-1853) inherited the throne at the age of 15, and a constitutional monarchy was established in the country. Liberals in the cities received support from political clubs and newspapers. The rural population remained devoted to the old system and took almost no part in public life. The civil war that followed Napoleonic campaigns and the loss of Brazil left Portugal impoverished and heavily indebted. Liberals proposed to overcome these difficulties by confiscating the property of the church, but the result was the transfer of large estates to wealthy liberals or companies.

In September 1836, a more radical faction, the so-called. September. She accepted the constitution of 1822 and made attempts to reduce government spending. In 1837, the marshals (the Dukes of Saldanha and Terceira) rebelled to oust the Septabrists. However, it was defeated, although in subsequent years the Septemberists lost popular support. The elections of 1842 showed a clear trend towards Chartism - the more conservative doctrine of the proponents of the Charter, which gave the king wide powers and provided for the appointment (rather than election) of the upper house. The defection of the former radical António Bernardo Costa Cabral to the conservative side led to the restoration of the Charter by the Duke of Terceira. The Chartist government purged the National Guard of political influences, introduced press censorship, and took control of radical clubs. Local government was reformed and the administrative code was approved. Costa Cabral provoked an opposition movement in the countryside. In 1845, a law was passed prohibiting burials in churches. In response to these actions, a peasant uprising led by the innkeeper Maria da Fonti arose in the north of the country, which was brutally suppressed.

Restoration of the monarchy.

30 years have passed since the introduction of the first constitutional regime. Although liberalism attracted many prominent figures, including Almeida Garrett, the Romantic poet and playwright, and Alexandri Herculana, the founder of Portuguese historical literature, it enjoyed little political influence. There were no stable political parties in the country, and conservatives and radicals had opposing views on the constitution itself. Saldanha was now creating a movement of national solidarity that championed a conservative revival and prepared a program of economic reform. The Septemberists, who were radical in the past, gradually transformed into the opposition party of historians, or Progressives. The charter, as amended in 1852, was in force until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1910.
The government consolidated debts from the first half of the century and made new loans to pay for public works. Railways and telegraph lines were laid in the country, ports were modernized, highways and bridges were built. To please the urban electorate, the Liberals kept prices low, which in turn curbed economic activity in rural areas. Industrialization unfolded slowly. Imports were paid mainly by the export of port wine and balsa bark. The only way to develop the country was to develop Portuguese Africa, but there was not enough capital for this. The abolition of the slave trade in 1836 forced the search for new forms of economic activity; a solution was found in increasing the profitability of enterprises in Angola. When the Scottish traveler David Livingstone visited Luanda, the capital of Angola, in 1853, he discovered European-style houses and boulevards there.

Maria's eldest son, Pedro V (1853-1861), a serious and charming man, died at the age of 20. His brother Luis (1861-1889) had little interest in politics. The Revivalist (former Chartist) and Progressive parties swapped places, the former led by the economist Fontiches Pereira de Melo, the latter by the Duke of Terceira and the Bishop of Viseu. An aging Saldanha returned to power in 1870, but resigned soon after France became embroiled in war with Germany.

Carlos I (1889-1908) did a lot to increase the international prestige of Portugal. During his reign there was a revival of national culture. The most important figure of the time was the realist writer Esa de Queiroz (1845-1900). In 1876 the Republican Party was formed. The two monarchist parties split, and a critical situation arose. In 1906, Carlos I granted dictatorial powers to João Frank, who ruled the country without convening the Cortes. In 1908, Carlos and his eldest son (heir to the throne) were killed in Lisbon by a bomb thrown at the royal carriage. Franco was removed from power. Carlos's youngest son Manuel II (1908-1910) had no political experience, and in a year and a half there were seven governments. In October 1910, an uprising broke out in the country, the monarchy was overthrown and a republic was established.

Republic.

Republican leaders included teachers, lawyers, doctors and military officers. In the Republican Cortes, at first there was only one Republican Party, but soon the radicals, or democrats, came to power.

New state.

In accordance with the constitution of 1933, Portugal and its overseas provinces were proclaimed a unitary corporate republic headed by a directly elected president for a seven-year term. The Cortes consisted of an elected National Assembly and an advisory body, the Corporate Chamber, organized according to the functional divisions of society: economic, social, intellectual and spiritual. Employers organized themselves into guilds, workers into trade unions. Collective agreements were supervised by the government. This system was aimed at suppressing opposition in society, and political parties were replaced by the National Union.

Revolution.

On April 25, 1974, a group of left-wing officers, part of the Armed Forces Movement (AFM), in an effort to end the wars in Africa, overthrew the Caetano regime. The junta, led by General Antonio de Spinola, called for an end to military operations in Africa and restored many democratic freedoms, including tolerance of political opinions.

In March 1975, after an attempt to organize a coup d'etat by a group of right-wing officers, a new body of the DVS, the Supreme Revolutionary Council with a predominance of pro-communist elements, headed by Prime Minister Vascu Gonçalves, began to pursue a new state policy. Gonçalves nationalized most banks and many industries and made the communist-led trade unions the sole representatives of workers' interests.
In April 1975, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held. The Socialists received 38% of the vote, the People's Democrats 26%, and the Communists 12%. After the elections, the struggle between socialists, communists and left-wing extremists continued in trade unions, the media and local governments. The communists relied on the support of landless agricultural workers in the south and received assistance from the USSR; The socialists were helped by the USA and Western European countries. In July, the Socialists withdrew from Gonçalves' government after he authorized the transfer of the Socialists' organ, the newspaper La Repubblica, to the left. In August, following a wave of anti-communist demonstrations in the north, Gonçalves was removed from his post. A new cabinet was formed with a predominance of socialists and their allies. Repayment of Western loans, which were denied to Portugal during the rule of the pro-communist DVS, resumed. The communists suffered another setback in November when leftist military officers staged an unsuccessful coup attempt.

In April 1976, the country's new constitution came into force. Political parties were allowed to participate in the "revolutionary" process of creating a classless society. The nationalization of enterprises and expropriation of lands carried out in 1974-1975 were declared irreversible. The constitution established the rights to assembly and strikes, as well as to reasoned refusal from military service. Censorship, torture and the death penalty were abolished. In the elections, the Socialists won a majority of seats in the new assembly. In June, following the election of General António Ramalho Eanês as president, Socialist leader Mário Soares became prime minister.

Assessing the results of the transition period.

The Rose Revolution in Portugal led to a rapid and effective transformation of the political system - from traditional quasi-corporate authoritarian rule to modern parliamentary democracy. The country was freed from the shackles that hindered it; civil liberties and free and fair elections were restored; The parliamentary system functions normally.

The second decade of the transition period was characterized by impressive growth in all indicators of economic development. The country's accession to the EU and the encouraging investment policies of the Social Democratic government led to an increase in foreign investment in the late 1980s. During the period 1986-1991, production growth annually ranged from 3 to 5%, and the unemployment rate fell from 8% to 4%.
Some of the costs of the policies of the late 1980s began to become apparent in the early 1990s. It is true that inflation, which ranged from 9% to 14% in the second half of the 1980s, fell to almost 3% in the first half of the 1990s, but the unemployment rate increased. The country also suffered from an unbalanced trade balance, a balance of payments deficit and an external debt burden. Meanwhile, the economic downturn with periodic currency depreciation and resistance to the government's privatization program led to a crisis in the industry in early 1993, where there was a significant reduction in production.

Portugal in the 1990s and 2000s.

The government of Cavaco Silva took a number of steps that were perceived by the left opposition as a restriction of civil liberties and human rights. In September 1992, a law was introduced that limited the right to strike. From now on, in the event of a strike in such vital sectors as passenger transport, energy supply and health care, the government could force strikers to go to work. A new law in 1993 on granting the right to asylum allowed immigrants to be expelled from the country without a court decision. President Soares tried to oppose its adoption, and although parliament overrode the presidential veto, the government amended it to provide those expelled with the opportunity to appeal. The measures taken by the SDP cabinet to reduce spending on social needs caused protests from workers in the affected industries. Thus, in December 1993, 80% of Portuguese doctors went on strike against the government's health policy and for higher wages. In 1994, Cavaco Silva's cabinet ordered an increase in tolls on the key bridge over the Tagus River, linking the capital Lisbon with the south of the country, which caused numerous protests by transport drivers. They continued for several weeks. The opposition accused the government of introducing a “hidden tax” and submitted a proposal to the Assembly of the Republic to express a vote of no confidence in it, but it was rejected in October 1994. The conflict between the ruling PSD and President Mario Soares escalated. In February 1995, the Social Democrats demonstratively elected their future leader Joaquín Fernanda Nogueira, whom the president refused to approve for the post of deputy prime minister.

In the general elections on October 1, 1995, the SDP suffered a heavy defeat. The number of votes cast for her fell from 51% to 34%, and she was able to get only 88 of the 230 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The Socialists won, gaining 44% of the vote and receiving 112 seats in parliament. 15 seats each went to the Coalition of Democratic Unity, led by the PKP, and the People's Party (formerly SDC), which opposed strengthening European integration. The new government, consisting of socialists and non-partisans, was headed by PSP leader Antonio Guterres. In January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio was elected president of the country, receiving about 54% of the vote. Sampaio, a lawyer by training, was one of the leaders of the student opposition against the Salazar regime, acting as a lawyer for opponents of the dictatorship. After the revolution of 1974 he was a member of the Movement of Left Socialists, in 1978 he joined the PSP and the next year he was elected to the Assembly of the Republic. In 1988 he became general secretary of the Socialist Party, and from 1989-1995 he served as mayor of Lisbon. In January 2001, Sampaio was re-elected president for another term. He received 55.8% of the votes, ahead of candidates from the PSD and the People's Party Joaquim Ferreira do Amaral (34.5%), the PCP António de Abreu (5.1%), the Left Bloc of Fernando Rosas (3%) and the Maoist Communist Party of the Portuguese workers António García Pereiro (1.5%).

In May 1996, parliament decided to decentralize the country's government. Instead of 18 administrative districts in continental Portugal, whose governors were appointed by the central government, 9 regions with expanded rights were formed. The government called this plan “the reform of the century,” while the right-wing opposition called it “a split in the nation.” On November 8, 1998, a referendum was held on the issue of administrative reform; less than 50% of voters took part in it. The plan was rejected by 63.6% of the vote.
Socialists also tried to implement a number of reforms in the political system, including the introduction of a quota for women's representation in parliament, reducing the number of deputies, allowing independent candidates in elections, and holding referendums. In 1997, some of the proposed measures were approved by Parliament, but the introduction of a quota for women was rejected by the Assembly on March 5, 1999.

In October 1999, the SP strengthened its position in the general parliamentary elections, winning 115 of 230 seats. The PSD received 81 seats, the coalition led by the PCP - 17, the PP - 15, the Left Bloc - 2. No significant changes were made in the new cabinet, but the ministries of finance and economy were merged under the leadership of Pina Moura. The collapse of the social services system (health care, education, social insurance) continued, which caused growing discontent among the population. As a result, the ruling SP was defeated in early parliamentary elections in March 2002. The right-wing parties - the SDP and the PP - returned to power. The post of Prime Minister was taken by PSD leader Jose Manuel Durán Barroso. A lawyer and political scientist by training, he was first elected to parliament from the PSD in 1985, the following year he was appointed Secretary of State in the Ministry of the Interior, and in 1987 - Secretary of State for Cooperation and Foreign Affairs in the Portuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (he was mainly involved in relations with former colonies in Africa). In 1992-1995 he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs.

The new government has announced its intention to introduce neoliberal reforms to the education system, increase taxes while reducing their progressivity, privatize state television, strengthen police and security measures, limit immigration, freeze public sector wages and cut public spending. Proposed changes to the country's labor laws led to general strikes in November and December 2002. In the field of foreign policy, Durán Barroso leaned towards the pro-American position of Spain and Great Britain.

In July 2004, Durán Barroso resigned as Prime Minister to take up the role of President of the European Commission. He also resigned as party leader.

General elections were held in February 2005. They were won by the Socialist Party, which won 120 of the 230 seats. Party leader José Socrates was appointed as the new prime minister. After his second term as president, Sampaia was succeeded by Anibal Cavaca Silva, former prime minister (1985-1995). Cavaco won more than 50 percent of the vote, avoiding a second round of voting.

The Age of Discovery, when the Portuguese discovered India and America, ended in the middle of the 17th century. Perhaps now, in the 21st century, the time has come for tourists to discover Portugal itself. After all, Portugal has not only football, but also ancient architectural monuments, medieval fortresses and palaces, excellent wines, beautiful nature and beach resorts, many of which are popular with European aristocratic families.

Geography of Portugal

Portugal is located on the famous Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern Europe. Portugal borders Spain to the north and east, and to the west and south it is washed by the Atlantic Ocean. Portugal includes the Azores Islands and the Madeira Archipelago. The total area of this country is 301,338 square meters. km.

The northern part of Portugal is occupied by mountains, and the southern part by plains and lowlands. The highest peak is Mount Estrela, whose height reaches 1,993 meters.

Several rivers flow through Portugal, the largest of which are the Tagus and the Duero.

Capital of Portugal

The capital of Portugal is Lisbon, which is now home to more than 550 thousand people. Archaeologists claim that human settlement on the site of modern Lisbon existed as early as 1,200 BC.

Official language

The official language in Portugal is Portuguese, which belongs to the Romance group of the Indo-European language family. The second official language in Portugal is Mirandese, which also belongs to the Romance group of languages. This language is spoken in the northeast of the country.

Religion

More than 91% of the population of Portugal are Catholics, belonging to the Roman Catholic Church. Another 3.2% of Portuguese consider themselves Protestants or Orthodox Christians.

State structure

According to the 1976 Constitution, Portugal is a parliamentary constitutional republic. The President is elected for 5 years. The country's parliament is the Assembleia da República, consisting of 230 deputies elected for a 4-year term.

The main political parties in Portugal are the Socialist Party, the Social Democratic Party, and the coalition of the Portuguese Communist Party and the Green Party.

Climate and weather

The climate in mainland Portugal varies significantly from region to region, depending on the topography and proximity to the sea. Winters are cold, especially in the interior of Portugal, and summers are hot and dry. In the coastal areas of the country, the air temperature is slightly lower due to the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.

The climate of the Azores is strongly influenced by the Gulf Stream, and is characterized by hot summers and warm winters. Madeira has a subtropical climate, the average temperature in summer is +24C, and in winter - +19C.

Ocean off Portugal

Portugal is washed by the Atlantic Ocean. Portugal includes the Azores Islands and the Madeira Archipelago (they are located in the Atlantic Ocean). The coastline of mainland Portugal is 943 km.

Average temperature of the Atlantic Ocean in the south of Portugal in the Algarve:

January - +14C
February - +14C
March - +16C
April - +16C
May - +17C
June - +19C
July - +20C
August - +21C
September - +21C
October - +19C
November - +17C
December - +15C

Rivers and lakes of Portugal

Most of Portugal's rivers originate in the Mesete mountains. The largest of them are Tajo, Duero, Minho and Guadiana. Another large Portuguese river has its source in the Serra da Estrela mountains.

There are no large natural lakes in mainland Portugal (there are only artificial reservoirs). However, there are several large lagoons.

Story

The history of Portugal dates back to the Celtic tribes who settled the Iberian Peninsula around 700 BC. Later, the territory of modern Portugal was conquered by the Romans, and then by the Moors (Arabs). Portugal (along with Spain) remained under Moorish rule for over 400 years.

It was not until 1143 that Portugal became an independent state under King Alfonso Henrique. In the 15th century, Portugal began to expand abroad, and the Portuguese built a huge colonial empire that included Africa, South America, India and the Far East. However, Spain conquered Portugal in the 16th century.

During the Napoleonic Wars, Portugal was captured by the French armies of Napoleon Bonaparte, but the French rule was short-lived. England intervened in the war and, in the end, Napoleonic soldiers left Portugal.

Throughout the 19th century, the decline of Portugal continued, and, ultimately, at the beginning of the 20th century, a revolution occurred in this country. The monarchy was dissolved in 1910, King Manuel II went into exile, and Portugal was declared a democratic republic.

In 1928, a military coup took place in Portugal, and Antonio de Oliveira Salazar came to power for many years. His reign lasted until 1968.

During World War II, Portugal declared its neutrality. After a military coup in 1974, Portugal recognized the independence of its African colonies.

In 1949, Portugal joined the NATO military bloc, and in 1986 it was admitted to the European Union. In 1999, Portugal handed over its Chinese colony of Macau to communist China.

Culture of Portugal

Portuguese culture takes its roots from the Celtic era, which had a great influence on local folklore. In turn, Portuguese culture during the Great Geographical Discoveries had a great influence on the culture of some countries in Africa and South America.

Traditional Portuguese Fado music is influenced by Arab, Greek, and Spanish musical traditions.

Portugal is a country of fairs, festivals and folk festivals. The most grandiose holiday is St. Anthony's Day, celebrated on June 13 every year in Lisbon. Saint Anthony was a Franciscan monk. He is considered the patron saint of sailors and poor people. On the night of June 12-13, Lisbon turns into one big fair.

On June 23-24, Porto celebrates the Day of Saint John, who is the patron saint of this city. On the night of June 23-24, literally all the residents of Porto take to the streets, and the city turns into one big carnival. Saint John's Day celebrations have pagan roots, when the Celts celebrated the summer solstice.

If you are in Portugal in August, be sure to visit the village of Santa Maria da Feira. This village hosts a knightly tournament every year, during which knights in heavy armor and wielding swords fight each other.

Kitchen

In the 15th century, the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator ordered all Portuguese sailors, traders and travelers to bring exotic fruits, vegetables and plants that they would encounter along their way to Portugal. Therefore, as a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, Portuguese cuisine was enriched with new products, as well as spices.

It was the Portuguese sailors who brought potatoes, tomatoes and tea to Europe. However, Portuguese cuisine was also greatly influenced by the Romans and Moors.

Fresh fish and shellfish are on the menu of every regional Portuguese cuisine. Traditional national Portuguese dish is “bacalhau” (dried cod). The Portuguese claim that there are 365 ways to cook dried cod.

Other traditional Portuguese dishes include "caldeirada" (fish or squid stew), "cozido à Portuguesa" (stewed vegetables with meat), "tripeiros" (pork sausages), "tripeiros" (meat dish), soup " caldo verde (with potatoes, cabbage and sausage), and pastel de nata cookies.

Portugal is famous for its wines. We advise tourists in this country to try the local Port wine, as well as Madeira.

Sights of Portugal

The Portuguese have always carefully preserved their historical monuments, so it is not surprising that there are so many attractions in this country. In our opinion, the top ten best Portuguese attractions include the following:

Cities and resorts

The largest Portuguese cities are Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Amadora, Funchal, and Setubal.

, Miranda (regional language)

Story

In the IV-III centuries BC. e. Most of the territory of Portugal was inhabited by the Indo-European tribes of the Lusitanians. At the end of the 1st century. BC e. The conquest of the territories of modern Portugal by Ancient Rome was completed. In the 2nd half of the V-VI centuries. n. e. The territory of modern Portugal was conquered by the Visigoths, led by King Theodoric II, in - gg. - Arabs. During the Reconquista, the County of Portugal was created in 868 through Vimara Peres, which became an independent kingdom in 1139 (officially in 1143). Sancho I the Settler made a contribution to the history of Portugal in the form of a conductor of reforms of a peaceful nature; under Afonso II, a parliament called the Cortes began working, and Afonso III of Boulogne completed the Reconquista. In - gg. there was a strengthening of the monarchy in Portugal, which was marked by transformations under Dinis I the Farmer, peace with the Kingdom of Castile and Leon, and the crisis of 1383-1385.

Since the 15th century, starting with the reign of João I of the Aviz dynasty, the colonial expansion of Portugal began; The Portuguese colonial empire reached its peak in the 1st half of the 16th century. In 1580, King Enrique dies and the Portuguese throne passes into the hands of the Spanish King Philip II of Habsburg. Until 1640, Portugal was in a personal union with Spain. At the beginning of the 18th century, she took part in the War of the Spanish Succession. The Treaty of Lisbon and the Treaty of Methuen, signed during the war, led to Portugal's economic and political dependence on Great Britain. In 1807, Portugal was invaded by the troops of Napoleon I, who were expelled in 1808 by British troops with the support of Portuguese patriots. XIX century was marked in Portugal by revolutions (the Portuguese Revolution of 1820, the September Revolution of 1836), civil wars (the Miguelist Wars, the War of Maria da Fonte), and an intense struggle between supporters and opponents of the constitution. From the 2nd half of the 19th century. The republican and socialist movement is developing in Portugal.

XX century

State structure

Portugal is a parliamentary-presidential republic. Legislative body - Assembly ( Assembleia da República), consists of 230 deputies ( deputados) and is elected according to party lists for 4 years. Head of state - president ( Presidente da República Portuguesa), elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term; advisory body to the President - the State Council ( Conselho de Estado), the executive body is the Council of Ministers, consisting of the Prime Minister ( Primeiro-ministro) and ministers, appointed by the President and responsible to the Assembly, the representative bodies of the autonomous regions - legislative assemblies ( Assembleia Legislativa), executive - regional governments ( governo regional), consisting of chairmen of regional governments ( presidente) and regional secretaries ( Secretario Regional), representative bodies of parishes - parish assemblies ( Assembleia de freguesia), executive bodies of parishes - parish councils ( Junta de freguesia), consisting of chairmen of parish councils ( presidente) and vowels (vogais), the body of constitutional supervision is the Constitutional Court ( Tribunal Constitutional), appointed by the Assembly, the highest court is the Supreme Court of Justice ( Supremo Tribunal de Justiça), appellate courts - judicial tribunals of second instance ( Tribunal judicial de Segunda Instância), courts of first instance - judicial tribunals of first instance ( Tribunal judicial de Primeira Instância), the highest court of administrative justice ( Supremo Tribunal Administrativo), courts of first instance of administrative justice - administrative courts ( Tribunal administration), the highest control body is the Court of Accounts ( Tribunal de Contas), prosecutorial supervision body - the Prosecutor General's Office ( Procuradoria-Geral da República Portuguesa), financial justice courts - fiscal courts ( Tribunal fiscal), courts of military justice - military courts ( tribunais militares), an official authorized to monitor the activities of government agencies - the General Ombudsman ( Provedor de Justiça).

Ministries of Portugal:

Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries
Ministry of Environment, Territorial Order and Regional Development
Ministry of Economy, Innovation and Development.

Political parties

Rights

National Renewal Party (Portugal) - far-right nationalist
People's Monarchist Party (Portugal) - royalist

Center-right

Social Democratic Party of Portugal - liberal-conservative
People's Party (Portugal) - conservative
New Democracy (Portugal) - conservative
Earth Party (Portugal) - conservative environmentalist

Center-left

Socialist Party - socialist
Portuguese Workers' Party - Social Democratic
Humanist Party (Portugal)
Democratic Party of the Atlantic - an Azorean former right-wing party that has shifted to the left

Left

Coalition for Democratic Unity:
- Green Party (port. Os Verdes) - environmentalist
Left Bloc (port. Bloco de Esquerda) - an association of communist parties, including the Trotskyist Revolutionary Socialist Party and the ex-Maoist People's Democratic Union
Communist Party of Portuguese Workers - Maoist
Workers Party of Socialist Unity - Trotskyist
LIVRE - ecosocialist
Party for Animals and Nature - Zooprotective

Trade unions

General Workers' Union ( União Geral de Trabalhadores) - the main trade union center, traditionally associated with the Socialist Party, has 400 thousand members.
General Confederation of Portuguese Workers ( Confederação Geral dos Trabalhadores Portugueses), traditionally associated with the Communist Party, has 800 thousand members.

Administrative division

Capital

Located on the coast of the Tagus River. The area of the capital is 84 km². Population - 556,797 people. Greater Lisbon (metropolitan area) - 2750 km² and population of 2.1 million people.

The mayor of the city is António Luis Santos da Costa.

Other cities

Portimão (Portimão)

Physiographic characteristics

Climate

The climate is subtropical, Mediterranean. Average temperatures in January are 5-10°C, in July 20-27°C. Precipitation on the plains is from 400 to 800 mm, in the mountains from 1000 to 2500 mm per year.

Relief

The relief of the provinces of Minho in the west and Alto Traz-o-Montes and Alto Douro in the east, located north of the river. Douro, rugged, mountainous. The province of Beira, extending from the river. Douro to the upper section of the river. The Tagus, with the exception of the coastal plain, is also occupied by mountains. In its central part is the highest point in Portugal - Mount Torre (1993 m). Fertile plains in the lower reaches of the river. The Tagus (province of Ribatejo) and the coastal area north and south of the capital Lisbon belong to the province of Estremadura. To the east and south of it lies the province of Alentejo, with a soft hilly topography, and the entire southern part of Portugal is occupied by the plains of the Algarve province, similar in natural conditions to the Mediterranean zone of North Africa.

Rivers and lakes

Flora and fauna

Despite the human factor, the climatic features of the region are reflected by the natural environment: flora and fauna. Near the coast the vegetation is dominated by pine. The coastal strip of the central and northern parts of the country is occupied by forests (mainly Portuguese oak, with broom among the shrubs). In arid areas, climatic conditions favor the growth of cork and holm oaks.

Overall, approximately a fifth of Portuguese territory is covered by forest. Approximately 50% of the forest is coniferous trees (mostly pine). Cork oak is planted on an area of 607 thousand hectares. Thanks to this, Portugal supplies about 50% of the world's cork. The area of eucalyptus plantations is growing, which are characterized by rapid growth and this is the most important source of raw materials for the pulp and paper industry. It can be said that Portugal's economy largely depends on forests.

The fauna of Portugal is generally consistent with the rest of Europe. On its territory you can find lynxes, wild forest cats, wolves, foxes, wild boars, bears and many species of rodents. Among the representatives of the North African fauna - genet, chameleon, etc. Due to the fact that Portugal is located on one of the main migration routes of migratory birds, you can find a huge variety of birds. The proximity of the ocean promotes fishing (about 200 species of fish live in the coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean): sardines, anchovies, tuna.

Soil cover

The soils of Portugal are mainly sandy, acidic, formed mainly on volcanic rocks. The exception is the fertile loamy soils of the alluvial plain in the lower reaches of the river. Tagus. There are several seismically active zones in Portugal, the largest of which are located in the Algarve, Minho and near Lisbon.

Economy

Portugal is an industrial-agrarian country. The most important traditional industries are textiles (cotton and wool), clothing, winemaking (port wine is especially famous), production of olive oil, canned fish, processing of cork bark (leading place in the world), ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering (shipbuilding and ship repair, auto assembly, electrical); The chemical, oil refining, petrochemical, and cement industries are developing. Agriculture is dominated by farming. About half of the cultivated land is occupied by arable land; viticulture, fruit growing, olive plantings. In livestock farming, cattle breeding, sheep farming, pig farming, fishing.

The main foreign trade partners are the countries of the European Community.

Foreign tourism - approx. 10 million people per year.

In connection with the change in the text of the constitution (), a privatization law was passed (enterprises nationalized after 1974 were privatized; the role of government regulation in the economy decreased; private investment by Portuguese citizens in domestic enterprises was allowed). The state pledged to promote the restructuring of unprofitable enterprises and the development of the Portuguese capital market. Huge amounts of money were allocated for improvement: in 1993-2000, the share of the population using the drinking water supply system increased from 61 to 95%, and the sewer network from 55 to 90%.

Economic policy is aimed at liberalizing and modernizing the economy, further privatization of state-owned companies, and structural restructuring of the banking and telecommunications sectors. The fiscal sphere after the tax reform ensured an influx of government revenues and a reduction in the budget deficit for 1996-2003. from 5 to 2.4% of GDP. In the monetary sphere, measures were taken to promote fiscal stability. Budget revenues amounted to $45 billion, expenses - $48 billion. In 1996-2003. annual inflation rates decreased from 7.8 to 3.1%. Social policy is aimed at reforming the system of social and labor relations and ensuring employment. In 2002, the unemployment rate was 4.7%, the human development index was 0.925.

Thanks to export growth in the second quarter. In 2013, Portugal's economic growth was the strongest among EU countries: GDP increased by 1.1% compared to the first quarter; before that, the economy was in recession for 10 quarters in a row.

The minimum wage in Portugal in 2018 is 676.67 euros. The average salary in Portugal for 2018 is 1144.61 euros. From 1 January 2019, the minimum wage in Portugal is €700. The Kaitz index (the ratio between the minimum and average wages in the country) in Portugal as of 2017 (average €1148.29, minimum €676.67) is 60%.

Population

The average age is 39.1 years (for men - 37 years; for women - 41.3 years). The annual increase is 0.305%. Birth rate - 10.45 (per thousand people). The fertility rate is 1.49. Mortality - 10.62 (per thousand people).

Culture

Main article: Culture of Portugal

Holidays and weekends

Media

Seal

Broadcasting

Television and radio broadcasting in Portugal is divided into public and commercial; in addition, in Portugal there is an element of state television and radio broadcasting in the form of the parliamentary television channel ARtv. Public Broadcaster - RTP ( Radio e Televisão de Portugal- Radio and Television of Portugal), broadcasts on TV channel 1 (RTP1) and TV channel 2 (RTP2) and through 3 radio stations (Antena 1, Antena 2 and Antena 3). Commercial broadcasters are SIC and TVI. The public broadcaster's compliance with media laws is monitored by the Independent General Council ( Conselho Geral Independente), for commercial broadcasters - the Social Communications Regulatory Authority ( Entidade Reguladora para a Comunicação Social) (formerly the Higher Directorate of Social Communications ( Alta Autoridade para a Comunicação Socia)).

Depending on the method of signal distribution, television in Portugal is divided into terrestrial, cable, satellite and IPTV, radio broadcasting is represented only by terrestrial, public radio stations can broadcast through terrestrial, cable, satellite television and IPTV, in common multiplexes with public TV channels, in addition there are several Internet - radio stations, on-air radio broadcasting is carried out in the analogue standard on VHF, in the VHF version OIRT, Antena 1 also on CB and the digital standard DAB on HF.

Russian-language media

Newspaper "Slovo" - "Slovo" is a Russian-language newspaper for tourists and Russian-speaking people living in Europe
Lighthouse of Portugal - "Lighthouse of Portugal" - Russian-language newspaper for immigrants from Eastern Europe

Literature

"Amadis of Gaul" is of Portuguese origin - one of the most famous chivalric romances of the late Middle Ages, which came down to us in later Spanish adaptations of the 16th century.

Among the most famous and significant works of the Renaissance in Portuguese literature, one can note the epic poem “The Lusiads” () by Luis de Camões. This is the first work describing geographical discoveries. Other prominent Portuguese poets of the time include Sá de Miranda. Playwright Gil Vicente made a great contribution to the development of Portuguese theater in the 16th century.

The greatest exponent of 19th-century Portuguese literature was the realist writer José Maria Eça de Queiroz. Among the Portuguese authors of the 20th century are the symbolist Eugenio de Castro, the mystic and impressionist Raul Brandan, Wenceslau de Morais, the religious symbolists António Correia d'Oliveira and Afonso Lopes Vieira, and the modernist Fernando Pessoa.

The most striking phenomenon in Portuguese literature of the 20th century was the work of José Saramago. A member of the once-banned Portuguese Communist Party, Saramago has consistently gravitated to the left. His phantasmagoric prose is filled with the idea of universal equality and deep humanism. The author's anti-clerical views have repeatedly provoked fierce accusations from the Catholic Church, which did not prevent him from becoming a laureate of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature after the publication of the novel “The Gospel According to Jesus.”

Music

The basis of the culture, including music, of the Portuguese is the Romanesque culture, which during the formation and development of the Portuguese state was influenced by many cultural components introduced by both the conquerors of the Portuguese lands and the peoples of the vast possessions captured by the Portuguese. The music of Portugal has common origins with the music of Spain and has developed over the centuries in interaction with it, while being distinguished by its strong originality.

The most common song genre is fado (solo lyrical song), which plays an important role in the national identity of the Portuguese, as it draws a clear line between the bright and lively Spanish rhythms, representing the exuberant and harsh Spanish character, and the soft and melancholic soul of the Portuguese people.

fine arts

Portugal has never been the leading European power in the field of fine arts. Even during the Renaissance, the country's greatest prosperity, Portuguese artists, the greatest of whom was Nuno Gonçalves, remained on the periphery of European development. In the 19th century, the most notable representatives of Portuguese painting and, in fact, the founders of the modern national artistic tradition were José Malhoa, José Julio de Sousa Pinto and Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro. The most famous Portuguese artist is considered to be Amadeu de Sousa-Cardoso, who died at the age of 30, who received his art education in France and worked in avant-garde painting styles.

Language

Portugal is a country with a single state official language - Portuguese. It is spoken by more than 200 million people around the world on three continents: Eurasia, Africa and South America. Portuguese is similar to Spanish, since both belong to the Ibero-Romance subgroup of the Romance group of languages, however, despite the similar grammatical structure, there are significant differences in pronunciation between them. The formation of the language was greatly influenced by the Germanic tribes and Arabs (Moors), from whom the Portuguese language borrowed many words, as well as contacts of travelers, discoverers and merchants with Asian peoples.

In addition, the status of the official language of Portugal since 1999 has been the Miranda language, which is spoken by the population of a small area in northeastern Portugal (municipalities of Miranda do Douro, Vimioso, Mogadouro).

The Galician language, which does not have official status, is quite widespread throughout Portugal and especially its northern part.

Religion

About 90% of the country's population professes Catholicism. Catholicism in Portugal has always been associated with local traditions; the population honored the memory of many popular local saints, whose memorial days are celebrated solemnly as church holidays. The village of Fatima, where the Virgin Mary is believed to have appeared to three children in 1917, has become a popular pilgrimage site.

Over the past 25 years, due to mass labor migration from Eastern European countries, the number of Orthodox Christians in Portugal has increased significantly (60-80 thousand). Another 135 thousand Portuguese are followers of various pseudo-Christian religious organizations; first of all this