Have you decided to monitor your diet, the ratio of proteins, fats and carbohydrates? You've once heard about proteins and fats, but what about carbohydrates? What do you eat them with? Where to get it? What products contain simple carbohydrates, and which ones are complex, we will look at this in the article.

Good day, friends. Svetlana Morozova is with you. To build a healthy and strong body, which even in old age will be anywhere, you need to know what to build from. And today we will talk again. Namely, about carbohydrates.

Friends! I, Svetlana Morozova, invite you to mega useful and interesting webinars! Presenter: Andrey Eroshkin. Health restoration expert, registered dietitian.

Topics of upcoming webinars:

• How to lose weight without willpower and prevent the weight from coming back?
• How to become healthy again without pills, the natural way?
• Where do kidney stones come from and what can be done to prevent them from appearing again?
• How to stop visiting gynecologists and give birth healthy child and not grow old at 40?

Carbohydrate boom

So what are carbohydrates? Let's remember school chemistry lessons. Even if I would like to forget. We all learned that carbohydrates are divided into simple and complex, or fast and slow. It depends on the structure of the molecule. When complex carbohydrates are digested, they break down into simple ones, so they take longer to digest. Let's figure out what this means:

• Simple carbohydrates . They quickly break down and give us energy here and now. But this effect does not last long. In addition, simple carbohydrates sharply increase blood sugar. This means that using them too often violates. This is how even violations begin.

What applies to fast carbohydrates:

• Monosaccharides are one sugar molecule: glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose.
• Oligosaccharides - among them the most are disaccharides, which consist of two sugar molecules: lactose, sucrose, maltose, cellobiose.

Perfect as a snack if you need to urgently recharge before an exam or performance.

• Complex carbohydrates. They take a long time to digest, and they provide energy for a long time. At the same time, their glycemic index(shows the rate at which carbohydrate breaks down into glucose) low. That is, it does not affect blood sugar levels.

These include polysaccharides, which contain several sugar molecules. What is included here: starch, glycogen, cellulose, fiber, chitin.

What we eat: where are carbohydrates found?

We get a lot of carbohydrates in our food every day. We will look at which foods contain simple carbohydrates and which contain complex ones in the list.

Simple:

• Sugar.
• Confectionery, sweets: chocolate, donuts, waffles, cookies, cakes, halva, marshmallows.
• White bread, rich pastries.
• Juices, compotes, jams, syrups.
• Dried fruits.
• Sweet fruits: apples, peaches, citrus fruits, pears.
• Berries: grapes, watermelon, strawberries (sweet).
• Wine, beer, kvass, soda.

Difficult:

• Cereals, cereals, bran.
• Vegetables: potatoes, cabbage, carrots, beets.
• Pasta, wholemeal bread.
• Legumes.

What are carbohydrates and why are they there at all?

I know that many people think that fast carbohydrates are harmful, but slow carbohydrates are the opposite. Not at all, it happens that a low glycemic index is not yet an indicator of usefulness. For example, watermelon, which contains a lot of simple carbohydrates, has a high index, but low calorie content and does not increase blood glucose. But with potatoes or the same pasta, the opposite is true.

Nowadays it is a very popular opinion that if you want to lose weight, then don’t even put carbohydrate foods in your mouth. This is fundamentally wrong. Why?

Let's look at what carbohydrates give us:

• Energy. This is the most main function. It is glycogen stores in the muscles and liver, as well as free glucose in the blood, that provide us with energy. If carbohydrate food we are in short supply, first we feel physical weakness, and then mental weakness. Absent-mindedness, lack of concentration, bad memory, the mind is not so sharp. Therefore, by the way, young ladies who are such fans of all kinds of diets most often behave inhibited and very typical.
• Construction of cells. Carbohydrates are part of DNA and RNA, bones, cartilage, and form the basis of cell membranes and enzymes.
• Protection. All the mucous that we have also contains carbohydrates. The membranes of the respiratory and digestive tracts, genitourinary system. Firstly, they serve as a barrier to infection, and secondly, they play the role of a kind of airbag, protecting against mechanical injuries.
• Digestion. Fiber, a complex carbohydrate, is not digested. At all. Therefore, it tones up, improves its functioning, helps food move and digest. Plus carbohydrate-based enzymes - some are also digestive.
• Process regulation. Firstly, it has an anticoagulating function (against the formation of blood clots and blood clotting when not needed). Secondly, stopping the development of the tumor. Third, some carbohydrates interact with hormones and medicinal substances, help them get to the right place.

Weight loss factor

I suspect that the main contingent of readers of this article are people who want to know how to eat , to lose weight.

I reveal all the protein-carbohydrate-fat secrets:

1. Carbohydrates – to be. What's the secret healthy weight loss, I think everyone knows. But I want to remind you once again, because this is the most important thing. . All our attempts to lose weight show that the metabolism has been disrupted, since excess weight has been gained. Our task is to restore metabolic processes. Therefore, we must eat everything. Under no circumstances do we throw our chests into the embrasure, or sit on one-sided ones, where they require us to completely give up carbohydrates. Or fats. The only question is the ratio of dietary fat and calories.

• Daily norm. How much carbohydrate should you eat per day:
• If you are losing weight, then your norm is 150-200 g of carbohydrates.
• If you just want to eat right without changing your weight, the norm for you is 300-400 g.

You are an avid athlete, or your job is physically exhausting, you need to eat 500 g daily or more.

2. Simple carbohydrates are not outcasts. You can't give them up completely. Of course, the base is something that is rich in complex carbohydrates - fiber and pectin, i.e. cereals and vegetables should have an advantage. But simple ones should be at least a quarter of the total amount of carbohydrates.

3. BJU. We also pay attention to fats and proteins. If you have a choice , Which is better to cut, carbohydrates or proteins, then it’s better to have a little more protein. By 5-10%.

• for men who work out in the gym, the proportions B/F/U are 30/20/60;
• for women who want to lose weight - 50/20/30;
• for women, with overweight about 10 kg - 60/15/25;
• for obese men - 50/20/30.

This applies to your diet for the whole day. In one meal, carbohydrates are better and acidic foods, otherwise they will interfere with each other’s understanding.

The table will help you figure out how many grams of carbohydrates are contained where.

Well, my friends. I hope I have completely satisfied your hunger for information regarding carbohydrates.

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Contents:

What effect do carbohydrates have on the body? What types of carbohydrates are divided into and what foods contain the most amount of them.

For general feeling comfort and normal operation Each cell in our body must receive a certain energy charge. In addition, without sufficient energy, the brain is not able to perform coordination tasks, receive and transmit commands. To eliminate such problems, carbohydrates should be supplied with food in the amount 100-150 grams (minimum). But what are carbohydrates and what foods contain this element? Their varieties and features? These points will be discussed in detail in the article.

Benefit and action

The benefits of carbohydrates are difficult to overestimate. The substances have the following effects:

• They are the main suppliers of energy to cells.
• They are part of cell membranes.
• They protect the body from the accumulation of toxins and cleanse the gastrointestinal tract (primarily cellulose).
• Strengthen immune system and contribute to more effective fight organism with viruses and bacteria.
• Used in food industry as an additive, used in pharmacology and medicine.

Every person should know what foods are carbohydrates. Availability at least minimal knowledge in this area - a chance to correctly formulate a diet, to avoid excess or deficiency, which is very dangerous for health.

• loss of strength;
• apathy and depression;
• decrease in the level of vital proteins in the body.

Symptoms of excess:

• weight gain;
• malfunctions in the central nervous system;
• a jump in insulin in the blood;
• muscle tremor;
• inability to concentrate;
• excessive activity;
• disruption of the pancreas

Carbohydrate needs

Nutritionists claim that the lower level daily consumption carbohydrates – 100 grams per day. At the same time, the need for the element increases:

• with increased mental and physical stress;
• during lactation;
• during pregnancy;
• under active production loads and so on.

With average activity, the body should receive 300-400 grams.

Foods rich in carbohydrates are required in less volume when the body's productivity is low (calm rhythm of life). So, if a person hardly moves and sits all day in front of the TV or studies sedentary work, then carbohydrate intake can be limited to 100 grams/day.

What types are there?

It has already been proven that carbohydrates come in two types:

1. Complex. The peculiarity is a longer process of assimilation. This category includes polysaccharides that have vegetable origin(including starch). There is an increasingly common opinion that it is starch that causes weight gain. This is wrong. Polysaccharides are gradually absorbed by the body and normalize the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract. Starch belongs to the “slow” category due to prolonged digestion in the stomach. At the same time, the glucose level remains at safe level(as opposed to taking sugar). The less starch is processed before consumption, the better it is for the body. That is why it is not recommended to cook products containing it for a long time. Thus, carbohydrates include polysaccharides, which are directly involved in the normalization of intestinal microflora. Also included in this category are glycogen and fiber, which have a positive effect on the body, supply cells with energy and ensure normal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract. Slow carbohydrates are found in various foods:
   • Starch - in flour products, potatoes, cereals.
   • Glycogen (animal type starch) – present in muscles and liver.
   • Fiber. Foods rich in carbohydrates of this type - rye bran, buckwheat, vegetables, fruits, wholemeal bread and so on.
2. Simple. There is another type of carbohydrates - di- and monosaccharides. This category includes sucrose, fructose and other elements. The first thing that deserves attention here is the sugar we are used to, which is formed from a pair of molecules (fructose and glucose). After entering the body, sucrose quickly breaks down, is absorbed and saturates the blood plasma with glucose. At the same time, the body is often unable to use all the incoming substances, which is why it is forced to transfer them into fat deposits. This situation is possible when monosaccharides are actively absorbed in the intestines, and organs and tissues consume elements at a low rate. Fructose, unlike glucose, does not burden the insulin system, but in case of excessive intake it still leads to fat gain. Many people mistakenly believe that by replacing sucrose with fructose, they avoid excess weight. This is not true, since both elements belong to the class of monosaccharides and are digested equally quickly. For this reason, it is worth knowing what classifies as carbohydrates and which foods contain mono- and disaccharides. Thanks to this, it is possible to reduce their intake to a minimum and maintain weight at the same level. When purchasing food products, you should pay attention to the content of modified starch. The latter is also processed at high speed (like monosaccharides). At the same time, the rate of absorption is reflected in a special parameter - the glycemic index. Let's summarize. Fast carbohydrates include:
   • Glucose – found in grapes, honey, grape juice.
   • Sucrose. Sources include jams, confectionery, compotes, and sugar.
   • Fructose. Comes with citrus fruits, peaches, compotes, jam, honey, juices and other products.
   • Lactose. What foods are rich in these types of carbohydrates? Here it is worth highlighting kefir, milk, cream and others.
   • Maltose. Sources: kvass and beer.

How are they absorbed?

It was noted above that carbohydrates include a substance that can cover energy deficits and is divided into two types (simple and complex). But there is another classification of substances - by degree of digestibility:

• with rapid digestibility;
• with slow digestibility;
• indigestible (those that are not accepted by the body at all).

The first category includes galactose, fructose and glucose. Most important element– glucose, which is directly responsible for providing the body with energy. As for fructose and galactose, they are also converted into glucose. Vegetable carbohydrates deserve special attention. They are often slow and are divided into two categories:

• digestible;
• indigestible.

Starch, which is formed from glucose molecules, is indigestible. As for cellulose (fiber), it is not an energy supplier. The main effect of fiber is aimed at cleaning the intestinal walls from various types of contaminants.

What carbohydrates should you consume?

Every person should understand which foods are carbohydrates and which are proteins. This allows you to properly build your diet and eliminate the risks of gaining excess weight. But which carbohydrates should you prefer – fast or slow? Fast representatives are good when the body needs a large portion of energy at a time, for example, after an active workout or before upcoming mental work. In such cases, it is recommended to eat food that is rich in mono- and disaccharides - sweets, honey, chocolate.

If you are planning work that will take a long period of time, it is recommended to take polysaccharides that are characterized by slow digestibility. In this case, it is possible to cover the energy deficit for a long period of time. If the goal is weight loss, then it is recommended to saturate your diet with complex carbohydrates.

It is worth remembering that an active “injection” of energy is dangerous for the nervous system and can cause malfunctions in many systems.

Foods containing carbohydrates

To properly build your diet, you should know which foods are carbohydrates. The list below will help you choose the right diet for every day. There are three categories worth distinguishing here:

1. Approved for consumption. This includes foods that contain slow carbohydrates or do not contain them at all:
   • boiled meat;
   • mutton;
   • chicken, rabbit;
   • ham;
   • beef stew;
   • eggs;
   • pork goulash;
   • sausages;
   • salted herring;
   • smoked salmon;
   • boiled fish and so on.
2. Allowed for occasional use. Now let's look at which foods are carbohydrates and should be taken in the absence of large quantities:
   • Vegetables - chickpeas, soybeans, lentils, beets, pumpkin, onions.
   • Soups – mushroom, tomato, vegetable, pea.
   • Dairy products - kefir, sour cream, milk, yogurt.
   • Fruits and berries – plum, kiwi, avocado, peach, fig.
3. Not recommended for use. Now let's mention “harmful” foods rich in carbohydrates. The list looks like this:
   • baked potato;
   • potato chips;
   • sweets (cakes, pastries, granulated sugar, marmalade);
   • white bread;
   • sweet drinks.

Below we will consider an additional list - what refers to carbohydrates (products containing mono-, di- and polysaccharides per 100 grams):

• sugar - 99.9 g;
• bee honey - 80.2 g;
• marmalade – 79 g;
• dates - 69 g;
• barley – 67 g;
• Kishmish (raisins) – 66 g;
• apple jam - 65 g;
• rice - 62 g;
• buckwheat – 60 g;
• corn - 61.5 g;
• wheat flour - 61.5 g.

Results

To achieve good health and provide the body with the required amount of energy, you should approach the formation of your diet and the intake of mono-, di- and polysaccharides wisely. Please note the following nuances:

• The maximum useful elements are contained in the shell of grain crops, as well as in the wheat germ.
• Greatest nutritional value- in bran, whole grain and cereals.
• Rice is easily digested by the body, but it contains little fiber, vitamins and minerals.
• Some foods that are rich in carbohydrates contain large amounts of fat (chocolate).
• If you want to maintain your figure, you should focus on slow carbohydrates - vegetables, cereals, legumes and fruits.
• Understand what qualifies as carbohydrates. The table below will help you stay in shape.

Carbohydrates - big class organic compounds, a universal source of energy for the human body. Carbohydrates are essential for normal health; they are involved in the production of hormones, enzymes and other body compounds. For proper nutrition you need to know what foods are carbohydrates, and also be able to distinguish between simple and complex carbohydrates.

What are simple carbohydrates?

Simple or fast carbohydrates are sucrose, fructose and glucose. Foods containing a lot of simple carbohydrates cause the production of large amounts of insulin and trigger the process of fat deposition. That is why it is recommended to exclude simple carbohydrates during diets.

However, the body needs glucose for normal metabolism and brain function. It is advisable to consume it in reasonable quantities, and it is found mainly in berries and fruits; the champions in the amount of glucose are cherries, watermelon, raspberries, pumpkin, and grapes.

Fructose is also found in berries and fruits. It is sweeter, so by replacing sugar with fructose, you can reduce the total calorie content of sweets consumed. In addition, fructose does not cause a sharp jump in insulin levels, so it is recommended for diabetics instead of sugar.

Sucrose is the most unhealthy carbohydrate. It breaks down very quickly and is stored in fat cells. Contains sucrose in confectionery, sweet drinks, ice cream, and also in beets, peaches, melon, carrots, tangerines, etc.

Complex or slow carbohydrates are starch, pectin, fiber, glycogen. The body spends a fairly large amount of energy on the breakdown of these carbohydrates; they enter the blood evenly and in small volumes, therefore they create a feeling of satiety and do not cause a sharp jump in insulin.

Tips for proper nutrition

Nutritionists do not recommend completely eliminating it from the diet. Naturally, simple carbohydrates should be limited, and complex carbohydrates should preferably be consumed in the first half of the day. If you don't know which foods are carbohydrates, you can refer to tables showing the composition of basic foods.

IN daily ration carbohydrate products should be approximately 400-500 g. If you are on a diet, consume at least 100 g of foods containing slow carbohydrates daily.

For active work The human body must receive a daily dose of energy. Without this, he will not be able to perform even the simplest tasks, and this guarantees health problems and deterioration in overall well-being. Carbohydrates are suppliers of that same energy, indispensable for the normal functioning of all systems.

Why are carbohydrates needed? What are the dangers of their excess and deficiency, what are they, what are carbohydrates and what foods do they contain? All these issues will be discussed in the article.

It is important to consume at least the minimum daily intake of carbohydrates, primarily because these substances are the body’s main energy source. This is a primary, but far from their only function. In addition to providing energy, carbohydrates perform the following tasks:

• Participate in the formation of natural immunity and the fight against infectious diseases
• Are integral part cell membranes
• Take part in the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, contribute to the timely removal of toxins from the body
• They play an important role in the synthesis process nucleic acids, fats, in particular cholesterol, and other organic compounds
• Used in the food and medical industries

It is impossible to neglect carbohydrate-containing foods, especially for people whose lifestyle requires constant movement and high energy expenditure. In case of carbohydrate deficiency in human body violations will inevitably arise and unpleasant symptoms, namely:

• Chronic fatigue, apathy. Not receiving enough energy from incoming carbohydrates, the body begins to replenish its reserves with the help of other compounds - proteins and lipids. This is a costly process, so even with a normal rhythm of life a person will feel tired. Attention and concentration fall, memory problems arise.
• Weight instability. If there is a lack of carbohydrates, weight will initially decrease due to water loss, but not for long. When the blood sugar level rises, the hormone insulin begins to work, which is also responsible for the accumulation of lipid reserves in the body. Thus, extra pounds will come back again.
• Loss of strength. The reason, again, is a lack of energy. A person experiencing a carbohydrate deficiency will be constantly tired, no matter how much time he spends on sleep and rest.
• Headaches. This happens due to lack of sugar in the blood. When the body uses up all its glucose reserves, fats are used, and this process is often accompanied by weakness and dizziness.
• Problems with stool. If there is a lack of fiber, work gastrointestinal tract is disrupted, causing constipation and abdominal pain.

But you shouldn’t greatly exceed the norm - it’s not always safe. Due to an excess of carbohydrates, the following may occur:

• Hyperactivity
• Problems concentrating
• Trembling in the body

All these symptoms are caused by excess sugar. In addition, in case of excessive consumption of carbohydrates, a person will experience rapid weight gain - insulin, which fights excess incoming glucose, will convert it into fat.

Carbohydrate needs

The average daily intake of carbohydrates depends on many factors - a person’s lifestyle, his age, weight, external conditions. The best option It is generally accepted to be 300-450g per day. A person of working age needs to consume about 50g of simple carbohydrates and 300-400g of complex carbohydrates daily.

Children need carbohydrates the most. A growing body requires more energy, so it is important to ensure that the child’s diet has enough of these substances.

The minimum daily carbohydrate intake is 100g. If this rule is not followed, serious problems begin in the body's functioning.

What are there

Carbohydrates are classified into two categories, namely simple and complex.

1. Simple carbohydrates. They are classified as monosaccharides and disaccharides; This group includes the well-known sucrose and fructose. The structure of simple carbohydrates is simple, which is why they got their name. They quickly break down in the body and instantly enter the blood, saturating it with energy. Simple carbohydrates include:

• Sucrose . Beet sugar, which can be hydrolyzed into fructose and glucose under the influence of acid or enzyme. Sucrose is found in all plants, especially in sugar cane and beets. Its most common and accessible source is ordinary sugar.
• Fructose. Fruit sugar is found in free form in some fruits and bees' honey. Fructose is involved in the process of metabolism and carbohydrate synthesis.
• Glucose. Grape sugar is necessary to supply living cells with energy. Glucose is often used in confectionery production, found in ripe fruits, berries, grape juice.
• Maltose . Malt sugar is broken down to form two molecules of glucose. Easily absorbed by the body, large quantities it can be found in sprouted grains.

1. Complex carbohydrates. Consist of monosaccharides and have more complex structure than simple carbohydrates. Once in the body, they are broken down and absorbed more slowly, so the level of glucose in the blood rises gradually. Complex carbohydrates maintain body tone and normalize the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, and also give a feeling of fullness for a long time. for a long time. Among them are:

• Starch. It is formed in plants and is low in calories. Stimulates the body's metabolic processes, controls blood sugar levels, and has a positive effect on the immune system. Especially in some cereals and potatoes.
• Fiber. It is a coarse fiber found in vegetables, fruits, and legumes. Improves intestinal function, but is poorly absorbed and is almost completely eliminated from the body.
• Glycogen. This is a reserve carbohydrate for animals and humans. Saturates the blood with glucose, necessary for building muscles. A lot of starch is found in mushrooms, yeast and sweet corn.
• Pectins. Helps the body get rid of toxins and toxic substances, bind and remove excess cholesterol formed in the liver. They are found in large quantities in apples and are practically not digested by the intestines.

How are they absorbed?

During the oxidation process, carbohydrates are broken down and processed into glucose. Sugar is released into the blood, and its amount depends on the volume and quality of carbohydrate-containing food eaten. The simpler the carbohydrate, the more sugar will enter the body during its breakdown.

Increased sugar content provokes the production of the hormone insulin. It distributes energy between cells, and its excess is stored by the body in the liver. After consuming carbohydrates, your sugar levels will drop and return to normal within a few hours.

Based on the degree of digestibility, carbohydrates are divided into three groups:

• Quickly digestible
• Slowly digestible
• Indigestible

Plant carbohydrates can also be divided into categories:

• Digestible
• Indigestible

The latter include starch, cellulose and pectins. Only starch supplies energy; the action of pectin and cellulose is aimed at removing waste and toxins from the body.

What carbohydrates are best to eat?

It is important to know which foods are proteins and fats and which are carbohydrates so that foods with the right ingredients make up your diet and provide a healthy diet.

Both complex and simple carbohydrates are important in their own way. Simple representatives are recommended in cases where it is necessary to short term restore strength after heavy physical activity– for example, training. An instant release of sugar into the blood will give the body the necessary energy. Foods rich in monosaccharides and disaccharides, such as honey or chocolate, are best.

Complex carbohydrates are suitable if the work takes a long period of time. They will be digested more slowly and will leave you feeling full for several hours.

When losing weight, it would be better to limit yourself to only complex carbohydrates - a lot of sugar in the body will prevent you from losing excess weight. And it is worth remembering that large quantities of simple carbohydrates are dangerous and can cause harm to the body.

Foods containing carbohydrates

This macronutrient is found in a wide variety of foods. But not all of them are equally useful, so it is important to be able to classify foods rich in carbohydrates in order to eat properly. Complex carbohydrates in the diet should be six to seven times more than simple ones.

Simple carbohydrates contain:

• Confectionery
• Alcoholic drinks
• Sweet carbonated and non-carbonated drinks
• Sugar
• Chocolate
• Jams, marmalade
• Glucose syrups
• Bakery products
• Sweet canned food
• Dried fruits
• Almost any fast food
• Ice cream
• Compotes
• Compotes
• Pumpkin
• Sugar beet
• Muesli
• Almost all types of fruits
• Almost all types of berries

Products containing complex carbohydrates include:

Please help me prepare for the test, I can’t do anything... 1. what substances belong to lipids? 2. what are nucleic acids?

3. what organisms are prokaryotes? 4. who are viruses? 5. what organisms are classified as autotrophs? 6. What organisms are heterotrophs? 6. What is cytokinesis? 7. What is apogynesis? 8. What are homogynesis, ontogynesis, conjugation and homeostasis? 8. In what year did the birth of genetics take place? 9. monohybrid and dihybrid crossing? 10. What genes are called allelic? 11. What is crossing over? 12. signs of heredity and modification?

1 What substances does deoxyribose belong to?

and lipids
into carbohydrate
with protein
d polysacchoride

2 What percentage of a living cell is water on average?
and 20%
at 50%
from 80%
d 90%

3 what inorganic compound regulates osmotic pressure?
and fat
to ATP
with Na+Cl-
d protein

4 Which compound contains Fe?
and chlorophyll
to ATP
with DNA
d hemoglobin

5 What percentage are macronutrients?
and 12%
in 56%
from 2%
d 80%

6 Monosaccharides include:
and glycogen
into sugar
with ribose
d cellulose

7 how much energy is released during the breakdown of carbohydrates (kJ)?
a 17
at 36
from 14
d 50

8 what role is not typical for lipids?
and construction
in energy
with catalytic
d storage

9 hydrophobicity is inherent:
and glucose
into glycogen
with fructose
d ribose

10 five carbon sugar:
and glycogen
in deoxyribose
with glucose
d lactose

11 product of fat breakdown:
a C, O, H, N
in glucose
with glycerin
d lipids

12 function of fats
and energy
in catalytic
with enzymatic
d information

13 fats:
and hydrophilic
biosimilar
with hydrophobic
d polymeric

14 lipids are:
a molecule of 2 carboxylic acids + carbohydrate + alcohol
a molecule of 3 carboxylic acids
with a molecule of 1 carboxylic acid + alcohol
d glycerin and 3 carboxylic acids

15 Lipids include:
and chitin
into starch
with myelin
d glycogen

1. what organisms are eukaryotes?

a) viruses

B) bacteria

B) bacteriophages

D) plants, animals, mushrooms

2. Who is one of the founders of cell theory?

A) R. Virchow

B) A. van Leeuwenhoek

D) T. Schwann

3. What substance makes up about 70% of the mass of a living cell?

A) carbon dioxide

B) sodium chloride/salt/

4. What organic compounds are most abundant in a living cell?

B) nucleic acids

B) proteins

D) carbohydrates

4. How many polynucleotide chains form an I-RNA molecule?

D) four

5. What are the names of proteins that speed up chemical reactions?

1. List the levels of organization of life within one organism.

2. List the levels of organization of life from the organism and above.
3. Basic methods of study in biology?
4. List the elements of the first and second groups.
5. List the functions that water performs in a cell.
6. Write down an example of a buffer system.
7. What groups are carbohydrates divided into?
8. Write the formulas of the most important pentoses.
9. What substances belong to polysaccharides?
10. What is the monomer of glycogen and fiber?
11. What functions do carbohydrates perform?
12. What are fats?
13. What lipids are part of membranes?
14. List fat-soluble vitamins.
15. List 5 essential functions fat
16. Write it down general formula amino acids.
17. Write it down structural formula dipeptide.
18. What is the name of the bond between two amino acids?
19. What amino acids are called essential? How many are there?
20. What proteins are called complete?
21. What is the primary structure of proteins?
22. What is the secondary structure of a protein?
23. What bonds hold the tertiary structure of proteins together?
24. How much energy is released during the breakdown of 1 g of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids?
25. List the functions of proteins.
26. What are the main properties of enzymes?
27. What residues of what substances does a DNA nucleotide consist of?
28. Write down the structural formula of a DNA nucleotide.
29. What nitrogenous bases are part of DNA nucleotides?
30. What purine nitrogenous bases are part of the DNA molecule?
31. How are DNA nucleotides connected into one chain?
32. How many hydrogen bonds are there between complementary nitrogenous bases?
33. What is the “principle of complementarity”?
34. What functions does DNA perform?
35. Write down the structural formula of the RNA nucleotide.