History of state and law of foreign countries. England from the Norman Conquest to Freedom
Norman Conquest. TO middle of the 11th century In England, feudal orders were already dominant, but the process of feudalization had not yet been completed. A significant part of the peasants, especially in the Denlo region, remained free, and the feudal dependent land holders had not yet merged into a single mass of dependent peasants. The feudal estate and the feudal hierarchy have not yet taken a complete form and have not become widespread.
In 1066 England was subjected to the Norman conquest. Duke William of Normandy gathered a large army of Norman, northern French and even Italian knights, eager for booty, the seizure of new lands and dependent peasants. The reason for the invasion was William's claim to the English throne, allegedly bequeathed to him by the English king Edward the Confessor, who had died shortly before. The Pope supported the Duke's claims.
In September 1066, William and his army sailed across the English Channel on large boats and landed in the south of England at Pavensey Bay. Duke's army main force which already consisted of heavily armed knightly cavalry, was more numerous than the English. The latter was headed by one elected by the “council of the wise” new king England Harold. Three weeks before the battle with the Normans, he repelled a surprise attack by the Norwegian king Harald Hardrad on Northern England, agreed with William. Harold's army consisted mainly of foot hastily assembled peasant militia and his personal squad. In October 1066, in the decisive battle of Hastings, the courageously resisting Anglo-Saxons were defeated, and Harold himself died. The Duke of Normandy moved to London, captured it and became king of England under the name of William I the Conqueror.
The conquest, however, met resistance from both the Anglo-Saxon nobility and the significant layer of free peasants that remained in the country. It was especially strong in the north of the country. In response to massive confiscations of land from the local population in favor of alien conquerors in the north and northeast - in Denlo - in 1069 and 1071. Major popular uprisings took place, led by representatives of the local nobility. Suppressing them, the conquerors led by William devastated the main areas of the uprising - the Vale of York and County Durham, which remained uninhabited for several decades after that.
After these uprisings were suppressed, most of the lands of the Anglo-Saxon nobility were confiscated and handed over to foreign conquering knights. Small local feudal lords - heating elements - partially retained their possessions, but became vassals of the Normans barons(as large feudal lords began to be called in England). Medium and small feudal lords, following the continental model, began to be called knights. IN church hierarchy and the apparatus of royal administration was undividedly dominated by conquerors who came from France. William himself made up a huge “crown domain” from confiscated lands, which occupied a seventh of all cultivated land in England. A significant part of the forests located on these lands was turned into royal hunting reserves. Under pain of terrible punishment, the inhabitants of these territories, especially peasants, were forbidden to hunt there, cut down forests, or collect fuel.
Ownership of a vast domain strengthened the king's position in relation to the nobility. This strengthening was also facilitated by the fact that the distribution of lands to the Norman feudal lords occurred gradually, as they were confiscated from the local population, which led to the scattered, uncompacted possessions of large feudal lords, which made it difficult to form vast territorial principalities in England, virtually independent of the king.
Completion of the process of feudalization. "The Book of the Last Judgment." The Norman Conquest contributed to the final completion of the process of feudalization in England. By 1066, the Duchy of Normandy, like France as a whole, was already completely feudalized. Having seized land and political power in England, the conquerors sought to impose their customary orders there, to formalize politically and legally the feudal relations that had already been established there. The king himself, to a certain extent, consciously pursued such a policy. One of his important activities along this path was the holding of an all-English land census in 1086, which was popularly called the “Domesday book”, since the persons who gave information to its compilers were obliged, under threat of punishment, to say “nothing.” concealing”, as at the “Last Judgment”. The census had two main goals: firstly, to provide the king with information about the size of the possessions and income of his vassals in order to require a certain military service from them; secondly, the king wanted to have accurate information for imposing a monetary tax on the entire population. The questions of the investigation corresponded to these needs: how much land in each county is in the royal domain, how much does the large spiritual and secular feudal lords have, what is the number of their vassals? At the same time, the number of guides (at this time already fiscal units) in each manor, land plots (plows of land) and plow teams (draft animals) in the domain and among peasant holders, and the number of peasants of different categories living in the manor were taken into account. The approximate profitability of the manor in money was noted.
In general, the Domesday Book contained rich information about the economy and social structure of almost the entire territory of England, as well as their dynamics, since it recorded data for three periods: 1) the reign of Edward the Confessor; 2) in the years immediately following the conquest, and 3) in 1086. Data from the “Great Census” indicate that its implementation strengthened the feudal system and accelerated the transformation of free peasants into dependent ones. This is evident from the fact that in its final version the unit of accounting in it was not the village, but the estate - the manor, and most importantly - from the fact that many of the free peasants before 1066 were recorded under 1086 as villans. In England in the 11th century. this term, as a rule, denoted holders who were in land dependence, paid rent, including often performing corvée.
The agrarian system and the position of the peasantry in the 11th century-XII centuries The population of England, according to the Domesday Book, at that time was about 1.5 million people; of them, the vast majority (at least 95%) lived in the village. The main occupation of the population was agriculture. In the central and southern, mainly agricultural regions of the country, large villages predominated and a rural community with a system of open fields, stubble grazing, striping and forced crop rotation was preserved. In the northeast, as well as in the west, on the eastern slopes of the Pennines and southern Oxfordshire, sheep farming has become widespread. Wool was already an important trade item at this time. It was exported mainly to Flanders, where Flemish artisans made cloth from it. In these sheep-raising areas, as in the north-west of the country, there were more often small settlements or farmsteads that did not know the system of open fields.
After the Norman Conquest, the English feudal estate (manor) took on a complete form, subjugating the previously free rural community. The economy of manors, especially large ones, was based on the corvee labor of dependent peasants, partly courtyard workers. Where the system of open fields dominated, its general order included the master's land (domain), as well as the lands of still personally free peasants. Manors with domains, villans and free holders predominated, but there were also many manors that differed significantly from this classic type, in which there was no domain or it was small, free holders occupied more space than dependent ones. Manor XI-XII centuries. remained primarily a subsistence economic organization.
Medieval estate (scheme of an English manor of the 11th-12th centuries) 1 - master's land, 2 - church land 3 - peasant plots, 4 - the manor of the lord, 5 - priest's house, 6 - manor's mill. Domain plots are scattered among peasant plots; they are cultivated by the labor of serfs according to the rules existing in the rural community. The peasants also cultivate the lands of the local church, pay various contributions and bear various duties, and are also subject to various banalities (in particular, mill labor).
The bulk of the peasantry, according to the Domesday Book, were villans who had a full allotment of land - virgata (30 acres) - or part of the allotment, as well as a share in communal grazing and meadows; they performed corvée and made payments in kind and money in favor of the lord. The Domesday Book also lists bordarii - dependent peasants with an allotment significantly smaller than that of a villan (usually from 7 to 15 acres). In addition to villans and bordarii in the English village of the 11th-12th centuries. there were cottarii (later cotters) - dependent peasants, holders of small plots of land, usually 2-3 acres of homestead land. They worked for the lord and earned their livelihood through additional occupations (cottarii were shepherds, village blacksmiths, carpenters, etc.). The lowest category of dependent peasants were serfs. For the most part, these were courtyard people who, as a rule, did not have plots or their own household and performed a variety of hard work on the master's estate and in the master's fields.
The free peasantry did not disappear in England even after the Norman Conquest, although its numbers were significantly reduced and its legal situation worsened. The presence in the village, along with dependents, of a layer of personally free peasants (freeholders) was one of the characteristic features of the agricultural development of England in the Middle Ages. There were especially many free peasants in the northeast of the country - in Denlo. Although the free peasant was obliged to pay the lord a usually small annuity, perform some relatively light duties, and submit to his jurisdiction, he was considered a legally free person.
Throughout the 12th century, various categories of the peasantry increasingly turned into dependent peasants - villans, whose main duty was corvée, usually in the amount of three and sometimes more days a week. In addition, the villan paid the quitrent partly in food and partly in money. He was often subject to arbitrary taxation by his master, paid a special contribution when marrying off his daughters, and gave the landowner the best head of cattle when entering into an inheritance; he was also obliged to observe mill, brewing and other banalities. Numerous church taxes also grew, the heaviest of which was tithes.
Urban development. Cities began to emerge in England as centers of craft and trade in the 10th-11th centuries, even before the Norman Conquest. The Book of the Last Judgment contains up to a hundred cities, in which about 5% of the total population lived.
As a result of the strengthening of England's political ties with Normandy and other French lands, its trade ties strengthened and expanded. Significant trade with the continent was carried out by London, as well as Southampton, Dover, Sandwich, Ipswich, Boston and other cities. Along with wool, the export items included lead, tin, and livestock. Somewhat later (from the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century) they began to export grain and leather. All these agricultural products were sold by secular feudal lords and monasteries, but sometimes also by peasants. Already in the 11th and especially in the 12th century. Fairs became widespread (Winchester, Boston, Stamford, York, etc.), which were visited by merchants not only from Flanders, but also from Italy, Germany and other countries.
With the growth of cities as economic centers, a class of city dwellers was formed. The most important cities in England were located on the royal domain, and their lord was the king himself. This complicated the struggle of the townspeople for political autonomy, since individual, even large, cities were unable to fight such a powerful lord. Therefore, none of the English cities could achieve self-government like the French commune; English cities were forced to be content with only individual economic and financial privileges and partial self-government, which were formalized by royal charters.
They usually achieved relief from onerous feudal payments by paying the lord an annual fixed sum of money (the so-called firms) with the right of citizens to arrange and collect these funds among residents themselves. For money, they often acquired the right of self-government and court, which limited the interference of royal or seigneurial officials in the affairs of the city community. Cities also bought the right to have a privileged corporation of citizens (the so-called trade guild), which usually included not only merchants, but also some artisans. However, only those who took part in paying the “firm”, that is, the wealthiest townspeople, could enjoy these privileges. Smaller seigneurial cities usually sought only economic privileges and did not enjoy self-government.
In London, Lincoln, York, Winchester and other cities at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. craft guilds (guilds) themselves appeared, which entered into a struggle with the city elite who were in power. Acute social contradictions between artisans and small traders, on the one hand, and rich townspeople, on the other, manifested themselves in full force in the London uprising of 1196, which arose due to the unfair distribution of taxes by representatives of the city elite. At the head of the dissatisfied was William Fitz-Osbert, nicknamed Longbeard. He openly denounced the London rich, accusing them of seeking to “save their own pockets at the expense of poor taxpayers.” The movement was brutally suppressed, Fitz-Osbert and nine of his associates were hanged.
Features of the fief system and political development of the country. The significance of the Norman Conquest. The Norman barons were the king's direct vassals. But William demanded vassal service not only from the barons, but also from their vassals. All knights, no matter whose vassals they were, were obliged, according to the “Salisbury Oath” of 1085, at the request of the king to serve in the royal army. With the introduction of direct vassalage of all feudal landowners from the king, the vassalage system became more centralized in England than on the continent, where the rule usually applied: “My vassal’s vassal is not my vassal.”
Since the Norman Conquest, royal power in England turned out to be stronger than in other countries of what was then Western Europe. At first, this was determined by the presence of a large royal domain, the absence of compact large feudal estates, the peculiarities of the vassal system, and the political weakness of cities. Hostility towards the conquerors of the local population, which weakened only in the second half of the 12th century, also prompted the Norman elite to rally around the king. Taking advantage of this situation, William I immediately created a relatively strong central government apparatus. The king's officials were placed at the head of the counties - sheriffs, in charge of administration, court, collection of taxes and royal revenues. The taxes levied during the Anglo-Saxon period were retained and even increased, giving the king greater financial resources.
Thus, the Norman Conquest significantly strengthened royal power, the political unity of the country and created the preconditions for the formation of a relatively centralized state in England.
Socio-political development of England at the end of the 11th-12th centuries. The strengthening of central power continued in England even after the death of William I. All layers of the feudal class were interested in this to one degree or another. Even large barons at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. they needed it to suppress the hostile Anglo-Saxon population, and above all various kinds of peasant protest (after all, it was the Anglo-Saxons who made up the peasantry). The king had other, more consistent allies, primarily small and medium-sized feudal landowners - knights of both Norman and Anglo-Saxon origin. This layer of feudal lords saw in the king protection not only from peasant movements, but also from encroachments on their lands and incomes by large feudal lords. The royal power was also supported by the church, which, thanks to the generous grants of the Conqueror and his successors, became the largest feudal landowner in the country. She enjoyed wide privileges, and in particular the right to have ecclesiastical courts independent of the royal ones. Natural allies of the royal power were the most significant cities located on the domain, as well as the free peasantry, which made up about 12% of the population, for whom the king was the only protection from large feudal lords.
This balance of social forces created the conditions for the preservation and further development of the successes of centralization achieved after the Norman Conquest. The successors of William I, especially his youngest son Henry I (1100-1135), continued to strengthen the central state apparatus: a permanent royal council (royal curia), which included senior officials - royal judges, people in charge of the royal chancellery, treasury and tax collection (justiciar, chancellor, treasurer). The curia also included large feudal lords most loyal to the king. It combined judicial, administrative and financial functions.
Important acquired by traveling judges - special commissions of judges who traveled around the country and controlled the activities of the administration, the administration of justice, and the collection of taxes in the counties.
Already under Henry I, a special body was allocated within the royal curia - the treasury, which in England was called the “Chamber of the Chessboard” 1 and was in charge of collecting royal revenues and checking financial statements sheriffs Within the curia there is also a judicial department.
At the same time, in search of a counterbalance to the political influence of large feudal lords and to strengthen the power of local sheriffs, Henry I began to energetically restore, albeit under the control of the central government, the old Anglo-Saxon local governments, assemblies of free residents of hundreds and counties. In assemblies of hundreds, courts were held for minor offenses, taxes were distributed and then collected, and various kinds of government investigations were carried out.
Despite the successes of centralization, the largest magnates in England showed disobedience to the king at every opportunity. Real feudal strife broke out after the death of Henry I (1135), who left no sons behind. Claims to the throne were made simultaneously by his daughter Matilda, the wife of the Frenchman, Count of Anjou Geoffroy Plantagenet, and his nephew, also a French feudal lord, Stephen Count of Blois. Taking advantage of the struggle for the throne, the feudal lords who supported the contenders ravaged and plundered the country, especially the peasants and townspeople, and completely abandoned the obedience of the central government. Feudal anarchy ended only in 1153, when, through the mediation of the church, Stephen and Matilda entered into an agreement under which Stephen was recognized as king, but after his death the throne was to pass to Matilda's son, the young Count of Anjou, Henry Plantagenet. In 1154, he ascended the English throne under the name of Henry II, marking the beginning of a new Plantagenet dynasty, which ruled the country until the end of the 14th century. Henry II (1154-1189) concentrated vast possessions under his rule: in addition to England, he owned, like his predecessors, Normandy, as well as vast lands in France - Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou. Later he annexed Aquitaine to them. England thus became part of the great Plantagenet power (sometimes called the Angevin Empire). Possessing large financial resources and relying on support
1 This name was associated with the system of counting monetary amounts. The tables in the chamber were divided by longitudinal lines into several strips, along which columns of coins were laid out and moved in a certain order, which was reminiscent of a game of chess.
support of knighthood, townspeople and the free peasantry, Henry II suppressed the unrest of the feudal lords in England, disbanded their detachments, razed castles, and began to appoint people from small and medium-sized feudal lords to the posts of sheriffs, subordinating them entirely to the royal curia. The reforms of Henry II played an important role in strengthening the centralization of the state. In an effort to expand the competence of the royal court at the expense of the seigneurial courts, he carried out judicial reform. Its essence was that every free person could, for a fee, obtain permission to transfer his case from any patrimonial court to the royal one, where it was investigated by a jury, while in patrimonial courts the trial was still carried out with the help of “God’s court” 1 .
The introduction of the jury attracted a huge influx of cases from the seigneurial curiae to the royal court. The decline in the influence of the latter was also facilitated by the fact that Henry II removed all serious criminal offenses from their jurisdiction and significantly limited their jurisdiction over land claims. The Royal Curia was recognized as the highest court of appeal for all seigneurial courts. This reform benefited primarily the knighthood, as well as wealthy free peasants and townspeople. The vast majority of the country's population - the personally dependent peasantry (villans) - was not affected by this reform. The royal courts did not accept the claims of the villans against their masters; they remained under the jurisdiction of their master. The judicial reform of Henry II met the class interests of the feudal lords. By strengthening royal power, providing support to the knights and the top of the free peasantry, she deepened the gap between free and personally dependent peasants, left the latter outside the protection of the royal courts and thereby contributed to the deterioration of their legal position and the strengthening of feudal oppression.
The expansion of the judicial functions of the royal curia increased the king's income. But large sections of the population suffered from heavy fines imposed by the royal courts. In progress judicial practice Royal courts began to gradually develop the so-called common law - a uniform royal law for the entire country, which gradually replaced local law, applied in seigneurial courts and courts of hundreds and counties.
Henry II also carried out military reform. It consisted in the fact that the military service of the feudal lords in favor of the king was limited to a certain, relatively short period. In return for the rest, and sometimes the entire service, the feudal lords had to pay a special sum of money - “shield money”. For these days -
1 "God's judgment" - ancient form trial, common among the Germanic peoples even before the barbarian invasions. The guilt of the accused in criminal cases was determined using an “ordeal” - testing with water, hot iron, boiling water, etc. In property, in particular land, litigation, the decision depended on the results of the “judicial duel” between the litigants.
The king hired knights, which reduced his dependence on the barons' militia. In addition, the king ordered that every free person, in accordance with his property status, have certain weapons and, when called by the king, must appear to take part in the campaign. Thus, the ancient militia of the free peasantry (Anglo-Saxon “fyrd”), which had fallen into decay, was restored, as it were.
All these reforms strengthened royal power and contributed to the centralization of the feudal state.
Henry II's attempt to place church courts under state control was unsuccessful. On this basis, he clashed with the head of the English church, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket. During the struggle, on the unspoken order of the king, Becket was killed (1170). The pope intervened in the matter, forcing Henry II, under threat of excommunication, to bring public repentance and abandon the reform of church courts.
Conquest of Ireland. Attempts to take over Scotland. Having strengthened the central power in England, Henry II, in the interests of the English feudal lords, undertook the conquest of Ireland, where feudalism was just emerging and the clan system dominated. The English barons began their campaigns in Ireland in 1169-1170 at their own peril and risk. After their first successes, the king himself arrived in Ireland in 1171 and quickly won victories over the clan leaders, who were forced to recognize Henry II as their “supreme ruler.” However, in fact, the British managed to subjugate only a small part of the Irish lands in the coastal south-eastern part of the island and create a fortified area here, later called “Pale” (literally, a fenced area). From here, the English feudal lords, who became the owners of the clan lands seized in Pale, made raids on other regions of Ireland, which interfered with the normal development of feudalization and the formation of the state on the island. In Pale, the English conquerors imposed a feudal order, turning the previously free Irish into their dependent peasants.
Henry II also made attempts to subjugate the Scottish state, England's northern neighbor. During the continuous border wars, he captured the Scottish king William the Lion and in 1174 forced him to conclude a treaty (at Falaise), according to which William brought him homage and vassal oath for Scotland. However, Scotland, already a fairly feudalized and centralized country, soon freed itself from vassalage. In contrast to the pressure from England, she began to move closer and closer to France, with which later (in the 13th-14th centuries) she found herself in a close anti-English alliance.
The emergence of a single English nation. The Normans and other immigrants from France did not immediately merge with the indigenous population of England. Throughout the 12th century, kings often addressed their subjects as "French and English" in official acts. But by the end of the 12th century. ethnic and linguistic differences
between the local population and the Norman conquerors were virtually erased. The French element joined ethnic composition of the emerging English nationality, a single sociocultural type of population emerged. The spoken language of the bulk of the inhabitants of England - peasants, townspeople and the vast majority of feudal lords, especially chivalry - was English. Only the feudal nobility, representatives of the royal administration, and lawyers used not only English, but also French, which was used along with Latin as official language in government institutions.
Despite the significant strengthening of central power under Henry II, uprisings of the nobility, including the king's sons, who were dissatisfied with his policies, repeatedly broke out in England. They were supported by the rebellious feudal lords of the continental possessions of the Plantagenets, in which Henry II did not have as much power as in England.
Louis IX Saint (1226-1270)
- Captivity of the Popes at Avignon. Estates General. What is a class monarchy?
1 . England after the Norman Conquest. Let's remember what the Norman Conquest was? In 1066, the Norman Duke William became a contender for the English throne. At the Battle of Hastings he won a victory against the Anglo-Saxon candidate, became the English king, and received the nickname Conqueror. But he also retained his possessions in France - the Duchy of Normandy, becoming a vassal of the French king.
How would you, if you were William the Conqueror, strengthen your power in a conquered country? You need to distribute the land to your comrades. He confiscated lands from the Anglo-Saxon nobility and distributed them to his own, but in such a way that the lands of the barons were far from each other. For what? So that they could not unite and rebel against the royal power. We remember that all the feudal lords of England were direct vassals of the king.
How could a king in a country not yet very familiar to him determine how much taxes to collect from the population of a particular city or village and what service could be required from a particular vassal so that it corresponded to the size of his possessions? IN 1086 year he conducted a land census. This was the first land census in Europe. She got the name "Book of the Last Judgment", because the residents were required to tell only the truth, as at the Last Judgment. Thus, the king received data on the size of his vassals' possessions and the information necessary to introduce taxes.
In general, William's wise policies contributed to the strengthening of royal power. Do you think the fact that the English king was also the Duke of Normandy, and thereby a vassal of the French king, strengthened his position in England or weakened it? The ability, if necessary, to use the resources of one of its possessions in the interests (or for the protection) of another, of course, provided significant advantages. At the same time, the position of a powerful vassal of the French king provided the English monarch with ideal opportunities to intervene in the affairs of the French crown.
2. The Angevin power and its creator. Wilhelm's great-grandson was already familiar to us Henry II Plantagenet, who, under the condition of vassal ownership, owned half of France (on his mother he was the heir to Normandy, from his father he inherited part of the French lands (Anjou), and from his wife he received Aquitaine). Historians call all of Henry's possessions the Angevin Empire. Henry was a talented ruler. More than England, Henry took care of his affairs in France. It is estimated that during the 35 years of his reign he visited England only 13 times, and was never there for more than 2 years.
Henry carried out a number of important reforms that strengthened his power. According to judicial reform, every free man could obtain, for a fee, permission to transfer his case from the local court to the royal one, where it was investigated by several worthy and honest people(thus, a jury trial was laid down).
Was accepted "Weapons Law", according to which the compulsory military service of the feudal lords (40 days a year) for the feud in favor of the king was reduced to a short period and could be replaced by cash payments - "shield money", which allowed the king to create mercenary troops of knights and free peasants, who were a more reliable force than an army of vassals.
3. Magna Carta. Henry's heir was his son Richard the Lionheart. What do we remember about him? He spent almost his entire reign outside England; after his death, he was succeeded by his younger brother John, nicknamed Landless. John was cunning and cruel, vindictive and cowardly. His turbulent reign is filled with three major clashes: the fight with the French king Philip Augustus, the fight with the church and, finally, the fight with his own barons. And in all these clashes he was defeated.
The war with the French king ended with the loss of lands. The fight against the Pope - the excommunication of John from the church. In order to make peace with the pope, John was forced to declare himself a vassal of the pope and undertook to pay him tribute annually. All this undermined the authority of the king before his subjects. In addition, they were dissatisfied with his despotism and abuses. John raised taxes and spent them on personal needs, expelled unwanted barons, and deprived them of their possessions. Another defeat from French troops was the last straw. The barons rebelled and were supported by the townspeople and the clergy. They wrote down their demands and forced the king to sign them. This document is called Magna Carta (1215) - a charter from the king granting certain freedoms and privileges to his subjects. For several centuries it became the basis of the rights of the English people and the basic law of government.
The charter protected the interests of barons, knights and townspeople from royal tyranny. Let's read - p. 162 (12, 39, 41) + questions.
John did not intend to comply with the charter, but already in 1216 he died. His son Henry 3 is one of the most little-known British monarchs (despite the fact that he reigned longer than all other medieval kings of England - 56 years). He was strongly influenced by his French wife, so he often acted not at all in the interests of England. His actions caused great discontent among the barons; they again started a rebellion, which escalated into a civil war. What is a civil war?
The armies of the barons, led by , defeated Henry's army, the king was captured, and Montfort ruled England as a dictator. Needing widespread support for his power, Montfort 1265 year for the first time convened a meeting to which representatives of the three classes were invited. This meeting was called parliament(from parle - to speak). Montfort soon died, the civil war ended, the king returned to the throne. The main result of all these events was the emergence of parliament. Kings began to regularly use it in government. Mainly to approve new taxes. And the estates were given the opportunity to inform the king about their needs.
PARLIAMENT
House of Lords
(clergy, secular power invited by the king)
House of Commons
(knights, townspeople elected by their voters)
Representative bodies appeared in other European countries(Cortes in Spain, Sejm in Poland, Reichstag in Germany). This involved some sections of society in governing the country. D.Z. § 16, compare the Estates General and Parliament - what is common, what is different (in the notebook).
The formation of a feudal state in England is associated with numerous conquests British Isles tribes of Germanic and Scandinavian origin. The Roman conquest left behind almost only architectural and linguistic monuments (names of towns and cities). After the departure of the Romans in the 5th century. AD The Celtic tribes inhabiting England were invaded by the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who pushed the Celtic population to the outskirts of the island (Scotland, Wales, Cornwall) - In the 7th century. The Anglo-Saxons adopted Christianity and formed seven early non-feudal kingdoms (Wessex, Sussex, Kent, Mercia, etc.), which in the 9th century. under the leadership of Wessex they formed the Anglo-Saxon state - England. At the beginning of the 11th century. the English throne was captured by the Danes, who ruled until the return of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty in the person of Edward the Confessor (1042) -
In 1066, the ruler of Normandy, Duke William, having the blessing of the Pope and the French king, landed an army on the island and, having defeated the Anglo-Saxon militia, became the English king. The Norman Conquest had a major impact on further history an English state that developed largely in the same way as the medieval states of the continent. At the same time, a distinctive feature of its evolution since the 11th century. was early centralization, the absence of feudal fragmentation and the rapid development of the public principles of royal power.
The main stages in the development of the English feudal state can be identified:
1) the period of the Anglo-Saxon early feudal monarchy in the 9th-11th centuries;
2) the period of centralized seigneurial monarchy (XI-XII centuries) and civil wars to limit royal power (XII century);
3) the period of estate-representative monarchy (second half of the XIII-XV centuries);
4) the period of absolute monarchy (late 15th - mid-17th centuries).
§ 1. Anglo-Saxon early feudal monarchy
The formation of feudal society. The formation of a feudal society among the Germanic tribes in Britain occurred at a slow pace, which is to a certain extent due to the conservation of the tribal customs of the Anglo-Saxons on the island and the persistent influence of Scandinavian traditions. In the truths of the VI-VII centuries. Among the population there are tribal nobility (erls), free community members (kerls), semi-free ones (letes) and domestic servants-slaves. Priests and the king are also mentioned, and the bishop's wergeld was higher than the king's wergeld. In the 8th century The practice of individual patronage spread, when a person had to look for a patron (glaford) and did not have the right to leave him without his permission. In monuments of the 7th-9th centuries. special mention is made of the Thane warriors, which included both earls and caerls, who were obliged to perform military service in favor of the king. The only criterion for entering this category was the possession of a land plot of a certain size (5 guide). Thus, the boundaries between different social groups freemen were not closed and sharply limited: an English peasant and even a descendant of a freedman could become a thane, having received a plot of land from a lord or king. According to historians, almost a quarter of the English thanes of this period were descended from peasants and artisans.
At the same time, the development of relations of dominance and subordination continues. In the 10th century everyone who was unable to answer for themselves in court was ordered to find themselves a glaford (forced commendation). Any person, before turning to the king for justice, had to turn to his glaford. The life of the lord was declared inviolable for both earls and caerls. At the same time, the institution of guarantee is being strengthened - his glaford and a certain number of free people (no more than 12 people) were guaranteed for any person.
By the 11th century. The land services of both the thanes and the dependent peasantry were determined. The thanes had the right to own land based on a royal act and had to perform three main duties: to participate in the campaign, in the construction of fortifications and in repairing bridges. In addition, for many landowners, other services could be introduced by order of the king: the establishment of protected royal parks, the equipment of ships, the protection of the coast, church tithe etc. Gradually the thanes formed a military class.
From the impoverished caerls, numerous categories of dependent peasantry were formed - both with and without fixed duties. Duties were determined by the custom of the estate. After the death of the peasant, Glaford received all his property.
Slave labor of the conquered population continued to be widespread. The Church condemned arbitrariness and cruel treatment of the unfree: a slave who worked on Sunday at the direction of his master became free.
The English clergy, led by the Archbishop of Canterbury, enjoyed a more independent position in relation to papal authority than the church on the continent. The service was conducted in the local language. Representatives of the clergy participated in resolving secular affairs in local and royal assemblies.
The English Church was a large landowner - it owned up to one third of all lands. At the same time, clergy were not excluded from the national system of taxes and duties.
In general, by the time of the Norman Conquest, the processes of feudalization of Anglo-Saxon society, the formation of feudal land ownership, and the vassal-fief hierarchy were still far from completed. There was a significant layer of free peasantry, especially in the east of the country (the “area of Danish law”).
Anglo-Saxon state. Despite the rise and strengthening of royal power during the Anglo-Saxon period, the attitude towards the king as a military leader and the principle of elections when replacing the throne remain. Gradually, however, the monarch asserted his right of supreme ownership of land, a monopoly on the minting of coins, duties, to receive supplies in kind from the entire free population, and to military service on the part of the free. The Anglo-Saxons had a direct tax in favor of the king - the so-called “Danish money”, and a fine was levied for refusing to participate in the campaign. The royal court gradually became the center of government of the country, and the royal associates became officials of the state.
At the same time, legal monuments of the 9th-11th centuries. already indicate a certain tendency towards the transfer of the rights and powers of royal power to large landowners: the right to judge their people, collect fines and fees, and collect militia on their territory. Powerful thanes were often appointed as royal representatives - managers in administrative districts.
The highest state body in the Anglo-Saxon era was the Witanagemot - the council of the Witans, the “wise”. This collection of worthy, “rich” men included the king himself, the highest clergy, secular nobility, including the so-called royal thanes, who received a personal invitation from the king. Under Edward the Confessor, a significant group of Normans also sat in the Witanagemot, receiving lands and positions at court. In addition, the kings of Scotland and Wales and electors from the city of London were invited.
All important state affairs were decided “with the advice and consent” of this assembly. Its main functions are the election of kings and the highest court. Royal power in the 9th-10th centuries. managed to somewhat limit the Witanagemot's desire to interfere in the most important issues of social policy - in particular in the distribution of land.
Local government in England was largely based on the principles of self-government. The laws of the Anglo-Saxon king Æthelstan (10th century) and his followers mention the lower units of local government - hundreds and tens. The hundred, headed by a centurion, was governed by a general assembly that met approximately once a month. Hundreds were divided into ten dozens - families headed by a foreman, whose main task was maintaining law and order and paying taxes. In hundreds of people's assemblies, all local, including judicial, cases were considered, and dozens were checked twice a year to make sure that every ten was bound by mutual responsibility, and all offenses were known and properly presented to the authorities. Around the same time, the country was divided, mainly for military purposes, into 32 large districts (counties). The center of the county was, as a rule, a fortified city. County Assembly from the end of the 10th century. met twice a year to discuss the most important local affairs, including the civil and criminal courts. All free people of the district and, above all, secular and church nobility were supposed to participate in it. Cities and ports had their own assemblies, which later turned into city and merchant courts. There were also village assemblies. Tens, hundreds and counties did not form a clear hierarchical system and were governed largely autonomously from each other.
The head of the county was, as a rule, an ealdorman, appointed by the king with the consent of the Witanagemot from representatives of the local nobility. His role was mainly to lead the county assembly and its military forces. Gradually, in the management of the hundred and the county, the role of the king’s personal representative, the gerefa, increases.
Gerefa - the royal ministerial - was appointed by the king from the middle layer of the serving nobility and, like the count of the Franks, could be the manager of a certain district or city. By the 10th century Gerefa gradually acquires important police and judicial powers, controlling the timely receipt of taxes and court fines into the treasury.
Thus, already in the Anglo-Saxon era, a mechanism of centralized bureaucratic management began to take shape locally through officials of administrative districts, accountable to the king and acting on the basis of written orders under the royal seal.
§ 2. The Norman Conquest and its consequences. Features of the seigneurial monarchy
The Norman conquest of England led to the deepening feudalization of English society.
The basis of the feudal economy in Norman England was the manor - the totality of land holdings of an individual feudal lord. The position of the peasants of the manor, subject to the court of their lord, was determined by manorial customs. More than half of the hundreds of courts turned into manorial courts - private curiae of feudal lords. At the same time, William the Conqueror, using both his position and English political traditions, pursued policies that contributed to the centralization of the state and strengthening the foundations of royal power.
A significant part of the land confiscated from the Anglo-Saxon nobility became part of the royal domain, and the rest was distributed among the Norman and Anglo-Saxon feudal lords not in continuous tracts, but in separate areas among other holdings. The conquerors also brought with them strict “forest law,” which made it possible to declare significant forest areas as royal reserves and strictly punish violations of their boundaries. Moreover, the king declared himself the supreme owner of all the land and demanded that all free landowners take an oath of allegiance to him. Such an oath made feudal lords of all ranks vassals of the king, obliged to him primarily for military service. The principle “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal,” characteristic of the continent, was not established in England. All feudal lords were divided into two main categories: direct vassals of the crown, which were usually large landowners (counts, barons), and second-level vassals (sub-vassals), consisting of a mass of medium and small landowners. A significant part of the clergy performed the same services in favor of the king as secular vassals.
Thus, the feudal lords in England did not acquire the independence and immunities that they enjoyed on the continent. The king's right of supreme ownership of land, which gave him the opportunity to redistribute plots of land and intervene in the relations of landowners, served to establish the principle of the supremacy of royal justice in relation to the courts of feudal lords of all ranks.
For the purpose of tax policy and to identify the social composition of the country's population, a census of lands and inhabitants was carried out in 1086, the results of which are known as the “Book of the Last Judgment.” According to the census, most of the peasants were enslaved and acted as personally unfree, hereditary holders of land from the lord (villans). However, in the “area of Danish law” (East Anglia) and in some other areas, a layer of free peasantry and sokmen close to them remained, to whom only the judicial power of the lord of the manor extended.
Free peasant population in the XI-XII centuries. was influenced by conflicting factors. On the one hand, royal power contributed to the enslavement of the lower categories of the free peasantry, turning them into villans. On the other hand, the development of the market at the end of the 12th century. led to the emergence of more prosperous peasant holders, whom the royal authorities considered as political allies in the fight against the separatism of large feudal lords. Royal courts often protected such holders from the arbitrariness of the lords. Formally, the same protection by royal “common” law of any freehold (knightly, urban, peasant) contributed to the end of the 12th century. smoothing out legal and social differences between the top of the free peasantry, townspeople, and petty knighthood. These layers were also brought together by a certain commonality of their economic interests.
The relative unity of the state and connections with Normandy and France contributed to the development of trade. With the strengthening of central power, English cities did not receive the same autonomy as in the south of the continent or in Germany, and were increasingly forced to buy royal charters, which contained only some trading privileges.
Centralization of state power. Reforms of Henry II. The measures of the Norman kings contributed to state centralization and the preservation of state unity, despite the deepening feudalization of society. However, until the end of the 12th century. centralization was ensured mainly through the seigneurial, private rights of the Anglo-Norman kings, and depended on their ability to act as the authoritative head of the feudal-hierarchical system and the local church. The judicial and fiscal rights of the crown in relation to its subjects were only the rights of the supreme lord in relation to its vassals and were based on the oath of allegiance. They were regulated to a large extent by feudal custom, although they had already begun to outgrow its framework.
Accordingly, they could be challenged at any time by disgruntled vassals. Evidence of this is the continuous in the XI-XII centuries. revolts of barons accusing the crown of abuse of their seigneurial rights. From the moment of the Norman conquest and throughout the 12th century. the kings were forced to constantly confirm their adherence to the primordial customs and liberties of the Anglo-Saxons, and to grant “chartas of liberty” to the barons and the church. These charters contained provisions on peace, on the eradication of “bad” and support for ancient, “fair” customs, on the crown’s obligations to respect the privileges and liberties of feudal lords, churches and cities. However, from the middle of the 12th century. attempts to bind royal power within the framework of feudal custom and one’s own oath began to encounter the strengthening of public principles in public administration.
Until the second half of the 12th century. There were no professional administrative and judicial bodies in England. The center of control - the royal court (curia) - was constantly moving and was absent from England for a long time, since the king more often lived in Normandy. In its expanded composition, the royal curia was a collection of direct vassals and associates of the king. During the absence of the king, England was actually ruled by the chief justiciar - a clergyman, an expert in canon and Roman law. His assistant was the chancellor, who headed the secretariat. The central government was represented locally by “traveling” envoys and sheriffs from local magnates, who often escaped the control of the center. Their guidance came down mainly to sending them executive orders (writ) from the king's office with instructions to correct certain violations of which the crown became aware. Most legal cases were decided by local (hundred, count) assemblies and manorial courts, which used archaic procedures such as ordeals and judicial combat. Royal justice was thus of an exceptional nature and could be granted only in case of refusal of justice in local courts or special application for "royal favor". There is a known case when one baron, a direct vassal of the crown, spent almost five years and a huge amount of money at that time in search of the king to bring him a complaint in a civil case.
The strengthening of the prerogatives of the crown, bureaucratization and professionalization of the state apparatus, which made centralization in England irreversible, are mainly associated with the activities of Henry 11 (1154-1189). The reforms of Henry II, which contributed to the creation of a nationwide bureaucratic system of administration and court, not related to the seigneurial rights of the crown, can be roughly reduced to three main areas:
1) bringing into the system and giving a clearer structure to royal justice (improving the forms of the process, creating a system of royal traveling justice and permanent central courts competing with traditional and medieval courts);
2) reforming the army based on a combination of the principles of the militia system and mercenarism;
3) establishment of new types of taxation of the population. The strengthening of the judicial, military and financial powers of the crown was formalized by a whole series of royal decrees - the Great, Clarendon (1166), Northampton (1176) assizes, the Assize “On Arms” (1181), etc.
When Henry II restructured the judicial-administrative system, the Anglo-Saxon, Norman and church regulations that were applied in practice from time to time were used. -The practice of traveling government, typical of the early Middle Ages, took on a more permanent and orderly character in England. Since that time, the activity of traveling courts - traveling sessions of royal judges - has been firmly established in England. If in 1166 only two judges were appointed to bypass the counties, then in 1176 six bypass districts were organized and the number of traveling judges increased to two to three dozen. The appointment of traveling judges was made by royal order to begin a general judicial circuit. The same order vested judges with extraordinary powers (not only judicial, but also administrative and financial). During the judicial detour, all claims within the jurisdiction of the crown were examined, criminals were arrested, and abuses of local officials were investigated.
At the same time, the system of royal orders was streamlined and a special procedure was legitimized for the investigation of cases of land disputes and offenses. This procedure was granted to all freemen as a "privilege" and a "blessing" applied only in the royal courts. To begin this procedure, it was necessary to purchase a special order from the royal office - a writ of rignt, without which a civil or criminal claim could not be brought in the royal courts. After this, the investigation was to be conducted by traveling judges or sheriffs, assisted by a jury of twelve full citizens of the hundred, who were sworn as witnesses or accusers. This order of investigation created the opportunity for a more objective resolution of cases compared to ordeals and judicial duels in the courts of feudal lords. The gradually developed system of royal orders led to the limitation of the jurisdiction of manorial curiae in claims for land ownership. As for offences, even a villan could file a criminal claim in the royal court. Sheriffs could, regardless of the rights of feudal lords, enter their possessions in order to capture criminals and verify compliance with mutual responsibility.
Thus, in the second half of the 12th century. Henry 11 created a special mechanism of royal justice in civil and criminal cases, which increased the authority and expanded the jurisdiction of the royal courts.
In connection with the introduction of improved judicial procedures from the middle of the 12th century. The structure of competence of the highest body of central government - the royal curia - is being streamlined. In the process of specialization of the function and the separation of a number of separate departments within the curia, the office headed by the chancellor, the central (“personal”) court of the king and the treasury were finally formed. As part of the “personal” royal court, where permanent spiritual and secular judges have been appointed since 1175 and which has a permanent residence in Westminster, the Court of Common Pleas is gradually being allocated. This court could sit without the participation of the king and did not have to follow him on his travels. The activities of the Court of Common Pleas played a decisive role in the creation of the “common rule” of England.
The situation was more complicated in the relationship between royal power and the English church, between secular and ecclesiastical justice. After the Norman Conquest, ecclesiastical and secular courts were separated, and ecclesiastical courts began to consider all spiritual and some secular matters (marriages, wills, etc.). However, the royal power maintained control over the church. The Norman kings themselves appointed bishops, issued church decrees for England and Normandy, and received income from vacant bishoprics. However, as papal power and the Catholic center in Rome strengthened, the English crown began to increasingly encounter resistance from the church, and the issue of “church freedoms” in England became one of the reasons for future dramatic conflicts between ecclesiastical and secular authorities.
Under Henry 1, a concordat with the pope was concluded in Normandy, according to which, as later in Germany, the spiritual investiture of the canons passed to the pope, while the secular investiture remained with the king.
Henry II, in an attempt to increase the crown's influence over the local church, issued the Clarendon Constitutions in 1164. According to them, the king was recognized as the supreme judge in cases considered by church courts. All disputes over ecclesiastical appointments were to be resolved in the royal court. Royal jurisdiction was also established in relation to investigations of church property, in claims for debts, in the pronouncement and execution of sentences against clergy accused of serious crimes. Without the consent of the king, none of his vassals and officials could be excommunicated from the church. The principles of the king's secular investiture and the possibility of his intervention in the election of the highest spiritual hierarchs by the church were confirmed. However, under strong pressure from the pope and the local clergy, the king was forced to abandon a number of provisions of these constitutions.
After the Norman Conquest, the structure of local government did not change. The division of the country into hundreds and counties has been preserved. Sheriffs became representatives of the royal administration in the counties, and in hundreds - their assistants, bailiffs. The sheriff had the highest military, financial and police power in the county, and was the main executor of the orders of the royal office.
Sheriffs carried out their administrative and judicial functions in close cooperation with meetings of counties and hundreds, convening them and presiding over sessions. These institutions remained in England in the subsequent period, although they gradually lost their independence and increasingly turned into an instrument of the central government in the localities. Despite the removal of most civil actions from their judicial jurisdiction, their role has increased somewhat due to the appointment of persons participating in criminal investigations (accusatory juries). Popular participation in royal proceedings became a characteristic feature of the English system of local government.
The military reform of Henry II consisted of extending conscription to the entire free population of the country: any free person - feudal lord, peasant, city dweller - had to have weapons corresponding to his property status. Having its own equipment, the army was nevertheless maintained at the expense of the state treasury, revenues to which were significantly increased.
First of all, the replacement of personal military service with the payment of “shield money” was legalized, which began to be collected not only from feudal lords, but even from the unfree. This measure opened up the possibility for the king to maintain a hired knightly militia. In addition to the practice of collecting “shield money” from feudal lords and a direct tax (talya) from cities, a tax on movable property was gradually established.
The military and financial reforms of Henry II made it possible to sharply increase the number of troops loyal to the king and undermine the leadership of the army on the part of the largest feudal lords, as well as to obtain funds for the maintenance of professional officials. In addition, the administration of justice remained a very profitable budget item.
§ 3. Estate-representative monarchy
Features of the class structure. In the 13th century the balance of social and political forces in the country continued to change in favor of strengthening the principles of centralization and concentration of all power in the hands of the monarch.
As direct vassals of the king, the barons bore numerous financial and personal obligations to the overlord, in case of malicious failure to fulfill which could result in the confiscation of their lands.
During the XIII century. The immunity rights of large feudal lords were also significantly limited. The Statute of Gloucester of 1278 proclaimed the judicial verification of the immune privileges of English feudal lords. In general, the title of nobility in England was not accompanied by any tax or judicial privileges. Feudal lords paid taxes formally on an equal basis with other freemen and were subject to the jurisdiction of the same courts. However, the political weight of the English high nobility was significant: it was an indispensable participant in the work of the highest advisory and some other bodies under the king. In the 13th century The major feudal lords of England constantly waged a fierce struggle among themselves and with the king for land and sources of income, for political influence in the country.
As a result of subinfeodation and fragmentation of large baronies, the number of medium and small feudal lords increases, reaching by the end of the 13th century. at least 3/4 of the ruling class of England. These layers of feudal lords especially needed to strengthen state centralization and rallied around the king.
The development of commodity-money relations had a noticeable impact on the position of the peasantry. The stratification of the peasantry is intensifying, and the number of personally free peasant elites is growing. Freeholder peasants who became rich often acquired knighthood, becoming close to the lower strata of the feudal lords.
Serf peasantry - villans - in the 13th century. remained powerless. The exclusion of villans from all the privileges of the “common law”, formally guaranteed to all free people, was called the principle of “exclusion of villeins”. The owner of all property belonging to the villan was recognized as his lord. At the same time, legal theory and legislation of the 13th century. recognized the villans' right to a criminal claim in the royal court, even against their master. This fact reflected the objective processes of the development of feudalism and certain interests of the royal power, which was interested in the nationwide taxation of the villans along with the free population (in the payment of all taxes of local importance, tag, tax on movable property). From the end of the 14th century. The villans gradually buy out personal freedom, corvée disappears, and cash becomes the main form of feudal rent.
Among the townspeople, as well as among other segments of the population, in the XIII-XIV centuries. intensifies social differentiation, which went in parallel with the consolidation of the urban class throughout the country. The cities of England, with the exception of London, were small. City corporations, like the city as a whole, did not receive the same independence here as on the European continent.
Thus, the processes of state centralization in England (XIII century) were accelerated by the presence of an ever-increasing layer of free peasantry, the economic and legal convergence of knighthood, townspeople and the wealthy peasantry and, on the contrary, the strengthening of differences between the top of the feudal lords and the rest of their layers. General economic and political interests knighthood and the entire freeholder mass contributed to the establishment of their political union. The increasing economic and political role of these layers ensured their subsequent political recognition and participation in the newly formed parliament.
Magna Carta. By the beginning of the 13th century. In England, objective prerequisites are emerging for the transition to a new form of feudal state - a monarchy with class representation. However, the royal power, which had strengthened its position, did not show any readiness to involve in resolving issues state life representatives of the ruling classes. On the contrary, under the successors of Henry II, who suffered failures in foreign policy, extreme manifestations of monarchical power increased, and the administrative and financial arbitrariness of the king and his officials intensified. In this regard, recognition of the right of estates to participate in resolving important political and financial issues occurred in England during acute socio-political conflicts. They took the form of a movement to limit the abuses of central power. This movement was led by the barons, who were periodically joined by knighthood and a mass of freeholders, dissatisfied with the excessive exactions and extortion of royal officials. The social nature of anti-royal protests was a feature of the political conflicts of the 13th century. compared to the baronial revolts of the 11th-12th centuries. It is no coincidence that these powerful performances in the 13th century. were accompanied by the adoption of documents of great historical significance.
The main milestones of this struggle were the conflict of 1215, which ended with the adoption of the Magna Carta, and the civil war of 1258-1267, which led to the emergence of parliament.
The Magna Carta of 1215 was adopted as a result of the action of the barons with the participation of knighthood and townspeople against King John the Landless. Officially in England this document is considered the first constitutional act. However, the historical significance of the Charter can only be assessed taking into account the real conditions of the development of England at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. Reinforcing the demands and interests of heterogeneous and even opposing, but temporarily united forces, the Charter is a contradictory document that does not go beyond the feudal agreement between the king and the top of the opposition.
Most of the articles of the Charter concern the vassal-fief relations of the king and the barons and seek to limit the arbitrariness of the king in the use of his seigneurial rights associated with land holdings. These articles regulate the procedure for guardianship, obtaining relief, debt collection, etc. (Art. 2-II, etc.). Yes, Art. 2 of the Charter made the determination of the amount of relief from the king's vassals dependent on the size of the landholding passed by inheritance. Lenin guardian under Art. 4 was supposed to receive moderate income for his own benefit and not cause damage to either people or things of the warded property. Concession to large feudal lords was also made in articles that speak of reserved royal forests and rivers (Articles 44, 47, 48).
At the same time, among the purely “baronial” articles of the Charter, those that were of a general political nature stand out. The most overtly political claims of the barony are expressed in Art. 61. It traces the desire to create a baronial oligarchy by establishing a committee of 25 barons with control functions in relation to the king. Despite a whole series reservations (about the control procedure, references to the “community of the whole earth”), this article directly sanctioned the possibility of a baronial war against the central government. Articles 12 and 14 provided for the creation of a council of the kingdom, limiting the king's power on one of the important financial issues - the collection of "shield money". Accordingly, the composition of this “general” council (Article 14) was determined only from the king’s direct vassals. It is characteristic that this council had to decide the issue of collecting feudal assistance from the city of London. The king could continue to collect other types of taxes and fees, including the heaviest collection from cities - the tag. Articles 21 and 34 were intended to weaken the judicial prerogatives of the crown. Article 21 provided for the jurisdiction of counts and barons before a court of "peers", removing them from the jurisdiction of royal jury courts. Article 34 prohibited the use of one type of writ (an order for the immediate restoration of the plaintiff's rights or the appearance of the defendant in the royal court), thereby limiting the king's intervention in disputes between large feudal lords and their vassals over freeholds. This was motivated in the Charter by concern for the preservation of “free people” of their judicial curiae. However, the term “free man” is clearly used here in order to disguise a purely baronial demand. Indeed, in the conditions of England in the 13th century. Only a few major immunologists could be the owners of the judicial curia.
A much more modest place is occupied by articles reflecting the interests of other parties to the conflict. The interests of chivalry are expressed in the most general form in Art. 16 and 60, which speaks of performing only the required service for the knightly fief and that the provisions of the Charter relating to the relationship of the king with his vassals also apply to the relationship of the barons with their vassals.
The Charter says very sparingly about the rights of citizens and merchants. Article 13 confirms the ancient liberties and customs of the cities, Art. 41 allows all merchants free and safe movement and trade without imposing illegal duties on them. Finally, Art. 35 establishes the unity of weights and measures, which is important for the development of trade.
A large group of articles aimed at streamlining the activities of the royal judicial and administrative apparatus was of great importance. This group articles (Articles 18-20, 38, 39, 40, 45, etc.) confirms and consolidates those that have developed since the 12th century. judicial, administrative and legal institutions, limits the arbitrariness of royal officials in the center and locally. So, according to Art. 38 officials were not allowed to hold anyone accountable based solely on an oral statement and without credible witnesses. In Art. 45 the king promised not to appoint to the posts of judges, constables, sheriffs and bailiffs persons who do not know the laws of the country and do not want to obey them voluntarily. The Charter also prohibited in Art. 40 collect arbitrary and disproportionate court fees. Particularly famous is Art. 39 Charter. It prohibited the arrest, imprisonment, dispossession, outlawry, exile, or "dispossession in any manner" of free people except by the lawful judgment of their peers and the law of the land. In the XIV century. Art. 39 of the Charter was repeatedly clarified and edited by Parliament as guaranteeing the inviolability of the person of all free people.
Thus, the Great Charter reflected the balance of socio-political forces in England at the beginning of the 13th century, and above all the compromise between the king and the barons. The political articles of the Charter indicate that the barons sought to preserve some of their immunities and privileges by placing the exercise of certain prerogatives of the central government under their control or limiting their use in relation to the feudal elite.
The fate of the Charter clearly demonstrated the futility of the baronial claims and the irreversibility of the process of state centralization in England. A few months after the end of the conflict, John the Landless, relying on the support of the pope, renounced compliance with the Charter. Subsequently, the kings repeatedly confirmed the Charter (1216, 1217, 1225, 1297), but more than 20 articles were removed from it, including the 12th, 14th and 61st.
Of the political institutions provided for by the “baronial” articles of the Charter, the Great Council of the Kingdom was more or less established, which had advisory functions and consisted of large feudal magnates. In the middle of the 13th century. it was often called "parliament". However, such a “parliament” was neither class-based nor representative institutions.
Formation of parliament and expansion of its competence. The conflict in 1258-1267 was more complex and important in its political results. In 1258, at the Council of Oxford, the armed barons, again taking advantage of the dissatisfaction of large sections of the free population with royal policies, forced the king to accept the so-called Oxford Provinces. They provided for the transfer of all executive power in the country to the Council of 15 barons. Along with the Executive Council to decide important issues The Great Council of Magnates, consisting of 27 members, was to meet three times a year or more often. So it was new try the establishment of a baronial oligarchy, which failed in 1215. Those that followed in 1259 Westminster provisions provided for some guarantees for small landowners against arbitrariness on the part of the lords. However, the knighthood's demands for participation in the central government of the country were not satisfied. Under these conditions, part of the barons led by Simon de Montfort, who were looking for a stronger alliance with the knighthood, broke away from the oligarchic group and united with the knighthood and the cities into an independent camp opposing the king and his supporters.
The split in the opposition camp gave the king the opportunity to refuse to comply with the Oxford provisions. During the course of which began in 1263 civil war de Montfort's forces managed to defeat the king's supporters. In 1264, de Montfort became the supreme ruler of the state and implemented the requirement of knighthood to participate in government. The most important result of the civil war was the convening of the first estate-representative institution in the history of England - parliament (1265). Representatives from the knights and the most significant cities were invited to it, along with the barons and spiritual feudal lords.
By the end of the 13th century. The royal power finally realized the need for a compromise, a political agreement with feudal lords of all ranks and the top citizens in order to establish political and social stability. The consequence of this agreement was the completion of the formation of the body of class representation. In 1295, a “model” parliament was convened, the composition of which served as a model for subsequent parliaments in England. In addition to the large secular and spiritual feudal lords personally invited by the king, it included two representatives from 37 counties (knights) and two representatives from cities.
The creation of parliament entailed a change in the form of the feudal state, the emergence of a monarchy with class representation. The balance of socio-political forces within and outside parliament determined the features of both the structure and competence of the English medieval parliament. Until the middle of the 14th century. The English estates sat together and then split into two houses. At the same time, the knights from the counties began to sit together with representatives of the cities in one chamber (the House of Commons) and separated from the largest magnates, who formed the upper house (the House of Lords). The English clergy was not a special element of class representation. The higher clergy sat together with the barons, and the lower - in the House of Commons. Initially, there was no electoral qualification for parliamentary elections. The Statute of 1430 established that freeholders who received at least 40 shillings of annual income could participate in county assemblies to elect representatives to parliament.
At first, the ability of parliament to influence the policies of royal power was insignificant. Its functions were limited to determining the amount of taxes on movables and submitting collective petitions addressed to the king. True, in 1297, Edward 1 confirmed the Magna Carta in parliament, as a result of which the Statute “on the impermissibility of taxes” appeared. It stated that the imposition of taxes, benefits and levies would not take place without the general consent of the clergy and secular magnates, knights, townspeople and other free people of the kingdom. However, the Statute contained reservations that allowed the king to levy pre-existing fees.
Gradually, the parliament of medieval England acquired three most important powers: the right to participate in the publication of laws, the right to decide on collections from the population in favor of the royal treasury, and the right to exercise control over senior officials and act in some cases as a special judicial body.
The right of legislative initiative of parliament arose from the practice of submitting collective parliamentary petitions to the king. Most often they contained a request to prohibit the violation of old laws or to issue new ones. The king could grant Parliament's request or reject it. However, during the XIV century. it was established that no law should be passed without the consent of the king and the houses of parliament. In the 15th century the rule was established that parliamentary petitions should take the form of bills, which were called “bills”. This is how the concept of law (statute) took shape as an act emanating from the king, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
During the XIV century. The competence of parliament in financial matters was gradually consolidated. The statute of 1340 declared without any reservations the inadmissibility of levying direct taxes without the consent of Parliament, and the statutes of 1362 and 1371 extended this provision to indirect taxes. In the 15th century Parliament began to specify the purpose of the subsidies it provided and seek control over their spending.
In an effort to subordinate public administration to its control, parliament from the end of the 14th century. gradually introduced the procedure impeachment. It consisted of the House of Commons bringing before the House of Lords, as the highest court of the country, charges against one or another royal official for abuse of power. In addition, in the 15th century. Parliament's right to directly declare certain abuses criminal was established. At the same time, a special act was issued, approved by the king and called the “bill of disgrace.”
Throughout the XIII century. There is also a development of a new executive body - Royal Council. It began to represent a narrow group of the king's closest advisers, in whose hands the highest executive and judicial powers were concentrated. This group usually included the chancellor, treasurer, judges, ministers closest to the king, mostly from the knightly strata. The Great Council of the largest vassals of the crown lost its functions, which were transferred to parliament.
Development of the local government and justice system. During the period of the estate-representative monarchy, the role of the old courts and county assemblies in local government was reduced to a minimum, and their functions were transferred to new officials and new types of traveling courts, the competence of which was steadily expanding.
County assemblies at the end of the XIII-XV centuries. convened mainly to elect representatives to parliament and local officials. They could consider disputes over claims whose amounts did not exceed 40 shillings.
In the 13th century the head of the royal administration continued to be the sheriff, and in the hundred - his assistant, bailiff. In addition to them, local representatives of the royal administration were coroners and constables, elected in local assemblies. Coroners carried out investigations in cases of violent death, constables were given police functions. Over time, the enormous power of the sheriff began to cause distrust from the crown, which feared the “feudalization” of this position, turning it into a hereditary one. It is no coincidence that after the internecine wars in the 13th century. the position of sheriff became short-term and subject to control by the treasury. Article 24 of the Magna Carta of 1215 prohibited sheriffs from trying crown suits, and from that time on the office of sheriff began to gradually lose its importance, at least in the field of justice.
From the end of the 13th century. the practice of appointing from local landowners in the counties so-called guardians of the peace, or justices of the peace. Initially they had police and judicial powers, but over time they began to perform the most important functions of local government in place of sheriffs. By statute of 1390, eight justices of the peace were appointed to each county. Justices of the peace controlled food prices, monitored the uniformity of weights and measures, the export of wool, supervised the implementation of laws on workers (1349 and 1351), on heretics (1414) and even set wages (statute 1427 year). The property qualification for occupying this position was 20 pounds sterling annual income.
The judicial competence of magistrates included the trial of criminal cases, except murders and especially serious crimes. Proceedings were held at sessions of justices of the peace, convened four times a year. These meetings were called "quarter sessions" courts.
In the XIII-XIV centuries. The number of royal courts of various ranks is growing, and their specialization is increasing. However, the judicial and administrative functions of many institutions have not yet been separated. The highest courts of "common law" in England during this period were Court of Queen's Bench, Court of Common Pleas And Treasury Court.
The Treasury Court, which was the first to record its hearings (back in the 20s of the 12th century), was mainly specialized in settling financial disputes, and above all disputes relating to the debts of the treasury and the crown.
The Court of Common Pleas, or "common bench," heard most private civil lawsuits and became the primary court of common law. All debates in court were recorded and reproduced for the information of interested parties and from the 14th century. published regularly. This court was also the place of practice for all law students.
The Court of Common Pleas also supervised the local and manorial courts. By order from the Chancery, complaints could be transferred to this court from any other lower court, and thanks to special writs, the Court of Common Pleas could correct judicial errors of other courts.
From the king's personal Court, the Court of the King's Bench was gradually formed, which sat until the end of the 14th century. only in the presence of the king and his closest advisers. It became the highest appellate and supervisory authority for all other courts, including the "common pleas", but over time became specialized in criminal appeals.
With the development of civil circulation, the Lord Chancellor's Court who resolved issues “fairly.” The activities of this court were associated with the emergence of new forms of process and rules of law (equity).
It became more branched and diverse in the XIII-XIV centuries. system of royal itinerant legal proceedings.
Since the procedure for general judicial detours was cumbersome and expensive, in the 13th century. The frequency of general inspections was established to be no more than once every seven years. In the XIV century. general detours lost their importance and gave way to more specialized traveling commissions, among which are the Assize Courts (for the consideration of disputes over the preferential right of ownership of fief), the commission for cases of rebellion and the commission for the general inspection of prisons.
Grand and petty juries play a significant role in the administration of justice. Big, or indictment, jury took shape in connection with the procedure for questioning indicting juries by traveling courts. It became the body for bringing to justice. There were 23 members in total on the jury. The unanimous opinion of 12 jury members was enough to confirm the indictment against the suspect.
Small jury, consisting of 12 jurors, became an integral part of the English court. Members of this jury participated in the consideration of the case on the merits and rendered a verdict that required the unanimity of the jury. According to the law of 1239, the qualification for jurors was set at 40 shillings of annual income.
Jurisdiction of manorial courts in the 13th century. continued to be steadily limited. Only a few of the largest feudal lords retained the right to court in cases within the jurisdiction of the crown. Statutes 1260-1280 magnates were prohibited from putting pressure on free holders to appear at the curia and to act as an appellate authority. Sheriffs were allowed to violate the immunities of lords in order to seize the cattle they captured, as well as in all cases if the lord or his assistant did not comply with the royal order at least once. The relationship between secular and ecclesiastical courts continued to be characterized by significant tension and complexity in matters of delimitation of competence. As a result of numerous conflicts, a principle was established according to which the jurisdiction of both types of courts was determined by the nature of the punishments: only secular courts could impose secular punishments, for example, levy fines. The royal power constantly tried to limit the competence of church courts, however, as is known, these attempts were the least successful. In the end, the crown limited itself to using the traditional means of publishing court order“on prohibition,” which was issued in each specific case when church courts, in the opinion of the crown, or rather, officials of the royal curia, went beyond their competence.
Changes in the social system. During the XIV-XV centuries. Significant changes occurred in the economy and social structure of England, which led to the emergence of absolutism.
The capitalist degeneration of feudal land ownership is gradually taking place. The development of commodity-money relations and industry, the increase in demand for English wool entailed the transformation of the estates of feudal lords into commercial farms. All this corresponded to the accumulation of capital and the emergence of the first manufactories, primarily in ports and villages, where there was no guild system, which became a brake on the development of capitalist production. The formation of capitalist elements in the countryside earlier than in the city was a feature of the economic development of England during this period.
Trying to expand their holdings in order to turn them into pastures for sheep, feudal lords seize communal lands, driving peasants from their plots ("fencing"). This led to accelerated differentiation rural population on farmers, land-poor tenants and landless farm laborers.
By the end of the 15th century. The English peasantry was divided into two main groups - freeholders and copyholders. Unlike freeholders, copyholders - descendants of former serfs - continued to bear a number of natural and monetary duties in relation to the feudal lords. Their rights to land plots were based on copies of decisions of the manorial courts.
In the second half of the 15th century. Significant changes were also taking place in the structure of the feudal class itself. The internecine wars of the Scarlet and White Roses undermined the power of large feudal landownership and led to the extermination of the old feudal nobility. The enormous possessions of secular and spiritual feudal lords were put up for sale by the crown and bought by the urban bourgeoisie and the elite of the peasantry. At the same time, the role of the middle strata of the nobility, whose interests were close to the interests of the bourgeoisie, increased. These layers formed the so-called new nobility (gentry), the peculiarity of which was the management of the economy on capital principles.
The development of a single national market, as well as the intensification of social struggle, determined the interest of the new nobility and urban bourgeoisie in the further strengthening of central power.
During the period of initial accumulation of capital, the colonization of overseas territories intensified: under the Tudors, the first English colony in North America, Virginia, was founded, and at the beginning of the 17th century. The colonial East India Company was established.
Features of English absolutism. Absolute monarchy was established in England, as in other countries, during the period of the decline of feudalism and the emergence of capitalist relations of production. At the same time, English absolutism had its own characteristics, due to which it received the name “incomplete” in literature. The incompleteness of this political form in England meant the preservation of political institutions characteristic of the previous era, as well as the absence of some new elements typical of classical, French-style absolutism .
The main feature of the English absolute monarchy was that, along with strong royal power, parliament continued to exist in England. Other features of English absolutism include the preservation of local self-government, the absence in England of such centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus as on the continent. England also lacked a large standing army.
The central bodies of power and administration during the period of absolute monarchy in England were the king, the Privy Council and Parliament. During this period, real power was concentrated entirely in the hands of the king.
The King's Privy Council, which finally took shape during the period of absolutism, consisted of the highest officials of the state: the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Treasurer, the Lord Privy Seal, etc.
The strengthened royal power was unable to abolish parliament. Its stability was a consequence of the alliance of gentry and bourgeoisie, the foundations of which were laid in the previous period. This union did not allow the royal power, using the discord between classes, to eliminate representative institutions in the center and locally.
The supremacy of the Crown in relations with Parliament was formalized by the Statute of 1539, which equated the King's decrees in Council with the laws of Parliament. Although Parliament formally repealed this statute in 1547, the crown's dominance over Parliament was effectively maintained.
Parliament continued to retain the prerogative of approving the amounts of fees and taxes. Parliament's opposition to the establishment of new taxes forced the English kings to resort to loans, the introduction of duties on the import and export of goods, and the issuance of privileges to companies for the exclusive right to trade (so-called monopolies) in exchange for large monetary payments. These actions were sometimes resisted by Parliament, but its ability to influence royal policy was weakened during this period.
Due to the rapid colonization of non-English territories of the British Isles, the English system of government gradually spread throughout Britain. In 1536-1542. Wales was finally integrated into the English state. In 1603, the northeastern province of Ireland, Ulster, came under the authority of the English crown. Since 1603, as a result of dynastic succession to the throne, Scotland began to be in a personal union with England (under the rule of one king). In fact, this association was nominal, and Scotland retained the status of an independent state entity.
During the period of absolutism, the supremacy of royal power over the English Church was finally established. With the aim of establishing a church in the country subordinate to royal power, the Reformation was carried out in England, which was accompanied by the seizure of church lands and their transformation into state property (secularization). The Parliament of England under Henry VIII from 1529 to 1536 passed a number of laws declaring the king the head of the church and giving him the right to nominate candidates for the highest church positions. At the end of the 16th century. The content of the doctrine of the new church, as well as the order of worship, were established by legislation. Thus, the so-called Anglican Church ceased to depend on the Pope and became part of the state apparatus.
The highest church body in the country was High commission. Along with clergy, it included members of the Privy Council and other officials. The commission's powers were extremely broad. She investigated cases related to violations of laws on the supremacy of royal power in church affairs, “disorders of a spiritual and ecclesiastical nature.” The main task of the commission was to fight opponents of the reformed church - both with Catholics and with supporters of the most radical and democratic forms of Protestantism (for example, Presbyterianism, which took root in Scotland). Any three members of the commission, if there was one bishop among them, had the right to punish persons who did not attend church, suppress heresies, and remove pastors. Subsequently, a number of purely secular cases were assigned to the High Commission's jurisdiction - about vagabonds in London, about censorship, etc. The reformed church, retaining many features of Catholicism both in structure and in worship, turned into a body, one of whose tasks was to promote the theory of the divine origin of the king's power.
With the establishment of absolutism, the system local authorities management became more harmonious, their dependence on the central authorities increased. The main changes in local government during this period were expressed in the establishment of the post of Lord Lieutenant and the administrative registration of the local unit - the church parish. The lord lieutenant, appointed directly to the county by the king, led the local militia and supervised the activities of justices of the peace and constables.
The parish was a grassroots self-governing unit that combined the functions of local church and territorial administration. A meeting of parishioners who paid taxes decided on the distribution of taxes, repair of roads and bridges, etc. In addition, the meeting elected parish officials (church wardens, overseers of the poor, etc.). The conduct of church affairs in the parish was carried out by the parish rector. All his activities were placed under the control of justices of the peace, and through them -^ under the control of county governments and central authorities. The quarterly sessions of justices of the peace became the highest authorities on all matters relating to the administration of parishes. The county assemblies, still surviving from the previous period, are finally losing their importance.
Under absolutism, the structure and jurisdiction of the central Westminster courts, including the Court of Justice and the High Court of Admiralty, were finally formed. However, in addition to them, emergency courts are created, such as Star Chamber and judicial councils in "rebellious" counties. The Star Chamber, as a special branch of the Privy Council, was a weapon in the fight against opponents of royal power (initially, against rebellious feudal lords). The proceedings in it were mainly inquisitorial in nature, and decisions were made at the discretion of the judges. Subsequently, the Star Chamber also began to perform the functions of a censor and a supervisory body over the correctness of jury verdicts. Judicial councils, subordinate to the Privy Council, were created in those areas of England where “public peace” was often disturbed (Wales, Scotland).
During the period of absolutism, the judicial competence of magistrates expanded. All criminal cases were ordered to be tried by traveling and magistrate judges after confirmation of the indictment by the grand jury. Jurors were included in the court composition. The property qualification for juries under the law of Elizabeth I was raised from 40 shillings to 4 pounds sterling.
The basic principles of army organization have changed slightly. During the establishment of the absolute monarchy, Henry VII (1485-1509), in order to undermine the final military power of the old aristocracy, passed a law prohibiting feudal lords from having a retinue and established the crown's monopoly on the use of artillery pieces.
The abolition of the armed forces of large feudal lords in England did not entail the creation of a permanent royal army. The fortress guards and royal guards remained small in number. Ground Army continued to be based on militia in the form of militia units.
The English state, occupying an island position, needed a strong force to protect its territory. navy. The navy became the basis of England's armed forces, a tool for domination of the seas and the colonization of other territories.
Topic: England from the Norman Conquest to Freedom
Goals: characterize the features of government during the Norman dynasty; consider the reforms of Henry II Plantagenet; show the formation of parliamentarism in England.
Lesson plan:
Checking homework
Explanation of new material
Reinforcing the material learned
Lesson summary
Homework
Checking homework.
Estates of the States General (international board)
Definition of the Estates General (international board).
Who was interested in the unification of France (oral answer)
Reasons for the unification of France (working with the whiteboard)
What successes have been achieved in the unification of France (oral answer)
Conflict between King Philip 4 and Pope Bonifocius 8 (oral response)
Estates General:
Activities of the Estates General.
From all of the above, let's conclude: what significance did unification have for France?
Explanation of new material #1
Norman Conquest. In 1066, the conquest of England by Duke William of Normandy began. Since he was related to the dying old dynasty, he laid claim to the royal throne.
He received the support of: the Pope; their vassals and knights from other regions of France.
William's troops crossed the English Channel and landed on the southern coast of England. The battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of the country.
Battle of Hastings.
The Norman dynasty began to rule in England. William took away land holdings from most of the major feudal lords and distributed them to his knights.
What are the consequences of the Norman Conquest:
Strengthening royal power (all swore allegiance to William and became his vassals);
The beginning of the formation of a centralized state;
Strengthening feudal oppression (a census of land and population was carried out - the income of the population began to be more fully taken into account).
How did the Norman Conquest affect the development of England?
Explanation of new material No. 2
HenryIIand his reforms.
What can you say about Heinrich?II. (p. 161 – read)
During his reign, a lot of changes occurred in the country and a number of reforms were carried out:
creation of the royal court
Judicial reform
(bypassing the court of the local feudal lord);
court for the free -
12 jurors;
court for dependent peasants -
feudal court.
Introduction of shield money
Military reform:
(special contribution of knights to the king instead of campaigns);
The shield money contained:
people's militia, a permanent mercenary army.
The power of sheriffs was formed locally -
Strengthening the power of sheriffs:
royal officials who
governed the county: the sheriff collected taxes,
pursued violation of order.
What significance did these reforms have for France?
Explanation of new material No. 3
Magna Carta.
After the death of Henry II, power passed to his eldest son, Richard I the Lionheart. After Richard's death, Henry II's youngest son, John the Landless, became king. In 1215 he signed Magna Carta- the great charter protected the nobility from the arbitrariness of the king, as well as knights and townspeople. However, having signed the Charter, John did not intend to fulfill its demands; having secured the support of the pope, he began a war against his opponents, but died in the midst of hostilities.
Working with a document (p.163.Semantic Reading Strategy )
Stage 1 – Before reading the text:
Read the title, highlight familiar and new terms in it.
Try to guess what the conversation will be about.
Stage 2 – While reading the text:
Find new words and determine their meanings using the dictionary.
Stage 3 – After reading the text:
Answer the questions for the test and comment on them;
The king's power was limited, and the guilty were subject to trial.
The charter was beneficial to free people, barons, and merchants.
They received freedom, they could defend it through the courts - a law appeared.
Explanation of new material No. 4
Parliament. John's son Henry III was a spineless man, under the influence of his wife. He generously granted land and income to foreigners, which caused discontent among the population.
In 1258, the Harrows assembled a royal council, called the "mad council". The barons put forward demands to the king and he was forced to accept the demands:
Without the barons, the king could not decide important matters;
Foreigners had to return the castles and estates received from the king.
Having achieved their goal, the barons did not take care of the knights and townspeople. In 1265, in order to strengthen his power, Count Monifort convened a meeting, which included major spiritual and secular feudal lords, representatives of knights and townspeople. This class was named parliament.
Functions of Parliament:
Participation in the creation of laws;
Tax resolution;
Control over the use of taxes;
Restrictions on the activities of barons.
In parliament, these two houses acted together, so they were able to pass a law that no tax would be collected without the consent of the House of Commons. When approving a new tax, parliament usually presented its demands to the king and extracted concessions from him. Gradually, parliament began to participate in changing laws. The English Parliament had great influence on state affairs. But the peasants did not participate in the work of parliament. Many fled from their masters - the fugitives gathered in detachments and attacked feudal lords, bishops and officials. People composed songs - ballads - about their adventures. The favorite hero of English ballads was the good robber - Robin Hood.
Is there a difference between Parliament and the Estates General?
Calculate how many years the English Parliament has existed?
Let's highlight what qualities did Robin Hood have?
Consolidation of the studied material:
Tic-tac-toe game
| 1. the Norman conquest began in 1066 - X 2. William I was not related to the English dynasty – 0 3. Henry II did not carry out any reforms – 0 4. Under Henry II, “shield money” appeared - X 5. Charter translated from Latin means letter - X 6. Parliament consisted only of the House of Lords - 0 7. The House of Lords and the House of Commons acted separately - 0 8. Peasants did not participate in the work of parliament - X 9. The favorite hero of English ballads was the good robber - Robin Hood - H. | |
Lesson summary:
What new did you learn in class today?
