The first Zemsky Sobors

Since ancient times in Rus' it was customary to decide important issues the whole world, that is, “conciliarly.” The unification of appanage principalities into a single centralized state did not eradicate this tradition.
Under Ivan the Terrible, the first zemstvo councils began to gather, the prototype of which can be considered the city councils that existed in major cities. They were convened by the Moscow government to solve the most significant problems.
Officially, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549. Already at that time, the tsar’s power was absolute, and he was not obliged to listen to participants in zemstvo councils. However, the far-sighted Ivan the Terrible understood that thanks to the cathedrals it was possible to obtain information about the real state of affairs in the state. It is also important that the tsar enjoyed the support of the boyars and nobles, who assisted in the adoption of laws weakening the feudal aristocracy. It was necessary measure to strengthen absolute royal power.
Initially, the first zemstvo councils included only representatives of the ruling class of the entire Russian land. Under Ivan the Terrible, cathedrals were not yet elective; they became such only at the beginning of the 17th century.
Each zemstvo cathedral included members of the Boyar Duma and the Consecrated Cathedral, as well as zemstvo people. The Boyar Duma consisted exclusively of representatives of the feudal aristocracy, and the Consecrated Council of representatives of the highest clergy. Both of these authorities were required to attend the council in in full force. Zemstvo people were formed from representatives different groups population from various areas.
Each council traditionally opened with the reading of an introductory letter with a list of issues for discussion. Zemsky Sobors were authorized to resolve issues domestic policy and finance, as well as foreign policy issues. The right to open the cathedral was granted to the king or clerk. After this, all participants in the cathedral left for a meeting. It was customary for each class to sit separately.
The most important issues were resolved through voting, which was held in “chambers” - rooms specially designated for this purpose. Often Zemsky Sobor ended with a joint meeting of all its participants, and closed with a gala dinner.
During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, many important decisions were made at the first zemstvo councils. At the council of 1549, the Code of Law was adopted, approved already in 1551. The cathedral of 1566 was dedicated to the Livonian War. Ivan the Terrible advocated its continuation, and the participants of the council supported him. In 1565, the cathedral met to listen to a message from Ivan the Terrible, in which it was reported that the tsar had departed for Alexandrovskaya Sloboda and left his state as a result of “treasonable deeds.” It becomes clear that a variety of state affairs were actually discussed at the councils.
The main decisions taken at the zemstvo councils of Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the absolute royal power. Participants in the councils most often did not dare to contradict the tsar, preferring to support him in everything. Despite this, the convening of zemstvo councils became a significant milestone in the improvement state system management.

highest class-representative institutions in Russia ser. XVI - XVII centuries They included members of the Consecrated Cathedral, the Boyar Duma, the “sovereign court,” elected from the provincial nobility and the elite of the townspeople. We considered the most important national issues.

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ZEMSKY Cathedrals

central estate-representative institutions in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. They included members of the Consecrated Council - archbishops, bishops and others, headed by the metropolitan, and from 1589 - by the patriarch, members of the Boyar Duma, the “sovereign court”, elected from the provincial nobility and the elite of the townspeople. The most important national issues were considered at the Z.S. At the beginning of the 17th century. during the period of mass popular movements, Polish and Swedish intervention, the “Council of the Whole Earth” was convened, the continuation of which was Z.S. 1613, which elected the first Romanov, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, to the throne. During his reign, the Z.S. was convened most often. The practice of convening and conducting meetings of the Z.S. was not strictly regulated. The councils confirmed or elected kings, approved the conciliar code of 1649, abolished localism in 1682, approved treaties on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, on “eternal peace” with Poland in 1683-1684, with their help the government introduced new taxes, changed existing ones, discussed issues foreign policy, the need to recruit troops, etc. Sometimes unplanned issues were proposed for discussion, for example, at the Council of 1566 the question of abolishing the oprichnina introduced by Ivan IV the Terrible was raised. From the middle of the 17th century. Z.S.’s activities are fading, which is explained by the strengthening of absolutism in Russia.

Composition of Z.s. was formed through representation from class groups, socio-political and state institutions. Representation was conditional on the status of the person, determined by choice or, possibly, by appointment (invitation). Core Z.s. and its permanent parts (curias) were: the Consecrated Council, headed by the Moscow Metropolitan (from 1589 - the Patriarch) and including archbishops, bishops, archimandrites, abbots of influential monasteries; The Boyar Duma (including Duma nobles and Duma clerks), as well as (until the beginning of the 17th century) persons who ex officio had the right of a boyar court (butlers, treasurers, printers). The bulk of the secular feudal lords of the 16th century. represented various groups The sovereign's court (stewards, solicitors, Moscow and elected nobles, clerks). From the trade and craft population to Z.s. privileged groups of merchants were represented (guests, members of the Living Room and Cloth Hundreds). From 1584 to W.s. there were “elected people” from the district nobility, from 1598 sotskys of the Moscow Black Hundreds, from 1612 – elected representatives from the peasants. Z.s. lost importance by the end of the 17th century.

First Z.s. (1549 and 1566) are organically included in the system of institutions of the estate-representative monarchy that emerged by the middle of the 16th century, when a number of political reforms were carried out.

In June 1566 on W.S. Only representatives of the zemshchina were present; delegates were appointed by the government. Here for the first time the government faced strong opposition. Large group boyars and nobles turned to the tsar with a petition for the resignation of the oprichnina. Z.s. stands out in particular. 1613: it was broader and more democratic in terms of representation than the previous ones - a new dynasty was elected to the Moscow throne. Some time after the election of Mikhail Fedorovich Z.s. did not dissolve and acted as the supreme body under the king. At the beginning of the 17th century. frequent meetings of Z.s. were necessary to make unpopular decisions about new tensions in the country's military and economic forces.

Z.s. gathered in one of the Kremlin chambers (Granovitaya, Stolovaya and others). The cathedral was opened by the clerk or the king himself. The clerk read out the “letter” (agenda) for the cathedral. The answer to the agenda item was given on “separate articles” by each estate.

Duration Z.s. ranged from several hours (1645) and days (1642) to several months (1648–1649) and even years (1613–1615,1615-1619,1620–1622).

Solutions Z.s. were formalized in a conciliar protocol under the seals of the Tsar, Patriarch, senior officials and kissing the cross for lower ranks. Z.s. existed until the end of the 17th century, gradually losing their significance and role in the life of the state.

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In the 16th century, a fundamentally new organ arose in Russia public administration- Zemsky Sobor. The Zemsky Sobor is the highest estate-representative institution of the Russian state, from the mid-16th to the end of the 17th century. This is a gathering of representatives of all segments of the population (except for the serf peasantry) at which economic, political and administrative issues were discussed.

Composition of the Zemsky Sobor

The Zemsky Sobor included: the Tsar, the Boyar Duma, the entire Consecrated Cathedral, representatives of the nobility, the upper classes of the townspeople (merchants, large merchants), and sometimes state peasants. The Zemsky Sobor as a representative body was bicameral. The upper chamber included the Tsar, and included the Boyar Duma and the Consecrated Council, who were not elected, but took part in it in accordance with their position.

Procedure for elections to the council

Members of the lower house were elected. The procedure for elections to the council was as follows. From the Discharge Order, the governors received instructions on elections, which were read out to city residents and peasants. After that, class elective lists were compiled, although the number of representatives was not recorded. Voters gave instructions to their elected officials. But elections were not always held. There were cases when, during an urgent convocation of a council, representatives were invited by the king or local officials.

In the Zemsky Cathedral important role played by the nobles (the main service class, the basis of the army) and merchant people, because the solution to monetary problems in order to provide funds for state needs, primarily defense and military, depended on their participation in this meeting.

They were not specifically invited as representatives of the population elected deputies, but mainly officials who stood at the head of local noble and townspeople societies. When making any decision, the members of the council obliged at the same time to be the executors of this decision. At the beginning of the 17th century, cathedral representation was only elective, and its permanent members were representatives of the service and townspeople. The free peasantry, which formed common “all-district worlds” with the townspeople, was also represented at the councils, but the serfs did not take part in them.

“Tsar John IV opens the first Zemsky Council with his repentant speech”

Discussion of issues. Duration

At the Zemsky Sobor, discussions of issues took place by rank and in groups. After discussing the issue, elected people submitted their written opinions to the groups - the so-called “fairy tales”.

The regularity and duration of meetings of the councils were not regulated depending on the circumstances, importance and content of the issues discussed. There were cases when zemstvo councils functioned continuously. The main issues of foreign and domestic policy, legislation, finance, and state building were resolved at them. Issues were discussed by estates (chambers), each estate submitted its written opinion, and then, as a result of their generalization, a verdict was drawn up, accepted by the entire composition of the cathedral.

Thus, the government had the opportunity to identify the opinions of individual classes and groups of the population. However, in general, the cathedral acted in close connection with the tsarist government and the Duma. Councils were held on Red Square, in the Patriarchal Chambers or the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, and later in the Golden Chamber or the Dining Hut.

In addition to the name “Zemsky Sobor”, this representative institution had other names: “Council of all the Earth”, “Cathedral”, “ General advice", "Great Zemstvo Duma".

First Zemsky Sobor

The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in Russia in 1549 and in history it is known as the Council of Reconciliation. The reason for its convening was the 1547 uprising in Moscow and the need to reconcile the contradictions between the boyars and the nobility.

Zemsky Sobor 1613: made the Romanovs a royal dynasty

Based on historical documents, it dates back to the 16th–17th centuries. there are about 50 such cathedrals. All of them can be divided into 4 groups: convened by the sovereign on his initiative; convened by the king at the request of the estates; convened by the estates on their initiative; councils at which the king was elected.

The first group of cathedrals predominated. The Council of 1549 belongs to the second group, because it was convened at the request of the estates. The council of 1598 elected the kingdom, 1613 -.

The most complex and representative structure in the 16th century was the Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 and the Cathedral of 1566.

1551 - on the initiative of the sovereign and the metropolitan, a church council was convened, which was called the Stoglavy Council, since its decisions were formulated in 100 chapters. The council regulated church art, the rules of life of the clergy, and compiled and approved a list of all-Russian saints. Most controversial issue There was a question about church land ownership. Rituals were unified throughout the country. The Council approved the adoption of the Code of Laws of 1550 and the reforms.

The Council of 1566 was more representative from a social point of view. It formed 5 curiae, uniting various segments of the population (clergy, boyars, officials, nobility and merchants). At this council the issue of war with Lithuania and Poland was decided.

Summarizing the competence of zemstvo councils, we can state that they considered the following issues:

Election to the kingdom;

War and Peace;

Adoption of new regulations;

Taxation.

In 1684, the last Zemsky Council took place in Russian history. In the 16th century, Zemsky Sobors were not elective. In 1584, an Electoral Council was convened, at which the first tsar elected by the Zemsky Sobor, Fyodor Ioannovich (the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible), was elected. The Zemsky Sobor of 1653 was assembled to make a decision on the inclusion of Ukraine into the Moscow state.

B. A. Romanov believes that the Zemsky Sobor consisted of two “chambers”: the first consisted of boyars, okolnichy, butlers, treasurers, the second - governors, princes, boyar children, and great nobles. 2. Starting from the death of Ivan the Terrible and until the fall of Shuisky (1584-1610). . The councils performed the function of electing the kingdom. 4. 1613-1622 The Council acts almost continuously, but already as an advisory body under the royal power.

On October 1 (11), 1653, the Zemsky Sobor met in the Moscow Kremlin, which decided to reunite Left Bank Ukraine with Russia. After a long exchange of embassies and letters between the Russian government and Khmelnitsky, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in June 1653 announced his consent to the transition of Ukraine to Russian citizenship.

On January 8 (18), 1654, in Pereyaslavl the Great, the Rada unanimously supported the entry of Ukraine into Russia and entered the war with Poland for Ukraine. Tsar John IV opens the first Zemsky Council with his repentant speech.” V. O. Klyuchevsky defined zemstvo councils as “ special type representation of the people, different from Western representative assemblies."

Features of Zemstvo Councils in comparison with European parliaments

The participation of the clergy in the councils was intended to emphasize the legitimacy of the decisions made by the monarch. Nothing is said about who the second “chamber” consisted of: those who happened to be in Moscow at that time, or those who were specially summoned to Moscow. Often the discussion took place separately among the boyars and okolnichy, the clergy, and service people, that is, each group separately expressed its opinion on this issue.

Mechanisms for forming representation at zemstvo councils

1. The history of zemstvo councils begins during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible. Resolves current administrative and financial issues. He resolved the issue of eternal peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. What would have happened, what turmoil would have resulted when the representatives of the peoples and foreigners of the empire that embraced the universe, described by him, gathered in Moscow to discuss something unknown.”

The Council adopted decisions to recognize the power of the House of Romanov, to appeal to the Romanovs with a request to appoint a Supreme Ruler, and to elect General Dieterichs as a temporary ruler. K. P. Pobedonostsev and his correspondents: Letters and notes” / With a foreword by M. N. Pokrovsky, T. 1, M.-Pg., 1923, semi-volume 1, pp. 261-263. ZEMSKY CATHEDRAL - – central authority class representation in the Russian state from the mid-16th century. until the mid-17th century, which was an instrument of influence primarily of the local nobility.

Zemsky Sobor 1642 - The unsuccessful outcome of the Smolensk War complicated international situation Russia. Zemsky Sobors in Rus', Ivan Dmitrievich Belyaev. Zemsky" in the 16th century meant the same as "state". Cathedral" was used to refer to meetings of the clergy.

The last Zemsky Sobor of the Moscow Kingdom was assembled

But in relation to the Zemsky Sobors of the 16th - 17th centuries. It is customary to use the phrase “Zemsky Sobor”. The first Zemsky Sobor took place in 1549, after incidents related to the discontent of the people (Fire in Moscow and the accusation of arson against the Glinskys).

Historical background for the appearance and disappearance of zemstvo cathedrals

He was not named in the will, unlike his brother, who died in 1581. His legal title was unclear because After the death of his son, Ivan 4 did not draw up a new will. The most famous of the electoral councils is the Zemsky Sobor of 1613, at which Mikhail Romanov was elected. In 1649, the Laid Cathedral was held, which had special meaning- the Council Code was adopted there. All material of the Code was collected into 25 chapters and 967 articles.

Throughout the 16th - 17th centuries. Quite a few councils were convened. The historian Cherepnin lists 57 cathedrals, and also includes 3 church and zemstvo cathedrals. The reason for this was the presence of a zemstvo element in them and the fact that issues of a religious nature raised at these councils had a secular “zemstvo significance.”

Terminology. Types of cathedrals in Russia

Zemsky Sobors are divided into complete and incomplete. The word "zemsky" in in this case means state, public. What was the composition of the cathedrals? It included the archbishop, bishops, archimandrites, abbots and monastery elders. 2. Boyars and sovereign people - 62 people.

The same group included 33 simple clerks and clerks. representatives - they were invited to the council by virtue of their official position. It included 97 nobles of the first article, 99 nobles and children of boyars of the second article, 3 Toropets and 6 Lutsk landowners.

From the beginning of the 17th century. the situation has changed. In the same century, the principle of forming the “Sovereign Court” changed, and nobles began to be elected from the counties. Next to the sovereign’s will, and sometimes in its place, another political force now more than once stood - the will of the people, expressed in the verdicts of the Zemsky Sobor,” wrote Klyuchevsky. The convening of the council was carried out by a letter of conscription, issued by the tsar to well-known persons and localities. The letter contained the agenda items and the number of elected officials.

As noted above, sometimes the number of elected people to be sent to the council was determined by the population itself. Deputies received instructions from voters, mostly verbal, and upon returning from the capital they had to report on the work done. The work of the delegates at the Zemsky Sobor was carried out mainly free of charge, on a “social basis”. 1. Election of the Tsar. Council of 1584. Election of Fyodor Ioannovich.

According to I.D. Belyaev, elected representatives from all classes participated in the first Zemsky Sobor. Data on the participation of the townspeople in zemstvo councils are very doubtful, although the decisions made there were often very beneficial to the top of the town. It was during this period of time that the Zemsky Sobor played the most important and significant role in public life Russia.

Since ancient times in Rus' there has been a custom to solve problems that have arisen and settle matters with the entire community, “conciliarly,” despite the fact that the convening of the first Zemsky Sobor took place only in the middle of the sixteenth century, during the period of the country’s rule by Ivan the Terrible. The existence of such institutions is typical for many European countries that have passed through the stage of estate-representative monarchy in their development. The first zemstvo councils arose in England, Catalonia, and Portugal. In Spain, such deliberative institutions were called Cortes, in Poland - Diets, in Germany - Landtags.

So, the Zemsky Sobor is the highest institution of estate-representative power, endowed with legislative functions. It was convened to resolve political and administrative affairs. In other words, this is a convening of representatives of different classes to resolve some matter of national importance. The emergence of such an institution was the result of the end of the unification of Russian lands into a single state and the strengthening of local power of the nobility. In terms of the composition of its members, the Russian Zemsky Sobor was close to Western European class representations, but differed from them in having only an advisory function. European zemstvo councils had the right to legislate. In Rus', the decisions of this institution came into force only after their approval by the Tsar and the Boyar Duma.

The convening of the first Zemsky Sobor in Rus' was timed to coincide with the beginning of the reforms of Ivan IV the Terrible. It included the highest clergy, boyars, appanage princes, wealthy townspeople, and representatives of the nobility from different provinces of the country. The Zemsky Sobor conventionally consisted of two chambers. One of them included boyars, treasurers, butlers, the other - nobles and military leaders. Each convocation of the Zemsky Sobor lasted, as a rule, no more than two days. The tsar spoke at it three times, after which the boyars could express their opinion on the issue at hand, and at the end a meeting of the Boyar Duma was held. All meetings were held strictly according to ranks, decisions were made unanimously.

The convening of the first Zemsky Sobor in February 1549, which proclaimed the transition of the Russian state to an estate-representative monarchy, was of great importance for the political and cultural life of the country. From this time on, the role of the nobility in governing the country increased. During the convocation, a new set of laws is established and a decision is made to create the Petition Hut. From now on, anyone could submit a petition (request) to the Tsar and almost immediately receive an answer to it. Likewise petition hut regulated the activities of others government agencies.

The first Zemsky Sobor, convened in Rus', was called the “Cathedral of Reconciliation”; in parallel with it, a meeting of the Church Council was held, which examined the lives of sixteen Orthodox saints and established the church celebration of the holidays named after them.

The convening of the first Zemsky Sobor, and all those that followed it, was carried out by a special charter, which indicated the reason for convening and the number of elected representatives. Often the population itself decided how many people should sit at the Zemsky Sobor. Representatives were selected through elections held in various cities of the country in the form of meetings. Persons who perform service and also regularly pay taxes to the state treasury could take part in these elections. Elected representatives did not receive a salary for their participation in the convening of the Zemsky Sobor. Moreover, they had to independently provide themselves with everything they needed when going to such a meeting.

All convocations of the Zemsky Sobor were held, as a rule, in a solemn atmosphere in the Kremlin. A service was held in their honor in the Assumption Cathedral. In total, over the two centuries of the existence of this institution, a meeting of 57 Zemsky Sobors was held.