Subcutaneous muscles, nerves and bursae of the horse. The structure of the skin and its derivatives in horses

Study of the general condition of the horse - skin and subcutaneous tissue, mucous membranes, muscles, bone and cardiovascular systems, arteries, veins, esophagus, respiratory tract. Description of the pathological process zone, diagnosis of chronic bronchitis.

Submitting your good work to the knowledge base is easy. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Symptoms Characterized by cough, polyps, spasmophilia, low-grade fever. On auscultation, wheezing and vesicular hard breathing. At favorable course acute bronchitis cured within 1-2 weeks. If unfavorable - goes into chronic form against the background of emaciation of the animal, decreased physical strength, expiratory shortness of breath with coughing attacks. Chronic bronchitis is complicated by bronchiectasis, atelectasis, emphysema and catarrhal bronchopneumonia.

Diagnosis diagnosed on the basis of anamnesis and data clinical trial. A radiograph of chronic bronchitis reveals a bronchial pattern (peribronchitis) and foci of emphysema.

Treatment. Eliminate the causes of the disease and the factors predisposing to it. To enhance the discharge of inflammatory exudate, bronchodilators and expectorants are used - thermopsis herb, ipecac root, marshmallow, licorice, istoda, plantain leaf, coltsfoot, thyme herb, anise, fennel, pertusin, terpin hydrate, sodium benzoate. Codeine and dionine are indicated for cough. Iodine preparations are used (potassium iodide 0.01-0.02 mg/kg live weight) 2-3 times a day for 1.5-2 weeks. Broad-spectrum antibiotics and sulfonamides are effective (intramuscular and intratracheal). Intravenous novocaine blockade and blockade of the stellate ganglion with a 0.25% or 0.5% solution of novocaine, respectively, 1 and 0.5 ml per 1 kg of animal weight, are effective. For allergic conditions, fenkarol, corticosteroids, mucaltin, aminophylline, intal, lobudal, berotec, levamisole, sustanon, nok-siron, droperidol are indicated. Physiotherapy (UV irradiation, UHF, Sollux, infraruuge) has a good effect. For severe coughs, finely chopped elecampane roots are prescribed as food. You can give thermopsis tablets, terpinhydrate (10 tablets three times a day), cough powders (for example, a mixture of sulfadimezine with tea soda, give 1 tablespoon twice a day for 7-10 days).

Traditionally, sulfonamide drugs are used (the newest of them is thymediazine - 1 powder (50g) per day for 5 days) and antibiotics in combination with cardiac medications. Expectorants are indicated: ammonium chloride (ammonia) 5-15g depending on age, artificial Carlsbad salt 10-15g per dose, anise seeds, dill, cumin, ammonia-anise drops, terpin hydrate, mucaltin, pertussin, ephedrine. On chest wall Mustard plasters, cupping, rubbing in irritating ointments, warming, and wrapping are effective. A sick animal must be given rest, a draft-free room. Good feeding. Inhalations are useful. If it is cold in the stable, then constantly keep it under the blanket, changing it, if it gets wet.

Prevention consists in eliminating the factors predisposing to the disease and causing bronchitis. A complex of general hygiene measures, strengthening resistance, hardening, and insolation are of utmost importance.

Blood test

Nickname, No.: Zlata

Diagnosis: chronic bronchitis

Blood was tested at 16.00 10/12/2006

Leukogram (%)

NEUTROPHILS

ESR: 15 min. - 50.0, 30 min. - 61.5, 45 min. - 66.0, 60 min. - 71.5

Urine examination

Type of animal: horse Gender: mare Date of birth: 02/3/1996

Special features: white spot on the forehead, under the bangs, in the shape of a bird

Nickname: Zlata

Animal affiliation: Mr. Ivanov Ivan Petrovich

Diagnosis: chronic bronchitis

Method and time of urine collection: during natural urination, at 10.30 10/12/2006

The study was carried out: at 16.20 10/12/2006

Physical properties:

Quantity: 0.6 liters

Color: light yellow

Transparency: cloudy

Consistency: slimy

Odor: urea

Relative density: 1.035

Chemical analysis:

Total protein: none

Acidity: 5.3

Glucose: absent

Ketones: none

Blood: none

Urobilinogen: absent.

Bibliography

1. Wolfgang Kresse Horses. Maintenance, care and treatment. Per with him. E. Zakharova M.: “Aquarium”, 2001

2. Kuznetsov A.F. Directory of a veterinarian in St. Petersburg: Institute of Lan, 2004

3. Lineva A. Physiological indicators of animal norms. Directory M.: “Aquarium” FGUIPV, 2003

4. General and clinical veterinary formulation. Directory. edited by Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Professor V.N. Zhulenko M.: “Spike” 2000

5. Workshop on clinical diagnostics animal diseases. Ed. Academician of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences Voronin E.S. M.: "KolosS", 2003

6. Usha B.V., Belyakov I.M. Fundamentals of clinical diagnostics and veterinary propaedeutics. M.: Frantera LLC, 2002

7. Sharabrin I.G., Alikaev V.A., Zamarin L.G., Danilevsky V.M., Panysheva L.V., Konopelko P.Ya., Porokhov F.F., Smirnov S.I., Simonov I.N., Sudakov N.A., Khrustalev A.S. Domestic non-communicable diseases farm animals. M.: Agropromizdat, 1985

8. Yarov I.I., Vasyutenkova N.S. Fundamentals of animal husbandry M.: Agropromizdat, 1986.

Similar documents

History of the dog's life and illness. Determination of animal habit, hair, skin and subcutaneous tissue. Study of mucous membranes, lymph nodes, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, genitourinary and nervous systems.

test, added 12/22/2014


Preliminary acquaintance with the animal, its registration. History of life and illness. Clinical study of an animal. Determination of habit, examination of hair, skin and subcutaneous tissue. Condition of mucous membranes and lymph nodes.

abstract, added 12/13/2016


History of life and illness, complications, condition of the animal at the time of the study. Study of the skin, mucous membranes, muscles, bone, cardiovascular, digestive, genitourinary, nervous and other systems, breathing. Results rectal examination.

medical history, added 09.29.2009


Study skin, visible mucous membranes, lymph nodes, upper respiratory tract, cardiovascular, digestive, urinary, nervous systems, chest and laboratory blood analysis of a black-and-white cow.

course work, added 03/30/2010


History of the life and illness of the animal. Study of the condition of the internal organs and systems of the horse. Cardiovascular and nervous system. Rectal examination results. Laboratory research: blood and urine test. Course and treatment of the disease, prognosis.

medical history, added 02/07/2016


Preliminary familiarization with the animal. Determination of habit and examination of hair, subcutaneous tissue, visible mucous membranes, lymph nodes. Organs urinary system. Laboratory research methods and substantiation of diagnosis.

course work, added 06/03/2014


History of the life and illness of a cow. Making a diagnosis of “bronchitis” based on data from a clinical study of the animal’s cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive and autonomic nervous systems and diagnosing the state of mineral metabolism.

abstract, added 01/31/2012


Examination of the physique, skin and its derivatives, visible mucous membranes, lymph nodes. Study of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, nervous and cardiovascular systems and musculoskeletal system. Conclusion about the condition of the dog.

practice report, added 10/13/2014


General examination of the animal: determination of habit, thermometry, mucous membranes, lymph nodes, skin and hair. Examination of the calf's respiratory system by palpation, percussion and auscultation. Examination of the digestive system.

test, added 02/03/2016


Procedure for examining a horse if there is a suspicion of hoof disease. Collection of anamnestic data. General research horse, external examination of the hoof and coffin joint. Diagnostic shoeing and radiography to confirm the diagnosis.

The thickness of the skin of horses varies depending on breed, sex (mares are thinner), age (adults are thicker) and location on the body. In general, it is thinner than that of a large one cattle, but thicker than other domestic animals. The skin is especially thick in the mane area, that is, in the upper contour of the neck, as well as on the ventral surface of the tail. It is somewhat thicker on the head and back than on the stomach, and on the anterior and lateral surfaces of the limbs it is thicker than on the posterior and medial. In thin-skinned horses, the underlying parts are more clearly outlined, such as bony protrusions on the limbs, muscles and tendons, vessels on the front of the head, on the stomach, on the limbs. In general, the skin adheres tightly to the body, but still in some places noticeable folds appear, such as the knee fold (for subcutaneous bursae, see Fig. 228).
The covering hair is relatively short and straight (rarely slightly curled); tactile (sinus) are distributed on the head: on the upper and lower eyelids (pili supraorbitales and pili infraorbitales), on the cheeks, lips, chin, in the submandibular space.
Long hair forms: bangs - cirrus capitis, mane - iuba (Fig. 216-35, 36), tail hair - cirrus caudae (not on the ventral surface of the tail), brushes - cirrus pedis - on the posterior surface of the fetlock joint (Fig. 215- 64). Some breeds (especially heavy horses) have clearly defined hair flows in a number of places: on the forehead, chest, underbelly, belly, etc. (Fig. 228).

Crumbs

Of the carpal, metacarpal and digital crumbs present on the paws of plantigrade predatory animals (bears), only the digital crumb has remained well developed in horses. The crumbs of the remaining parts of the hand and foot exist only as rudiments and receive special names. So, the metacarpal soft tissue is called a spur. It is located on the plantar (volar or plantar) surface of the 1st phalanx, hidden by bundles long hair brushes and represents a rudimentary (from 2.5 cm or more) mass of horny columns and an intermediate horn. Light horses usually have smaller spurs than heavy horses.
The carpal and tarsal crumbs are called chestnuts (Fig. 215-40; 216-34). On the thoracic limb the chestnut lies medially above the carpal joint, and on the pelvic limb it lies slightly below the tarsus on the medial surface of the metatarsus. The structure of the chestnut is similar to a spur.

Finger crumb- pulvinus digitalis (Fig. 231-11; 232-13, 14, 15) - during gaits, plays the role of a mechanically acting elastic organ in the area of ​​the distal end of the finger (see finger mechanism). As an instrument of touch, it is already in many ways inferior to the crumbs of carnivores, which have a more primitive structure. Under the influence of the hoof, it took the form of a wedge forked by a longitudinal groove, in which one can distinguish a wide thickened cushion of the crumb - torus pulvini - which has preserved the structure of the usual crumb, and a pointed apex (Fig. 233-1, 2, 3). The latter strongly protrudes into the sole of the hoof and extends its tip even beyond the center of the plantar supporting surface of the tip. This apical part of the crumb, strongly compacted and pushed into the sole, resembles to some extent an arrowhead, which is why it is called the arrow-shaped part of the crumb, or simply the arrow of the crumb - furca pulvini (cuneus pulvini) (2, 3).
1. Connective tissue parts: a) The subcutaneous layer of the crumb (Fig. 232-13) is greatly changed compared to the subcutaneous layer of other places on the skin.
In the crumb it is adapted to the role of a spring, due to which it is characterized by high density and elasticity. It contains significant intertwined bundles of adhesive fibers with a network of elastic and layers of adipose tissue. In the area of ​​the frog, adipose tissue and elastic fibers decrease in quantity, as a result of which the spine of the frog becomes harder and denser.

The subcutaneous layer of the crumb has a generally wedge shape (Fig. 234-B), and its slightly bifurcated wide part is called the subcutaneous cushion of the crumb - pulvinus subcutaneus (d). It is, as it were, nested between the soft cartilages, which cover it from the sides. With its deep surface, the subcutaneous layer of the crumb is adjacent to the fascia of the deep digital flexor; in this case, the pillow is suspended by a special ligament to the end of the fetlock bone. The pointed anterior part of the crumb is directed towards the sole and is called the subcutaneous arrow - furca subcutanea (e).
Soft cartilage- cartilagines pulvinares (A, b) - are a modification of the subcutaneous layer of the digital crumb, together with which they constitute one original elastic device of the distal end of the finger. There are two soft cartilages - lateral and medial. Each of them is firmly attached to the corresponding branch of the hoof bone, and therefore is usually described under the name of hoof cartilage.
The soft, or hoof, cartilage is an irregularly shaped cartilaginous plate; with its upper section it protrudes under the skin over the hoof border on the lateral side and reaches almost half the height of the coronoid bone (Fig. 231-10). In front, the soft cartilages reach the tendon of the common digital extensor, and behind they cover the cushion of the soft and bend the edges towards each other. Along the convex outer surface Many vessels pass through, some of which in the lower and posterior sections penetrate the cartilaginous plate. The concave inner surface with its anterior section covers the coronoid bone from the sides, and at the back it is especially firmly fused with the cushion of the crumb. At the fusion border there are numerous grooves and channels for blood vessels. Occasionally (within a small percentage) the spinal cartilage undergoes ossification, especially in heavy horses.
The soft cartilage is connected by a number of ligaments with neighboring bones: the hoof, shuttle, coronoid and even fetlock.
b) The base of the skin of the crumb - corium pulvinare (Fig. 232-14) - has a developed papillary layer, but in general does not represent anything characteristic. The part of this base located in the frog area can be called the base of the frog skin - corium furcale (Fig. 233-10).
2. Epidermis of the crumb. The productive layer of the epidermis forms a thick but soft stratum corneum within the crumb cushion. In the area of ​​the arrow, the stratum corneum is especially massive, is highly elastic and forms the horny arrow of the crumb - furca cornea (Fig. 233-2, 3). It has the shape of a wedge and on the volar surface bears two arrow legs - crura furcae (The epidermis of the digital crumb contains tubular, curled glands (Fig. 232-16); they secrete a secretion containing fat.

Hoof

The hoof - ungula (Fig. 231, 232,233, 234, 235), as is clear from the general part, is a derivative of the skin, transformed at the end of the finger into a hard skin tip; it corresponds to the claw of carnivores and the nail of primates (without the crumb).
The hoof consists of: a) the horny layer of the hoof, which forms a highly developed horny shoe, or horny capsule, of the hoof (Fig. 235-A); it consists of the horny wall of the hoof and the horny sole and b) the base of the skin of the hoof (B).
For ease of description, the base of the hoof skin is divided into the following areas: 1) hoof border (Fig. 235, B-9), 2) hoof rim (10), 3) hoof wall (11) and 4) hoof sole (Fig. 233, B-12).
1. Connective tissue parts. The subcutaneous layer of the hoof - stratum subcutaneum ungulae - is very slightly developed and in its distribution is limited to the area of ​​​​the border and corolla, as well as the area of ​​​​contact of the skin with the final segment of the common digital extensor tendon. This layer does not have any features and is a loose, unformed connective tissue rich in elastic fibers.
The base of the hoof skin - corium ungulae (Fig. 235-B) - as a connective tissue lining for the epidermis, is present everywhere. With its deepest, most dense part, the base in places lacking a subcutaneous layer is directly and firmly fused with the periosteum of the bone. This part closest to the periosteum is called the periosteal layer. This connection takes place in the area of ​​the hoof wall and the sole of the hoof, i.e., where there are no tendons or cartilage, but only the periosteum of the hoof bone.
At the base of the hoof skin, in addition to the periosteal layer, the reticular and papillary layers are clearly visible. In the reticular layer, abundant vessels branch and there is the same venous network. Due to its richness in vessels, this layer is rightfully called vascular - stratum vasculare. Here there is even a transition of some small arteries without branching into capillaries directly into veins - arteriovenous anastomoses.
The papillary layer of the base of the skin is highly developed, very rich in capillaries and as a result acquires a bright red color. It is characterized by the fact that the papillae in some places are unusually long, such as in the area of ​​the hoof corolla (Fig. 235-10), while in others they are linear, that is, they form whole series of parallel ridges called leaflets on the surface of the base of the skin (as is the case on the hoof wall) (Fig. 235-11; 236-B).
2. Epidermis of the tip. When considering the epidermis, it is advisable to highlight the special producing and stratum corneum.
The producing, or deep, layer of the epidermis is adjacent directly to the surface of the papillary layer of the base of the skin and, in general, repeats in its location its papillae and leaflets. Multiplying towards the surface, it gives rise to the stratum corneum of the epidermis. Following the structure of the papillary layer of the base of the skin, the producing layer produces two types of horn: a) tubular and b) leaflet.
a) The first type of keratinization more closely resembles the usual relationship between the papillae and the producing layer of the skin. It occurs where the producing layer covers the very long papillae of the base of the skin in the form of conical covers. At the top of each cap, the cells extend in the form of columns and produce a stratum corneum around them in the form of hard tubes. After the centrally located cells die, the columns become hollow tubes. These tubes, together with the intertubular horn between them, make up the total tubular horn.
b) The second type of keratinization is observed in places where the producing layer covers the leaves of the base of the skin in the form of linear covers (Fig. 236-W). The cell sheaths produce between parallel connective tissue layers a horny substance in the form of horny laminae (G). These horny leaflets are bound together by a horny region that grows above the apices of the linear sheaths (D), together forming the leafy horn.

Hoof border

The hoof border - limbus (limitans) ungulae (Fig. 232-3) - represents the place of transition of the skin of the finger to the hoof in the form of a hairless strip 0.6-0.5 cm wide. It encircles the dorsal and lateral sides of the beginning of the hoof in a semi-ring at the level lower third coronoid and posteriorly merges without boundaries with the digital pulp. The border is usually covered by a stream of hair descending from the marginal area of ​​the hairy skin.
The base of the skin of the border - corium limbi (Fig. 232-3) - has a papillary layer that bears very thin (about 1-2 mm in length) papillae, spaced relatively sparsely and with downward-pointing apices.
Under the base of the skin of the border there is a subcutaneous layer of the border - subcutis limbi (4).
The producing layer of the epidermis, located on the papillary layer, produces a slightly convex, soft, elastic, water-swelling horny layer (0.5 cm wide), called the horny border - limbus corneus (Fig. 235-1); the latter descends onto the hoof wall and covers it in the form of glaze - stratum vitreum, with the exception of the bar parts of the wall, where it does not exist at all.
The horny border, located at the transition from the skin of the finger to the hoof, significantly reduces the pressure of the upper edge of the horny hoof wall on the adjacent area of ​​​​hairy skin.

Hoof corolla

The hoof crown - corona ungulae - following the hoof border also encircles the beginning of the hoof, and behind it continues to the plantar side of the bar parts of the wall, therefore accompanying the hoof wall everywhere as its proximal edge.

The base of the skin of the corolla - corium coronae (Fig. 235-10; 232-4, 5) - together with the underlying subcutaneous layer of the corolla - subcutis coronae - represents a clearly defined connective tissue, highly elastic shaft 1-1.5 cm thick, separated from the base of the leather border is a narrow linear depression - the coronal fold.

In front, this shaft is convex and wide, on the sides it becomes narrow and flat, and towards the crumb it completely lowers and loses the character of a shaft. The papillary layer of the base of the skin of the corolla is characterized by especially long (4-6 mm), relatively densely planted papillae, with their apices directed distally, parallel to the hoof wall. At the border of the transition of the base of the skin of the corolla to the base of the skin, the walls of the papillae are lowered, arranged in rows. In the posterior direction, the high papillae of the corolla can also be traced on the plantar side of the hoof along the frog, approximately to its middle, where they already pass into the papillae characteristic of the base of the skin of the sole.

The base of the skin of the corolla is very rich in blood vessels, as well as nerve plexuses, due to which it apparently serves as a real organ of touch. This organ mainly senses unevenness and the general nature of the soil when stepping on the hard, insensitive horny parts of the hoof, the vibrations of which respond to the corolla.

The producing layer of the epidermis covers the papillary layer of the base of the skin of the corolla. It produces a thick mass of tubular horn that forms the coronal layer of the horny wall of the hoof.

Hoof wall

The hoof wall - paries ungulae (Fig. 235-3) - is nothing more than the skin covering the dorsal and lateral sides of the 3rd phalanx of the finger. In a horse, the wall on each side makes a characteristic sharp turn behind acute angle on the sole and continues on the last. Here the wall takes on the shape of a wedge on each side, that is, it gradually decreases without reaching the top of the arrow. This peculiar bending of the hoof wall occurred in the past due to the wedging of the crumb into the area of ​​the sole of the frog. The wrapped wall continues along the edges of the arrow, fading to nothing. The angles of rotation are called the heel corners of the wall (Fig. 233-7), and the hoof wall extending from them to the sole is called the turn part of the wall (8). The bar part is accompanied by a corolla that bends here, also disappearing.
The layers of the hoof wall are constructed as follows.
The base of the skin of the wall - corium parietale (Fig. 235-11; 232-6) - fuses with the periosteum of the coffin bone (8), covers the latter from the dorsal and lateral surfaces, and from here bends over the bar angle onto the sole and here serves as the basis of the skin of the bar part . Thus, the subcutaneous layer is completely absent here. The base of the skin wall has a very characteristic structure of the papillary layer. Instead of separate papillae, leaflets (combs) are developed here. Gradually rising, they go in the direction from the corolla to the free plantar edge of the hoof bone. In the latter, behind the bend towards the sole, the scallops take the form of individual papillae and join the papillae of the base of the skin of the sole.
The leaflets of the base of the skin (7) of the wall can be considered complex in the sense that small secondary, or accessory, leaflets protrude from them on both sides, running in the same direction, i.e., along the long axis of the main leaflets (Fig. 236-B ). The leaflets are most densely located on the toe (front) surface of the wall; here they are highest, and towards the bar part they decrease and become less frequent.
The productive layer of the epidermis produces the leaf horn. The latter, together with the coronal layer and glaze, forms the horny wall of the hoof.

The horny wall of the hoof - paries cornea (Fig. 235-A, 3; Fig. 232-9) - represents the outer part of the horny capsule of the hoof, visible when the animal is standing. Near the crumb, it bends on both sides at an angle to the sole area and stretches here parallel to the edges of the frog in the form of small wedges, in accordance with the location of the base of the skin of the collar part (Fig. 233-8). The outer surface of the horny wall is convex and smooth, the inner surface is concave and equipped with horny leaves (Fig. 235-d).
When standing, the hoof wall is placed at an angle to the plane of the ground, but the slope of this angle is not the same everywhere. The toe section has the most gentle slope: 50-55° on the thoracic limb and 55-60° on the pelvic limb. The lateral section of the wall is somewhat steeper than the toe section, and the medial section is even more steep. If you look closely at the contour of a normal hoof from the plantar side, you will notice that the contour of the lateral side is slightly more convex than the contour of the medial side (Fig. 233).
The thickness of the horny wall of the hoof generally consists of three horny layers: a) superficial - glaze, b) middle - coronal and c) deep - leaflet (Fig. 236-J, E, D).
a) Glaze, or surface layer - stratum tectorium s, vitreum s. str. superficiale (Fig. 236-J) - moves onto the wall from the side of the border in the form of a thin layer. It is clearly visible only in young animals, but with age it wears off and loses the character of a uniform cover of the hoof wall. It consists of slightly keratinized flat cells.
b) Coronal, or protective, layer - stratum coronarium s. str. medium ungulae (Fig. 232-9; 236-E) - the most massive, hardest and most durable in the horny wall. It is difficult to cut with a knife, hardly swells in water (hence why it is called protective) and is built from a tubular horn, which is produced by the productive layer of the epidermis of the base of the skin of the corolla. The proximal (upper) edge of the coronal layer bears the coronal groove (Fig. 235-2); On its surface, pinpoint depressions (holes of horny tubes) are noticeable. The described layer is pigmented, and the dark color of the horny capsule depends on this. Only the deepest stratum corneum has no pigment and is softer. They are directly adjacent to the leaf layer and, together with the latter, participate in the formation of the white line (see below). The growth of the coronary layer occurs from the coronary groove towards the plantar, free edge of the hoof wall.

c) Leaf layer - stratum lamellatum s. str. profundum ungulae (Fig. 236-G, D) - develops from the producing layer of the epidermis located on the leaves of the base of the skin of the hoof wall. It is not pigmented, relatively soft and forms horny leaves located along the wall from the coronary groove to the plantar edge. They are located in the spaces between the leaflets of the base and at the coronal layer are connected by a superficial stratum corneum, which can be characterized as the supralamina layer.

On the plantar edge, when viewed from the side of the sole, this layer, together with deep layers The protective layer is clearly visible in the form of a white (slightly yellowish) stripe along the circumference of the contour of the sole, called the white line, or leaf zone - zona lamellata (Fig. 233-5). The leaf layer is distributed, like the coronary layer, throughout the entire hoof wall and extends onto the bar parts. Here the leaves gradually become shorter and disappear towards the top.
The total thickness of the hoof wall is not the same: the greatest thickness falls on the toe area, the lateral areas are somewhat thinner, and the heel areas are even thinner. The thicknesses of these sections relate to each other as 4: 3: 2 on the thoracic limb and 3: 2.5: 2 on the pelvic limb. The heel corners have the thickest wall.
Transverse rings visible on the outer surface of the wall appear as a result of uneven feeding.

Hoof sole

The sole of the hoof - solea ungulae (Fig. 233-4) - occupies the supporting surface of the hoof in the form of a slightly depressed skin plate with a cutout for the frog. It closes the tip on the plantar side between the frog and the plantar edge of the wall.
The base of the skin of the sole - corium soleare (Fig. 233-12; 232-11) - is directly connected to the periosteum of the plantar surface of the coffin bone, since there is no subcutaneous layer in the sole. Its rather long papillae are directed almost vertically to the plane of the sole, i.e., with their apices facing distally, towards the soil, when the animal is standing.
The producing layer of the epidermis forms a horny mass called the horny sole - solea cornea (Fig. 233-4). The latter has the appearance of a slightly concave horny plate, which lies in the horny shoe on its plantar side. From the area of ​​the crumb of the finger, the horny arrow of the crumb and the bar parts of the horny wall are pushed into it. This circumstance gives reason to distinguish on the hoof sole the body (4), adjacent to the side of the toe, and two plantar branches (4", 4"); the latter run backward from the body parallel to the bar and their apexes rest against the heel corners of the hoof wall.
The horny sole develops from the producing layer covering the papillae of the base of the skin of the sole, and grows towards the plantar, free surface. Its horn is quite dense, but is significantly inferior to the strength of the horn of the hoof wall. Over time, the most superficial layers become crumbly and particles fall off.
The highest point of the dome-shaped horny sole is located in the region of the apex of the frog.

Differences in the shape of the front and rear hooves and the conditions for their growth

The difference between the hooves of the thoracic and pelvic limbs is that the first are somewhat larger than the second in volume, are placed more positioned and the concavity of the hoof sole is less pronounced. The height of the wall of the toe area and the height of the heel angle on the thoracic limb are related as 3:1, and on the pelvic limb - as 2:1.
The growth rate of the hoof horn is determined by the state of health, nutrition, temperature, etc. In healthy horses with abundant nutrition, the horn grows faster than in sick horses with poor nutrition. In warm countries, growth is somewhat enhanced, just like in summer compared to winter. The dependence of growth on all these conditions is so constant that the condition of the horn, and precisely by the undulation of the transverse sagging on the surface of the hoof wall, can to some extent be judged about the diseases or deprivations suffered by the horse.

Hoof meaning

Under natural conditions (without a horseshoe), the hoof, when resting on pliable soil, touches it with its entire solar surface, i.e., the entire sole and the free edge of the hoof wall, and we can perhaps say that the free edge of the wall in such cases contributes to the strength of retention on earth.
If the soil is somewhat denser, the apical part of the dome of the sole, as the most deeply located, is excluded from the sphere of support first of all, and then, as the hardness of the soil increases, the neighboring increasingly larger areas of the relatively soft sole, and the hoof touches the soil only with its stronger part , i.e., the edge of the horny wall. At the same time, the need to alleviate pressure, especially that experienced by the edge of the horny wall, also increases.
To understand this phenomenon, it is necessary to first decipher the meaning of the entire distal end of the finger.
It should be borne in mind that horses, and most ungulates in general, have historically developed the ability to move easily, quickly and tirelessly on the ground. This one-sided (with the loss of grasping movements) function of the limbs is reflected in the construction of all their links, i.e. the shoulder and thigh, forearm and lower leg, front and hind paws, and in the nature of their combination into joints, as well as in the features of ligamentous devices and muscles
This reorganization of the limbs gives us the right to assume that, in particular, the hoof and digital soft tissue have also adapted to perform this function.
The pressure of the gravity of the body, falling on the limb at a certain phase of the horse’s movement, is dissipated and decomposed on the inclined surfaces of the joints, on the angular combinations of the limb links and in a number of elastic formations, among which not the least place is occupied by the elastic devices of the distal end of the finger. The hoof bone, when the weight of the body presses on it, at the first moment of the attack tends to press into the hoof. This pressure of the bone is softened and partially decomposed on the elastic cushion of the base of the skin of the corolla, and especially on the vast territory of close adhesion of the horny and connective tissue leaves of the hoof wall. If this adhesion territory were smooth, it would occupy an average of a little over 100 cm2, but since it is composed of primary and secondary leaflets, its area reaches 10,000 cm2, i.e., it occupies 1 m2.
When bending the fetlock and hoof joints at the described moment, the weight of the body quickly and strongly shifts to the rear part of the hoof, i.e., to the area of ​​the open side of the hoof wall, in other words, to the area of ​​the crumb. The pulp experiences significant pressure through the deep digital flexor tendon, which in turn is pressed by the navicular and coronoid bones.
The crumb cushion is springy and transfers tension to the sides and down; on the sides it passes to the cartilages covering the digital soft, and downwards to the soft frog, which also springs, descending and diverging with its legs to the sides, i.e., to the hoof corners and turn parts. Because of this, the rear portion of the hoof tends to widen during fast gaits, especially during trotting and jumping.
Thus, this entire elastic mechanism of the finger finally absorbs the blow falling on the limb.
At the end of the period of support, and precisely at the stage of straightening the leg, when the body moves forward, and the distal end of the limb still remains behind, the digital crumb stretches in the longitudinal direction to the axis of the finger. At this point, the back of the hoof tends to narrow.
At the moment of subsequent raising of the leg from the ground, the stretched soft tissue immediately returns to normal and mechanically helps the flexion of the hoof joint produced by the digital flexors. As a result of the contraction of the digital flexors and the inertia imparted to the hoof by the state of the stretched pulp, the opposite phenomenon quickly occurs, i.e., the pulp is again subjected to compression at a reduced angle of the joint. When the action of the flexors ceases, the tense pulp, returning to normal, automatically throws the end of the toe forward, i.e., prepares the hoof for placing on the ground and thereby helps the toe extensors.
Taking into account: 1) the inertia imparted to the end of the finger by the work of the flexors, 2) the relatively weak development of the muscular bellies of the finger extensors (mm. extensor digitalis communis et extensor digitalis lateralis) and the unfavorable position of their tendons when the joints of the finger are bent, it must be recognized that when When moving at fast gaits, the automatic assistance of the digital ball during the extension of the finger joints plays a huge role (details about the hoof mechanism are given in horse shoeing textbooks).

Species

There are several types of crepitation:

• Alveolar. It is determined by auscultation of the lungs and resembles the sound that occurs when rubbing hair held between the fingers. This specific symptom acute pneumonia accompanies the phases of formation and resorption of exudate in the alveoli and is heard as a combination of a series of “clicks” at the height of inspiration.
• Subcutaneous. It occurs during palpation or during auscultation when the head with the membrane is pressed on those areas of the body in which there are accumulations of gas bubbles in the subcutaneous tissue. This is a symptom of an anaerobic infection or.
• Bone. The crunching sound occurs when bone fragments touch each other. It is detected by palpation and auscultation and, as a specific symptom of a bone fracture, serves to diagnose fractures during the first examination of the victim.

There is also a kind of tendon crepitus, which occurs when a swelling is palpated in the area of ​​the tendon affected by tenosynovitis.

A crunching sound may also occur in the joints during movement. Crepitus in the joints is a characteristic symptom of osteoarthritis (osteoarthritis).

Reasons

The main cause of the symptom is friction of body tissues, which is beyond the normal range.

Reason alveolar crepitus is the “unsticking” during inhalation of the alveolar walls, which stuck together during exhalation due to the presence of exudate, transudate or blood in the alveoli. This type of crepitus is heard:

• at stages I and III lobar pneumonia, since at these stages of the disease the alveolar walls are saturated with exudate;
• in the presence of a pulmonary infarction, since the walls of the alveoli are saturated with blood;
• if present in the lungs stagnation, since the alveolar walls are saturated with transudate.

Crepitation in the lungs can also be heard with damage to the alveoli caused by systemic diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus, etc.).

Subcutaneous crepitus detected when:

• the presence of anaerobic pathogens (bacteria of the genus Clostridium, including tetanus bacillus, etc.);
• subcutaneous emphysema, which occurs during spontaneous ruptures of hollow organs containing air, and during injuries.

Subcutaneous crepitus is also detected in cases where gas is injected into various parts of the body for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes. The cause of this type of symptom is free gas bubbles accumulated in the subcutaneous tissue.

Reason bone type The symptom is friction of bone fragments early after the injury. Bone crepitus in complex injuries can be combined with subcutaneous crepitus (rib fracture and lung rupture).

Crepitus, which occurs in the joints, is noted when:

• osteoarthritis, which occurs due to mechanical destruction of the normal structure of the joint and is accompanied by changes in the capsule and damage to the cartilage;
• rheumatoid arthritis;
• patellar dysfunction, etc.

Symptoms

The presence of crepitus may be a symptom of a life-threatening disease, but it is difficult to identify on your own. The symptoms accompanying crepitus depend on its location and the cause of its occurrence.

Crepitation in the lungs is accompanied by:

• bluish tint to lips and skin;
• chest pain or feeling of pressure;
• cough, shortness of breath, rapid breathing;
• vomiting or nausea.

Depending on the specific disease, hemoptysis, diarrhea, difficulty breathing, sweating, and loss of consciousness are possible.

A symptom of subcutaneous crepitus is swelling of the subcutaneous tissue.

Crepitation of bone fragments is accompanied by:

• pain in the area of ​​injury, aggravated by simulating axial load;
• dysfunction;
• swelling and hematoma, which do not appear immediately.

Possible pathological mobility or unnatural position.

Crepitus occurring in the joints is accompanied by:

• pain in the affected joints, increasing with exercise;
• rigidity (poor mobility) of the joints, which worsens after a state of rest;
• swelling in the joint area.

There may be a local increase in temperature, accompanied by redness of the skin.

Diagnostics

Crepitus in the lungs is heard using a phonendoscope at the height of inspiration (sometimes crepitus is heard only when deep breath). The crunching sound is similar to a short sound “flash”, is constant in composition and does not change during breathing.

Crepitus may resemble fine-bubbly moist rales, which arise due to the presence of sputum in the small bronchi, but wheezing can be heard during auscultation both at the beginning of inhalation and sometimes during exhalation. In addition, wheezing can change in caliber and composition after coughing, but the sound of crepitus is not affected by coughing.

The sound may also resemble the noise that occurs when the inflamed pleura rubs. With pleurisy, the difference between the noise is its longer duration, closer sound and audibility both during inhalation and exhalation.

Similar to crepitus and wheezing, which occur in the area of ​​collapsed areas of the lungs in weakened people during deep breathing, but they disappear after a series of deep breaths.

Subcutaneous crepitus is diagnosed by palpation.

The bone type of symptom is detected by palpating the fracture site (the sound is often heard at a distance).

Joint crepitus is diagnosed by palpating the joint and taking into account the patient's complaints, and its cause is determined using x-ray examination.

Treatment

Since crepitus is not a disease, but a symptom of a disease, it cannot be treated. This symptom can only be eliminated by treating the pathology that caused it. Treatment is prescribed by the doctor depending on the type of disease.

The chest is examined through inspection, palpation,

percussion, auscultation, thoracentesis and x-ray.

Examination of the chest.

Pay attention to shape and size. Rachitic deformation of the chest in young animals occurs due to a violation of D-vitamin and mineral metabolism. At the same time, the chest is narrowed (chicken breast), reduced in volume, which leads to weakening of its excursions, respiratory failure and the occurrence of pulmonary diseases. Deformation of the chest affects the function of the lungs, and, conversely, damage to the lungs can cause changes in the shape, size and function of the chest. With pulmonary atelectasis, the chest

decreases in volume, respiratory movements change. Unilateral

atelectasis is accompanied by a unilateral decrease in chest volume and a change in symmetry. Expansion of the chest occurs with interstitial and alveolar emphysema; it becomes barrel-shaped. The accumulation of effusion (pleurisy) or air (pneumothorax) in one pleural cavity causes unilateral expansion of the chest. Upon examination, swelling of the dewlap, rachitic changes in the ribs, and traumatic injuries may be detected.

Palpation of the chest.

Allows you to determine an increase in temperature, sensitivity, change in consistency, shape, and detect tangible vibration of the chest wall.

An increase in local temperature is noted with pleurisy, abscesses,

inflammatory swelling of the skin and subcutaneous tissue. With congestive edema in the lungs, the temperature usually drops. The sensitivity of the chest increases with dermatitis, myositis, pleurisy, and rib injuries. The consistency of the chest tissue changes with inflammation and swelling. If the skin and subcutaneous

the fiber is saturated with transudate, the tissue acquires a doughy consistency.

When gases accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue when pressed, crepitus occurs (interstitial emphysema, emkar). Murmurs appear when there are fibrinous deposits on the pleura or pericardium. The sensation of vibrations during breathing indicates the presence of fibrinous pleurisy. With fibrinous pleuro-pericarditis, palpable noises coinciding with heart contractions,

found in the area of ​​cardiac dullness. They can also occur with bronchitis and vocal vibration.

Percussion of the chest.

Size, volume, development of chest muscles, elasticity lung tissue animals are different, which affects the nature of the percussion sound. In horses with a wide and deep chest, narrow intercostal spaces,

The elastic pulmonary parenchyma produces a clear pulmonary sound upon percussion. Cattle have a flatter chest and less elastic lung tissue, so the clear lung sound is louder. In well-fed pigs, the clear lung sound is weaker. In dogs with a voluminous chest, elastic

lung parenchyma reveals a loud pulmonary sound with a boxy tint. In small animals, the pulmonary sound is higher-pitched, with a tympanic tint. In emaciated animals, the percussion sound is stronger, louder, and longer. In highly nourished animals, percussion produces quiet, short, low sounds.

percussion sounds.

The intensity of the sounds varies depending on which part of the chest is percussed: in the middle of the chest the percussion sounds are stronger than in the upper and lower zones of the chest; with percussion of the middle third, the oscillatory movements of the chest wall are more intense, percussion sound

In large animals, the percussion field of the chest is divided into three areas: the lower one - a triangle delimited by the line of the shoulder joint; the upper one is separated by the line of the lower edge of the maklok; middle - enclosed between the lines of the shoulder joint and maklok. The lower triangle is percussed

along the intercostal spaces from top to bottom until the atympanic pulmonary sound transitions into a dull sound sternum or dull tympanic sound of the abdominal wall. Percussion of the middle field of the chest is carried out along the intercostal spaces from top to bottom in individuals of average or below average fatness and along horizontal lines or from left to right in well-fed animals. Pulmonary sound in this area becomes dull.

The lung percussion field is the area in which the pulmonary sound is detected.

It has the shape of a right triangle, in which the apex of the right angle is located at the caudal edge of the scapula. The upper border of the triangle runs horizontally, below the spine, the anterior one descends vertically, along the line of the anconeus. The hypotenuse of the triangle is a curved line corresponding to the caudal border of the lungs. At the large

In cattle, a distinction is made between the scapular and prescapular percussion fields. The prescapular area is located above the shoulder joint in front of the scapula. In well-developed animals it occupies a strip 2-3 fingers wide, and in skinny animals it is wider. When the thoracic limb is retracted, the prescapular percussion field expands to the 3rd intercostal space. Percussion of the prescapular region in well-fed animals produces a dull sound, while in skinny animals it produces a clear pulmonary sound. The massive scapulohumeral girdle reduces the percussion field under the layer of muscles of the shoulder and scapula.

The boundaries of the lungs are judged by the transition of a clear pulmonary sound to a dull or tympanic sound. Particular attention is paid to the caudal displacement of the borders and lungs. Determining the upper and anterior boundaries of the lungs does not allow us to judge changes in lung volume. To determine the caudal border, percussion is carried out along three horizontal lines: macular, ischial tuberosity,

scapulohumeral joint. Percusses sequentially in the intercostal spaces from front to back. In ruminants, the lines of the maculoca and the ischial tuberosity coincide, therefore the topographic

percussion is carried out along the lines of the macular and scapulohumeral joint.

In cattle the caudal border of the left lung is determined along the lines of the maklok in the 11th, the scapulohumeral joint - in the 8th intercostal space (Fig. 39), the intersection of the posterior border of the right lung - along the line of the maklok in the 11th

or 10th intercostal space.

In sheep and goats the boundaries of the lungs are the same as in cattle, but in small ruminants the percussion field is smaller than in large ones. In sheep and goats of average and below-average fatness, the thoracic and prescapular percussion fields merge. The percussion sound in the area of ​​the scapulohumeral girdle is quieter, weaker than

in the prescapular and thoracic parts.

In pigs The caudal border of the lungs crosses the macular line in the 11th intercostal space, the line of the ischial tuberosity in the 9th, and the line of the scapulohumeral joint in the 7th. The lower edge of the lung is located in the region of the heart, in the 4th intercostal space.

In horses the prescapular field is inaccessible to percussion. In them, the posterior border of the lungs crosses the maklok line along the 16th. intercostal space, the line of the ischial tuberosity - along the 14th, the line of the scapulohumeral joint - along the 10th. The lower edge of the lung is located in the area of ​​absolute dullness of the heart.

Camels The caudal border of the lungs reaches along the line of the sacral tubercle to the 12th rib, along the line of the macle to the 10th, and along the line of the scapulohumeral joint to the 8th rib.

In dogs the caudal border of the lungs crosses the macular line in the 11th intercostal space, the line of the ischial tuberosity - in the 10th, and the line of the scapulohumeral joint - in the 8th.

Increased lung boundaries noted in alveolar and interstitial

emphysema. It is accompanied by a displacement of the posterior boundaries of the organs in the caudal direction.

Depending on the pathological changes in the lungs, pleura and adjacent organs, dull, dull, tympanic, box, cracked pot and metallic sounds appear during percussion.

Dull sound formed due to a decrease in airiness

In case of focal and especially confluent pneumonia due to infiltration of the lung with inflammatory effusion;

For congestive pulmonary edema with ventricular failure;

When the bronchus is blocked and air is absorbed from the lungs below the lumen;

With the formation of pleural adhesions or obliteration of the pleural

cavities, when complete expansion of the lung during inhalation becomes impossible. If the airiness of the lungs decreases, the clear lung sound becomes shorter, quieter, higher and dull.

Dull sound (short, weak, empty) is formed in the absence

air in a significant volume of the lung. It is noted:

With lobar pneumonia in the stage of hepatization, when the alveoli

filled with exudate and this area of ​​the lung becomes airless;

When a cavity appears in the lung filled with liquid contents (cyst, abscess, gangrene);

With neoplasms, accumulation of effusion (exudate, transudate, blood) in the pleural cavity, followed by lung retraction. In cases exudative pleurisy and thoracic hydrops, the area of ​​dullness is located in the lower part of the chest. The upper part of the dullness is separated by a horizontal line corresponding to the level of effusion accumulated in the pleural cavity. If the animal's posture is changed, the boundary and shape of the dull sound area on the surface of the chest will change. In this case, the upper line of dullness, in accordance with the level of fluid in the pleural cavity, will remain horizontal.

Tympanic and box sounds (loud, prolonged)

arise with an increase in airiness, therefore, with alveolar emphysema, percussion of the chest produces a sound with a boxy tint. With interstitial emphysema, when a cavity forms in the interstitium of the lung tissue, a tympanic sound is detected by percussion. It is also formed during percussion of cavities and cavities filled with air (bronchiectasis). Cavities and bronchiectasis of large volume and located are better recognized

in the superficial layers of the lungs. A loud tympanic sound is detected by the accumulation of gases in the pleural cavity (pneumothorax), flatulence of strangulated intestinal loops adjacent to the chest wall, which penetrated into the chest cavity due to ruptures of the diaphragm.

Metal sound discovered when percussion is performed over a large (6-8 cm in diameter) smooth-walled closed cavity in the lung.

The sound of a cracked pot - a quiet rattling sound, like tapping a cracked vessel. This sound can occur when a cavity is formed in the lung tissue, communicating with the bronchus, as well as with pneumothorax, if the pleural cavity communicates with the bronchus.

Auscultation of the chest.

When auscultating the chest of healthy animals, during inhalation and at the beginning of exhalation, a soft blowing noise is heard, reminiscent of the pronunciation of the letter “f”. This noise is called vesicular (alveolar). It is formed due to vibrations of the alveolar walls and air turbulence during inhalation and exhalation. The filling of the alveoli with air during inhalation creates a continuous blowing noise, which, gradually intensifying and then fading, is heard throughout the inhalation phase. During exhalation, the alveoli are freed from air and collapse. Tension of the alveolar walls is replaced by their relaxation.

The sounds arising in connection with this form respiratory noise, which is heard during the period of inhalation and in the initial phase of exhalation.

Vesicular breathing reflects the state of the pulmonary parenchyma

and elastic properties of interalveolar structures. Its character and strength depend on the type, breed, age, and fatness of the animal

and a number of other factors.

In cattle and reindeer, vesicular breathing is relatively loud, strong, and rough. It can be heard on the lateral surfaces of the chest and in the prescapular region. Caudal to the scapula in the middle part of the chest, the respiratory sound is more intense, since

vesicular breathing is mixed with sounds arising in the larynx, trachea and bronchi, - mixed(bronchial-vesicular) breathing. In the prescapular area, vesicular breathing is weaker.

In small cattle vesicular breathing can be heard over the entire surface of the chest.

In horses and camels it is weak, soft, tender; is better captured during inspiration caudal to the scapula.

In dogs and cats respiratory noise is the most intense, close to bronchial breathing.

In animals with abundant fat deposition, massive muscles and fur, vesicular respiration is weakened; in narrow-chested and skinny animals it is strong; stronger in young people than in adults and old people; increases with physical activity.

Increased vesicular respiration often occurs with cardiac

insufficiency, anemia. Breathing noise becomes stronger and longer when exhaling during infections and intoxications. A rough vesicular noise during inhalation and exhalation is called hard breathing. It occurs due to uneven narrowing of the bronchi during bronchitis.

Local increase in vesicular respiration is of great diagnostic importance when auscultation reveals uneven,≪ motley≫ , breathing, for example, with catarrhal and purulent bronchopneumonia, gangrene and pulmonary edema.

Focal lung damage causes compensatory

strengthening the functioning of damaged areas of lung tissue. The intensity of respiratory sounds in such cases increases and a local increase in vesicular noise appears.

Reduction of vesicular sounds associated with decreased ventilation

lungs, decreased elasticity of the lung tissue, difficulty transmitting noise to the surface due to the accumulation of pathological effusion in the pleural cavity. It is observed in hypotrophic calves and lambs due to weak chest excursion and low elasticity of the lung tissue

and insufficient ventilation of the lungs. Weak vesicular breathing

characteristic of alveolar emphysema, in which the elasticity of the lung tissue decreases, and of atelectasis developing due to bronchial obstruction. In this case, vesicular breathing over atelectasis weakens or disappears. In focal pneumonia, the weakening and disappearance of vesicular breathing is associated with a decrease in the tone of the interalveolar septa and the exclusion of alveoli filled with exudate from breathing.

To weakening or disappearance of vesicular respiration in

As a result of poor sound conduction, the accumulation of pathological

effusion in the pleural cavity; thickening of the pleura, pleural adhesions; pneumothorax, with accumulation of air in the pleural cavity; airway stenosis (swelling of the larynx).

In animals, except horses and camels, in the area of ​​the scapulohumeral

belt is mixed with vesicular breathing bronchial, which in its pure form is heard in healthy animals only in the trachea.

Bronchial breath sounds appear with pulmonary edema,

when compacted lung tissue conducts laryngotracheal noise well. The dubious sound is compared to the tracheal sound, which serves as a prototype of the bronchial sound. Sometimes increased coarse (hard) vesicular breathing is mistaken for bronchial breathing. It should be borne in mind that when the lung tissue is compacted, the appearance of vesicular noise is impossible. In the zone

bronchial breathing reveals a focus of dull or dull percussion sound.

Bronchial breathing can be strong and weak, sharp

and soft, which depends on the compaction of the lung tissue, the size of the area and its location. If there is a massive area of ​​compaction and its superficial location in the lung, bronchial breathing can be heard. The larger the affected area and the denser the lung tissue, the stronger and higher its timbre it is.

Bronchial breathing is noted in lobar pneumonia. Less commonly, it is found in bronchopneumonia, when inflammatory foci merge, forming extensive infiltrates (confluent pneumonia). If the movement of air in the bronchi is weakened, the intensity of bronchial breathing decreases, and with bronchial abturation it disappears.

Less commonly, pathological bronchial breathing is detected with atelectasis

(collapse) of the lung resulting from compression by fluid (pleurisy, dropsy). In this case, the lung becomes airless, dense, and conditions are created for the occurrence of bronchial breathing.

Horses have bronchial breathing of any intensity, height

and timbre - a sign of damage to the lung tissue.

Amphoric breathing occurs when a bronchus communicates with a pathological

cavity in the lungs (abscess, gangrene). It can be produced by blowing near the neck of an empty bottle. Amphoric breathing is heard over superficially located smooth-walled pulmonary cavities in the form of a soft wall

tic sound with a metallic tint. When percussing the affected area

area there is the sound of a cracked pot.

Amphoric breathing occurs with extensive dilation of the bronchi (bronchiectasis), bronchitis, accompanied by cough. Extensive bronchiectasis acquires the physical properties of a “pulmonary cavity” communicating with the bronchus. When a large amount of exudate accumulates in the bronchus, amphoric breathing may disappear. When coughing, bronchiectasis

the effusion is cleared, and amphoric breathing is restored.

Additional respiratory sounds include wheezing, crepitus,

pleural friction noise, splashing noise in the pleural cavity,

as well as the sound of a pulmonary fistula.

Wheezing - additional noises arising from changes

in the respiratory tract - accumulation of exudate, transudate, blood. They also occur with stenosis of the respiratory tract as a result of inflammatory swelling of the mucous membrane and bronchospasms. For the formation of wheezing, vigorous air turbulence in the respiratory tract is necessary.

Dry wheezing is detected when deposited on the mucosal surface

the membranes of the bronchi are viscous, viscous, difficult to separate exudate. Depending on the viscosity of the effusion and its amount, the nature of wheezing is different. More often they appear in the form of squeaking, buzzing, humming, and “cat purring.” Dry wheezing is also characteristic of lobar inflammation of the respiratory tract.

Buzzing and “purring” wheezing can be heard during inflammation

bronchi of large and medium caliber, whistling and hissing - when the branches of the bronchial tree are affected.

Depending on where wheezing is formed - in large or small bronchi, the pitch of the sounds changes. High-frequency sounds occur in small bronchi, and low-frequency wheezing occurs in large bronchi.

The intensity of dry wheezing depends on the strength of air turbulence

in the respiratory tract. They are stronger after physical activity. Weak wheezing can occur with chronic bronchitis and catarrhal pneumonia. Sometimes the wheezing is so loud that it can be heard at a distance from the animal (with mycotic bronchitis,

equine microbronchitis).

With the accumulation of viscous effusion, wheezing changes under the influence of coughing. After cough shocks due to the movement of sputum in the lumen of the bronchi, they intensify, weaken or disappear. With catarrhal bronchopneumonia, wheezing is local. The same wheezing is characteristic of diseases in which bronchial tissue is affected in limited areas. With diffuse

In bronchitis, they can be heard on almost the entire surface of the chest. With chronic damage to the mucous membrane of the bronchial tree, dry rales are numerous and varied in strength and sound character. They are recorded during inspiration, during expiration, or during both respiratory phases, reaching a maximum at the top of inspiration.

Wet (bubbling) wheezing occurs when there is a congestion in the respiratory

paths of liquid exudate, transudate or blood. These sounds resemble bursting bubbles, gurgling, bubbling. Sounds of this kind can be reproduced by blowing air through a tube into a container of water. Moist rales are heard during inhalation and exhalation. Since the speed of air movement through the bronchi during inhalation is greater than during exhalation, moist rales during the inspiration phase are more pronounced.

Depending on where wheezing is formed, wheezing is distinguished

large, medium and fine bubbles. Fine rales are perceived as short, multiple sounds; characteristic of microbronchitis. Medium-bubble rales are formed in the bronchi of medium caliber. Large bubbling rales are prolonged, low and relatively loud (macrobronchitis). They are formed in large bronchi, bronchiectasis, cavities containing effusion and communicating with the bronchus. With the accumulation of liquid effusion

in the trachea, moist rales acquire the character of gurgling and bubbling. They occur with pulmonary hemorrhages, if a significant amount of blood accumulates in the respiratory tract. With pulmonary edema caused by failure of the right ventricle of the heart, moist rales appear in symmetrical

(lower) areas of the chest. Above the superficial

cavities containing effusion, moist rales with a metallic tint occur. These rales are usually heard in a limited area.

Wheezing can be single or multiple, weak or strong. Their intensity depends on the location of the pathological focus. Wheezing inside the lungs is perceived as weakened, since the airy lung tissue makes it difficult to transmit sounds to the surface. The wheezes that form in the superficial tissues of the lungs are stronger; they are felt next to the ear. Strong

moist rales are heard in the presence of liquid effusion in the bronchi, surrounded by airless compacted tissue, while sound vibrations arising in the bronchi are transmitted through the compacted lung tissue to the surface. Loud wheezing is noted in lobar pneumonia due to the impregnation of large areas of the lungs with exudate. Smooth-walled cavities contribute to increased wheezing. Lung tissue is usually compacted around pathological cavities,

wheezing is transmitted intensified. Sound wheezing, formed in smooth-walled cavities connected to the bronchus, occurs with abscess, gangrene of the lungs, and aspiration bronchopneumonia.

Moist rales change with coughing. As a result of coughing, liquid effusion accumulated in the bronchi can move and be removed from the respiratory tract. In this regard, wheezing may disappear, but after a while it will appear again.

The nature of wheezing changes in the dynamics of the pathological process. So, with bronchitis, depending on the stage of the disease, dry, wet, and then dry wheezing can be heard. At the onset of the disease, the bronchial mucosa becomes saturated with exudate, swells, the lumen of the bronchi decreases, and dry stenotic wheezing occurs. As the process progresses, it accumulates in the bronchi

liquid exudate and dry rales are replaced by wet ones. In the chronic course of the disease, the exudate becomes viscous, moist rales disappear and dry ones reappear.

In some diseases, dry rales are heard in some places of the chest, and wet rales in others. This picture can be observed with catarrhal bronchopneumonia, if the pulmonary lobules in inflammatory process are not involved at the same time.

Crepitating (crackling) rales resemble crunching, crackling. Rough, sharp, often with a metallic tint, crepitating rales appear with interstitial emphysema, when air leaks from the respiratory tract into the interstitial tissue and air bubbles form in the lung tissue, which move to the root of the lungs. Promotion

air bubbles are accompanied by ruptures of the lung tissue, which is the cause of crepitant wheezing.

Crepitus - a sound reminiscent of the crackling of salt thrown

into a fire, or a noise that can be heard when a strand of hair is rubbed over the ear. Crepitus occurs when a small amount of sticky effusion accumulates in the alveoli. In this case, during the exhalation phase, the alveolar walls stick together, and under the influence

air stream during inhalation they are separated, creating weak

sounds. The sum of sounds from the simultaneous dissolution of a large number of alveoli is crepitus. It is more clearly expressed at the height of inspiration.

Crepitus is observed in lobar pneumonia in stages

ebb and resolution, i.e. during periods of illness when there is a small amount of sticky exudate in the alveoli. It is also possible with pulmonary edema.

Crepitation's acoustic properties may resemble moist, fine-bubble rales that occur in the bronchioles. Therefore, it is sometimes incorrectly called crepitating or subcrepitating wheezing. Fine, silent wheezing indicates damage to the bronchi, and crepitus is a sign of pulmonary edema. In this regard, the differentiation of wheezing and crepitus is of great diagnostic importance: wheezing is audible

during the inhalation and exhalation phases, and after a cough they weaken and disappear, but crepitus appears at the height of inspiration and the intensity of its sound does not change after a cough.

Pleural friction rub reminiscent of the friction of sheets of new skin, the crunch when walking on wet, loose snow or the rustle of silk fabric. Formed when the visceral and parietal layers of the pleura are damaged.

During breathing, the smooth visceral and parietal pleural layers slide silently. But when the pleura is damaged, the physical properties of the pleural layers change and can create conditions for the occurrence of friction noise. The reasons for the formation of noise may be unevenness or roughness of the pleura associated with the application of fibrinous exudate,

formation of scars, adhesions between the pleural layers; dryness of the pleura, caused by dehydration and insufficient formation of serous fluid in the pleural cavity. The pleural friction noise is heard in both phases of breathing.

By volume, duration of sound, location

and persistence of pleural friction noises may vary. They depend on the strength of the chest excursions, the irregularities of the pleural layers and the degree of their friction during breathing. At the beginning of the development of dry pleurisy, the friction noise is weak. Friction noises of low intensity are noted when the body is dehydrated. If the pleura is covered with massive fibrinous deposits, the friction noise intensifies. In some cases it is heard for a short time. At effusion pleurisy as the effusion accumulates, the friction noise weakens and disappears; it is resistant to the formation of scars due to tuberculosis; with pleurisy, it is heard in the lower part of the chest, behind the elbow joint.

When the inflammatory focus is localized in the area of ​​the pleura, which

comes into contact with the pericardium, a pleuropericardial murmur occurs. It is heard in the phases of inspiration and expiration, during systole and diastole of the heart. In contrast to endocardial murmurs, pleuropericardial murmurs are heard at the height of inspiration, when the pleural layers are adjacent to the cardiac membrane more

Splashing noise in the pleural cavity occurs when liquid effusion and gases accumulate in it, and coincides with heart contractions. Its strength can vary: in some cases it can be weak, but can be heard well, sometimes it acquires a metallic tint (with ichorous effusion pleurisy, pyopneumothorax).

The splashing noise occurs when liquid effusion accumulates in pathological

cavities of the lungs (cavern) and bronchi (ectasia).

Pulmonary fistula murmur resembles gurgling, bubbling. It occurs when a lung cavity opens into the pleural cavity below the level of liquid exudate.

The skin is attached to the underlying parts by subcutaneous connective tissue containing elastic fibers and adipose tissue. This tissue layer is called fascia and forms the superficial and deep layers. The superficial fascia is often spongy, loose and well developed over the neck and trunk. On the extremities it is thinner and more irregular, especially distal to the carpus and tarsus on the feet.

In large areas of the body, skin tension is normal, since the superficial fascia contains thin bunches muscle tissue. These subcutaneous muscles are capable of providing limited movements of the skin, since for the most part they are closely adjacent to the dermis under the skin and have attachments to the skeleton. The subcutaneous muscles are most prominent on the abdomen, shoulder, base of the neck and head, but are poorly developed elsewhere and absent on the extremities. The most prominent subcutaneous muscle, located in the torso (subcutaneous truncus), covers the chest and most of the abdomen, extending upward and back from armpit above the elbow, where the muscle is attached to the axillary fascia and deep pectoral muscle medial to the shoulder. It forms a more or less triangular leaf (plate), which reaches a considerable thickness (1.5 cm) mainly next to the limb. The caudal border of its abdomen is a more or less clearly defined oblique line running down and back from the withers (about 5 cm from the dorsal midline) to the fold of the side which it forms, and ending in the fascia of the thigh above the knee joint. Ventrally it does not reach the midline and is thus separated from its counterpart on the opposite side. When contracted strongly, it can shake out the skin, clearing dirt, moisture, and flies from the hide, which is especially important for animals like a horse that cannot use their limbs to scratch themselves like a dog or cat.

At the caudal edge of the shoulder, the subcutaneous muscle of the trunk continues into the subcutaneous muscle covering the shoulder (scapulohumeral subcutaneous muscle), running down from the base of the scapula to the elbow, with most of its fibers oriented vertically. The saphenous neck muscle is fairly well developed at the base of the neck, where it originates from the manubrium of the sternum and radiates forward and upward over the sternoccephalic muscle and the external jugular vein. It thins out and ends at the brachiocephalic muscle and is quite clearly demonstrated in the front view of the horse (Fig. 13). In the place of greatest thickness, at its sternal origin, it can form a visible and palpable contour. It is assumed that, due to their robust nature, the subcutaneous muscle of the neck on the anterior side of the thoracic limb and the subcutaneous muscle of the trunk behind it may contribute to a small extent to the longitudinal movements of the limb during locomotion.

The subcutaneous muscle reaches its greatest development on the head, where it takes part in the formation of facial muscles. They are essentially connected to the moving parts of the face, positioned around the "natural openings" in the head. Therefore, we can distinguish: (i) the muscles of the mouth, lips and cheeks; (ii) muscles of the nostrils and nasal vestibule; (iii) eyelid muscles and (iv) muscles auricle(outer ear). They are shown in a number of diagrams (see in particular Figs. 12 and 36.1), and I am sure that by studying these muscles and analyzing the names given to them, you will be able to draw conclusions about their action. A powerful sphincter muscle surrounds the mouth (orbicularis oris), while another, but much less prominent, muscle surrounds the eye (orbicularis oculi). The dilator muscles (openers) are associated with the lips (for example, polna gel upper lip and depressor of the inferior lip - both with palpable muscle bellies) and nostrils (eg, apical dilator of the nose) or with both structures (eg, nasolabial levator and canine).

The most important facial muscle is the buccal muscle in the lips and cheek. It is a broad, flat muscle stretched between the upper and lower jaws and forming the outer border of the vestibule of the mouth, whose inner border is the teeth and gums. A significant part of it lies on inside masticatory muscle, as you can see in Fig. 36. The buccal muscle assists in mastication by pushing food properly into the oral cavity from the oral vestibule through the chewing surfaces of the molars. The buccal muscles also lie within this muscle. salivary glands. The work of the buccal muscle puts pressure on them, causing the formation of saliva.

Dilation of the nostrils is an important act that improves respiratory air flow during physical activity, so the dilator muscles of the nose are prominent. These muscles act on the nostril itself and on the outer wall of the nasal vestibule. If you look at the drawing of the skull (Fig. 6), you will see that this part of the nose is not surrounded by bone and continues back to the area of ​​the nasoincisal notch. In addition to the true external nostril, there is a "false nostril". The false nostril leads from the dorsal commissure of the nostril into a blindly ending nasal diverticulum up to 8 cm deep, occupying top part nasoincisal notch. A sheet of muscle, the lateral nasal muscle, overlaps this notch and thus forms most of the wall of the nasal vestibule and diverticulum. It has dorsal fibers originating from the nasal bone and proceeding down to the wall of the nasal diverticulum, and ventral fibers originating from the nasal process of the incisive bone and proceeding upward to the wall of the nasal vestibule. When contracted, it expands both the nostril and the vestibule, but not the diverticulum; on the contrary, the wall of the vestibule, pulling laterally, expands the true nostril, actually causing the nasal diverticulum to collapse. With complete dilatation of the nostril, the false nostril is closed and the nasal diverticulum is collapsed. It happens that the nasal diverticulum acts specifically to provide the true nostril with the opportunity to expand.

The outer ear also has a number of muscles attached to the auricular (concha) cartilage, which forms the base of the auricle. Some (levators auricularis) originate from the skull dorsally, others (adductors auricle) from the scutellum cartilage on the temporalis muscle in front of the base of the concha cartilage, others (abductors auricle) from the neck dorsally, and one (descector auricle) from

Superficial fascia covering the parotid salivary gland. In combination, these muscles produce a variety of movements of the ear.

We have already seen that in some parts of the body the bone lies subcutaneously, being separated from the skin only by the superficial fascia, which may be very thin. If mechanical trauma occurs in such areas due to constant friction or pressure, subcutaneous bursae may form in the fascia. These are enclosed spaces containing a softening fluid (almost identical to the synovial fluid in joints) that allows internal surfaces move smoothly over each other, reducing friction and pressure. Since the bursae are formed “in response to pressure,” they differ in position, number, and distribution between the left and right sides of the horse. The figure shows the location of some of the most common subcutaneous bursae. However, it is likely that some of them may be absent, while other areas subject to friction may have bursae, for example over the external sagittal crest or nuchal crest of the skull, over the zygomatic arch, over the tubercle of the spine of the scapula and over the semitendinosus muscle where it crosses the ischialis. bone at the back of the seat.

In addition to subcutaneous areas, bursae may also be located under muscles, tendons, and ligaments where these structures cross and potentially experience friction against bony prominences. The best example would be the biceps bursa, which lies beneath the biceps tendon as it follows the intertubercular groove at the superior end of the humerus. Other important bursae are: the acetabular bursa between the tendon of the accessory gluteal muscle and the greater trochanter of the femur in hip joint; calcaneal bursa between the superficial digital flexor tendon and the hock joint; the wedge-shaped bursa between the medial tendon of the cranial tibialis muscle and the medial collateral ligament of the hock joint and the prepatellar bursa (proximal and distal) in the knee joint between the medial patellar ligament and the patella and tibia roughness, respectively. Unlike subcutaneous bursae, which are usually acquired, bursae associated with muscles or tendons are normal congenital anatomical structures.

The superficial fascia merges imperceptibly with a more clearly defined deeper layer of dense fascia, which closely surrounds the underlying muscles of the body. This deep fascia is composed of dense fibrous connective tissue and in some areas forms a thick shiny sheet of tissue. Because many areas of deep fascia are particularly dense and well formed, they can themselves provide muscle attachment in the same way as skeletal bones. The thoracolumbar and gluteal fascia may be included in this category; the first serves to attach the latissimus dorsi muscle, muscles abdominal wall and epaxial muscles such as the iliocostalis and longissimus. In many other mammals, especially those of smaller size, the deep fascia on the trunk is not as well represented, especially on the sides and abdomen. However, in the horse it forms an extremely important layer in the abdominal wall deep to the subcutaneous muscle, known as the fascia flavum. This is a yellowish layer of predominantly elastic tissue that provides significant "passive" support to the abdominal organs, complementing the "active" support from the abdominal wall muscles. It [yellow abdominal fascia] is a rather thick layer located ventrally and difficult to separate from the deeper tendon of the external oblique abdominal muscle and the linea alba. Its extensions follow down the ventral midline to support the penis and prepuce in stallions and the udder in mares.

The deep fascia is particularly well developed in the extremities, where it can be cut and, in most cases, separated from the surfaces of the underlying muscles. Numerous branches from it follow between individual muscles, separating them and attaching to the periosteum of the bones of the limb. Thus, quite distinct sheets of fascia separate the muscles from each other, providing pathways for blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels and facilitating the work of muscles.

The flat surfaces of the fascia may also provide easily accessible pathways along which pus can spread from the infected area. For example, with bursitis of the occipital region or withers fistula, the infection spreads down the fascial layers of the neck to its lower side. This must be taken into account when providing medical care to an animal.

In the distal parts of the limbs (forearm and lower leg), where the deep fascia reaches its most noticeable development, it forms a tight-fitting “sleeve” (muff) around the muscles, limiting their protrusion and thus directing their work along specific lines. This containment sleeve also suggests that under normal circumstances blood and tissue fluids usually protected from congestion.

Because the skin forms the boundary between the horse and its environment, it contains numerous sensory receptors. Sensations originating from stimuli such as touch, pain and temperature are transmitted from these sensory receptors in the skin along the cutaneous nerves. Consequently, the initial portions of these nerves will follow within the superficial fascia, and many must penetrate the subcutaneous muscles on their way from the skin to the central nervous system located deeper in the body. The figure demonstrates some of the branches of these cutaneous nerves where they may lie in a subcutaneous position. A complex network of small blood vessels to/from the skin/and for some distance follows within the free cells of the superficial fascia, where the vessels are to some extent protected and spared from the damage to which they might be exposed if they were shorter and straighter, and therefore more immobile fixed in their position. Some prominent veins also follow superficially in the subcutaneous tissue, notable in this regard are: the saphenous vein of the shoulder and forearm of the thoracic limb, the saphenous vein of the leg and foot of the pelvic limb, the external thoracic vein on the chest, the external jugular vein in the neck and the facial vein on the head.

These veins are very important because they are easily accessible for injection or blood collection.

Rice. 11. Saphenous nerves, muscles and bursae of the horse, lateral view

Bones, muscles and fascia:

1. Superficial fascia of the sacrum and tail. 2. Superficial fascia of the shoulder. 3. Deep fascia of the forearm (forms a tight-fitting “sleeve” around the muscles of the forearm and has its own tensor muscle). 4. Deep carpal fascia

(forms the flexor and extensor retinaculum, fixing the tendons of the forearm muscles in the tunnels on the way to the foot).

5. Deep fascia of the thigh (attaches the biceps femoris muscle and has its own tensor muscle). 6. Deep fascia of the leg (tightly surrounds the muscles of the leg). 7. Deep tarsal fascia (forms the flexor and extensor retinaculum with the same function as on the thoracic limb). 8-9. Platism. 8. Subcutaneous facial muscles (thin layer across the intermaxillary space, covering bottom part masticatory muscle and merging with the orbicularis oris muscle in lower lip). 9. Subcutaneous neck muscle (located in the lower part of the neck, originates from the manubrium of the sternum and expands over the brachiocephalic and brachioatlas muscles). 10. Subcutaneous muscle of the trunk (covers most of the trunk caudal to the forearm, forms a fold of the side and follows to the thigh above the knee joint). 11. Subcutaneous muscle of the shoulder (located on the lateral surface of the shoulder and forearm and continues into the subcutaneous muscle of the trunk).

12. Chewing muscle. 13. Brachiocephalic muscle (cleidomastoid part). 14. Brachioatlas muscle.

15. Plaster muscle. 16. Cervical part of the trapezius muscle. 17. Pectoral part of the trapezius muscle.

18. Caudal part of the deep pectoral muscle. 19. Gluteal muscles. 20. Tensor fascia lata.

21. Posterior femoral group of hip extensors.

Subcutaneous synovial bursae:

22. Subcutaneous bursa of the withers (above the spinous processes of the middle thoracic vertebrae). 23. Subcutaneous sacral bursae (above the spinous processes of the first sacral vertebrae). 24. Subcutaneous bursae of the maklok (pelvic tubercle). 25. Subcutaneous ulnar

Bursa (above the point of the elbow). 26. Subcutaneous radial bursa (above the lateral roughness radius). 27. Subcutaneous carpal bursa (above the third carpal bone). 28. Subcutaneous bursa above the prominence of the radius (on the medial edge of the groove

For the common digital extensor tendon). 29. Subcutaneous bursa above the lateral styloid process of the radius.

30. Subcutaneous bursae over the palmar and plantar surfaces of the fetlock joints. 31. Subcutaneous bursa above the lateral surface of the fetlock joint. 32. Subcutaneous prepatellar bursa (above the cranial surface of the proximal end of the kneecap). 33. Subcutaneous calcaneal bursa (above the tarsal point on the superficial digital flexor tendon).

34. Subcutaneous bursa above the lateral malleolus tibia. 35. Subcutaneous bursa above the fourth tarsal bone. 36. Subcutaneous bursa above the medial malleolus of the tibia.

Cutaneous branches from the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves:

37. Dorsal cutaneous branches of the cervical nerves (C2-C8: sensitivity of the skin of the neck dorsally and dorsolaterally; cutaneous branch

From C1 [greater occipital nerve] provides sensation to the skin of the back of the head). 38. Dorsal cutaneous branches of the thoracic nerves (T2-T18: sensitivity of the skin of the chest dorsally and dorsolaterally). 39. Dorsal cutaneous branches of the lumbar nerves (L1-L6: cranial gluteal nerves, providing sensation to the skin of the lower back, croup and gluteal region).

40. Dorsal cutaneous branches of the sacral nerves (S1-S5: middle gluteal nerves, providing sensitivity to the skin of the sacral and sciatic regions).

Cutaneous branches from the ventral rami of the spinal nerves:

41-45. Lateral cutaneous branches from the ventral branches of the cervical nerves. 41. Lateral cutaneous branches from the cervical nerves (C2-

C6: sensitivity of the skin of the neck laterally and ventrally). 42. Big auricular nerve(from C2: sensitivity of the skin of the outer ear). 43. Transverse cervical nerve (from C2 and connecting to the cervical branch of VII cranial nerve[facial]: sensitivity of the skin of the parotid, laryngeal and intermaxillary areas). 44. Supraclavicular nerve (lateral cutaneous branch from C6:

Sensitivity of the skin of the shoulder and chest). 45. Lateral (external) pectoral nerve(from C8 and T1: chest skin sensitivity

Cells and abdomen ventrally and ventrolaterally). 46-49. Cutaneous branches from the ventral branches of the thoracic (intercostal) nerves (sensitivity of the skin of the chest and abdomen laterally and ventrally). 46. ​​Intercostobrachial nerves (lateral cutaneous branches of intercostal nerves 2 and 3: sensitivity of the skin of the chest laterally and the triceps edge of the shoulder above the elbow). 47. Lateral cutaneous branches of intercostal nerves 4-17 (sensation of the skin of the chest laterally; the ventral cutaneous branches of the first few intercostal nerves may provide sensation of the skin of the chest ventrally). 48. Lateral cutaneous branch of the costo-abdominal nerve (T18: sensitivity of the skin of the side). 49. Lateral cutaneous rope of the iliohypogastric nerve (L1: sensitivity of the skin of the caudal part of the side and lateral surface of the thigh).

50. Lateral cutaneous branch of the ilioinguinal nerve (L2: sensitivity of the skin of the caudal part of the side, groin area and lateral surface of the thigh; lateral cutaneous branch from L3 [pudiofemoral nerve]: sensitivity of the skin of the groin area, medial thigh and external genitalia). 51. Lateral cutaneous femoral nerve (main

Part L4: skin sensitivity cranial to the thigh down to the knee joint). 52. Caudal cutaneous

Femoral nerve (from S1 and S2: caudal gluteal branches, providing sensation to the skin of the lateral and caudal surfaces of the thigh).

Cutaneous nerves to the thoracic limb from the brachial plexus:

53. Cranial cutaneous nerve forearm (continuation of the lateral cutaneous brachial from the axillary: sensitivity of the skin of the forearm craniolaterally down to the wrist). 54. Lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm (continuation of the superficial

Branches of the radial: sensitivity of the skin of the forearm craniolaterally down to the wrist). 55. Caudal cutaneous nerve of the forearm (from the ulnar: sensation of the skin of the forearm caudally and caudolaterally down to the wrist). 56. Medial

Cutaneous nerve of the forearm (from musculocutaneous: sensitivity of the skin of the forearm, wrist and metacarpus dorsally and medially).

57. Dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve (sensitivity of the skin of the wrist and metacarpus dorsolaterally). 58. Lateral and medial palmar nerves (from the median with the participation of the ulnar nerve: sensitivity of the skin of the finger down from the fetlock).

59. Lateral and medial digital nerves (from the palmar nerves: sensitivity of the contents of the hoof and the skin of the dorsal surface of the finger down from the fetlock).

Cutaneous nerves to the pelvic limb from the lumbosacral plexus:

60. Saphenous nerve lower leg and foot (from the femoral: sensitivity of the skin of the thigh, lower leg and tarsus medially and cranially,

And also the metatarsus medially). 61. Lateral cutaneous sural nerve (from the peroneal nerve: sensitivity of the skin of the knee and lower leg laterally). 62. Caudal cutaneous sural nerve (from tibial: sensitivity of the skin of the caudal surface of the leg, as well as the tarsus and metatarsus caudally and medially). 63. Superficial peroneal nerve (from the general

Peroneal: sensitivity of the skin of the tarsus and metatarsus cranially). 64. Medial and lateral dorsal

Metatarsal nerves (from deep peroneal: sensitivity of the skin of the tarsus, metatarsus and fetlock cranially). 65. Medial and lateral plantar nerves (from the tibial nerve: sensitivity of the skin of the finger down from the fetlock). 66. Medial and lateral plantar metatarsal nerves (from the tibial: sensitivity of the skin of the fetlock and the back of the finger).

67. Medial and lateral digital nerves (from the plantar nerves: sensitivity of the contents of the hoof and skin of the finger down from the fetlock).

Blood vessels:

68. Facial vein. 69. Glossofacial vein. 70. Maxillary vein. 71. External jugular vein. 72. Saphenous vein shoulder and forearm (v.cephalica). 73. External thoracic vein. 74. Saphenous medial vein of the leg and foot (v. saphena medialis).