St. Petersburg State Medical Academy named after. I.I. Mechnikova

Department of Public Health and Healthcare with a course on the history of medicine

Coursework

Topic: Claudius Galen

St. Petersburg 2010

Plan

Introduction

Biography

Scientific activities

List of used literature

Introduction

Famous scientist of the era Ancient Rome Claudius Galen had versatile knowledge. From a young age, he showed interest in understanding man and the nature around him. Medicine and natural science of that time are associated with his brilliant works. They served as the basis for further development natural history and medical science.

Biography

Galen (c.129 - c.201) - an ancient physician, famous Roman physician and naturalist - was from Pergamon. The son of a wealthy architect, he received a good education, studying philosophy, mathematics, and natural sciences. Galen was preparing to become a philosopher and studied the works of Greek and Roman thinkers. But by chance, Galen's dream was misinterpreted - and he became a physician, although he continued to be interested in philosophy all his life.

At the age of 21, Galen lost his father. Having received a large inheritance, Galen set off on a seven-year journey. In Smyrna he studied philosophy and anatomy, in Corinth - natural science and the properties of medicines, in Alexandria - again anatomy.

Returning to Pergamon, Galen began practicing surgery and became a doctor at a gladiator school. This work became for Galen a real school of medical art. He wrote: “I often had to lead the hand of surgeons who were not very sophisticated in anatomy, and thereby save them from public shame.”

At the age of 34, Galen moved to Rome, where he received the position of court physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son Emperor Commodus. He became so famous that in Ancient Rome coins with his image were issued.

In the Temple of Peace, Galen opened a course of lectures on anatomy not only for doctors, but also for everyone. Galen, who was the first to use live cutting, demonstrated the dissection of dogs, pigs, bears, ruminants, and even monkeys. Since dissecting human bodies was then considered blasphemy, Galen could only study human anatomy on wounded gladiators and executed robbers.

According to the Suda, Galen lived 70 years and died around 200 AD. e. According to Arab sources, Galen lived to be 80 years old and, therefore, his death dates back to around 210.

Scientific activities

Galen attached great importance to the study of the anatomy and physiology of animals. These works are especially important in his extensive scientific heritage. Galen considered nature to be the main source of knowledge, the infallible teacher of truth. All his work is a hymn to nature. He wrote more than once: “Everything that is created by nature is excellent.” “Listen to the words that describe the amazing secrets of nature.” Naturalist Galen zealously studied nature. Galen's path of research aspirations was completely correct and advanced for his time.

One of Galen’s main works, “Deanatomia” (“On Anatomy”), consists of 16 books; Nine of them have reached us. These books were written in Greek, which at that time was the generally accepted language in science. In this study, Galen gives a consistent and complete description of the structure of the body. Along with a large number of morphological observations, studies and discoveries, Galen also took one of the first places in the application of the experimental method to study anatomy. The anatomical views are presented in some detail; all departments are developed, but not equally fully. Osteology, which he studied back in Alexandria, is described in more detail. Describing the bones, Galen noted that in a living organism they are covered with a membrane - the periosteum. He distinguished in the skeleton long bones having a canal with bone marrow, and the bones are flat, lacking a canal. In bones, he describes the apophyses, diaphyses and epiphyses. Saved and entered anatomical terminology Galenic term trochanter (trochanter)

In his morphological descriptions, Galen described the skull relatively correctly; he noted the merit of Hippocrates, who described four forms of the head (skull) and each of the seams, which Galen wrote about in his main work “On the Purpose of Parts” human body».

Galen considered teeth to be skeletal bones. He studied the origin of teeth and described this in his anatomical treatise.

In the axial skeleton - the spine - Galen described 24 vertebrae, which pass into the sacrum and coccygeal bones. On lumbar vertebra Galen found a process inherent in monkeys and absent in humans. He considered the sacrum to be the most important supporting bone, but describes it as consisting of three fragments, i.e. just like he saw it in pigs. Galen correctly described the clavicle, ribs and other human bones, but he describes the sternum not from the human skeleton, but from the skeletons of animals. He believed that the sternum consists of seven parts and triangular cartilage, i.e. like dogs.

Galen described the bones of the upper and lower limbs. His conscientious osteological descriptions still contain inevitable inaccuracies.

As for Galen's teachings about the connections of bones, he noted two types of connections: diarthrosis - movable joints and synarthrosis - immobile. He divided diarthrosis into anarthrosis, arthrosis and ginglyma. Galen divided synarthrosis into sutures, gomphoses and flat fusions, such as the symphysis of the pubic bones. This classification is accepted for joints in modern anatomy. But still, in Galen’s descriptions there are many inaccuracies, especially in the description of the human ligamentous and articular apparatus.

Galen made a great contribution to the study of the active apparatus of movement. Galen wrote a treatise entitled “On the Anatomy of Muscles.” In his myological treatise, Galen was one of the first researchers to systematically and systematically study the anatomy of muscles.

Angiology in Galen is presented at length and in detail, according to the views of that era. He considered the heart to be a “muscle-like” organ, and not a muscle, because he did not find in it the presence of nerve branches characteristic of skeletal muscles. He mistakenly determined the location of the heart in the center of the chest. Galen correctly described the coronary vessels of the heart and the ductus arteriosus. Galen considered the septum of the heart to be permeable to blood, which could leak through it from the left heart to the right.

Galen carefully studied and described the walls of the arteries as structures that were thicker in comparison with the walls of the veins, which, in his opinion, were equipped with a single lining of their own.

Galen studied the structure of the breathing tube in some detail. He described the respiratory apparatus, which included the larynx, rigid artery (trachea), bronchi, lungs and their vascular apparatus, the heart, its left ventricle and vascular system, pulmonary arteries and veins. He compared the structure of the larynx with the structure of a flute.

Galen knew the difference between arterial and venous blood. Galen believed that the pulsating force of the arteries was the main mover of blood through the vessels.

The structure of the lung, according to Galen’s descriptions, consists of branches windpipe, pulmonary arteries, veins and air parenchyma, first described by Erasstratus. Galen carried out experiments on experimental animals with the removal of part chest wall with the intercostal muscles to prove that the lungs are not fused to the chest wall.

Galen experimentally proved that when “the cooking is finished in the animal’s stomach, the lower opening of the stomach opens and food easily descends there (into the intestines), even accompanied by large quantity pebbles, nucleoli or other objects that are unable to turn into chyle. We can see this on an animal by calculating the moment of food moving down..."

Galen carefully studied the process of digestion and said that it depends on the strength of the stomach. The stomach attracts, holds and changes nutrients. Galen considered the liver to be a hematopoietic organ and described it as having four lobes, which is typical for the structure of animal livers. Gallbladder a person, according to Galen, has two ducts: the cystic and the bile, and both of them, in his opinion, flow into the duodenum.

He also studied the genitourinary apparatus: the purpose of the kidneys, according to Galen, is to remove excess water from the blood and mainly from the vena cava system. Small tubules in the kidney filter the watery fluid and excrete it from the body as urine.

While studying the comparative morphology of the genitals, Galen expressed an interesting idea about parallelism in the structure of male and female organs. In his opinion, the ovaries in women correspond to the testicles in men; uterus - scrotum; private lips - foreskin. Galen rejected the bicornuate structure of a woman’s uterus, but considered the paired fallopian tubes to be its beginning. In his treatise “On Semen,” he referred to his experience - the operation of removing the ovaries of animals, which is far from safe.

Galen's merits are especially great in the field of research nervous system. Studying the nervous system, he successfully continued to develop the basic concepts of Alcmaeon and Hippocrates, arguing that the center of thinking and feeling is the brain. Galen considered the cerebellum and spinal cord to emerge from the brain as a kind of “root”. Galen considered the brain to be the source of the body's motor ability.

Galen carefully described all parts of the brain: the cerebral commissure, the lateral or anterior ventricles, the middle ventricle, the fourth ventricle, the fornix, which serves to maintain the weight of the parts of the brain located above it and to protect the ventricles from pressure on them.

Galen noted the connection between the senses and the brain. He made a series interesting experiments with transection of the spinal cord various levels its extension and tried to establish its role and significance in the motor acts of the body and in sensory perceptions. By dissecting the spinal cord transversely, Galen observed loss of sensation and movement disorders in the areas located below the section. Cutting the spinal cord along its entire length, he noted no sensory or motor disorders. By cutting the spinal cord between the atlas and the occiput or between the atlas and the epistropheus, he observed the death of the animal immediately after the cut.

" Andreas Vesalius, his theory of blood circulation existed until 1628, when William Harvey published his work " Anatomical study on the movement of the heart and blood in animals,” in which he described the role of the heart in blood circulation. Medical students studied Galen up to and including the 19th century. His theory that the brain controls movement through the nervous system is still relevant today.

Much of his legacy survives through translations into Syriac, Arabic, Hebrew, Latin and Old Armenian.

Encyclopedic YouTube

1 / 4

Galen - the famous physician of antiquity (radio show)

Discoveries of Antiquity 5/6 Galen, physician to gladiators

MUSEUM OF ERECTION: Who is Galen? (www.legoknapodyem.ru)

Galen and the origins of psychosomatic medicine.

Subtitles

Biography

Early years

Galen describes his youth in his work On the Affections of the Mind. He was born in September 129. His father, Nikon, was a wealthy noble architect and builder, interested in philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as "a very amiable, simple, good and benevolent man." At the time, Pergamon was a significant cultural and intellectual center, famous for its library (Eumenes II), the second largest after that of Alexandria, and attracting both Stoic and Platonist philosophers. Galen was introduced to the Pergamon philosophers at the age of 14. His studies in philosophy included all existing at that time philosophical systems, including the philosophy of Aristotle and Epicureanism. His father wanted Galen to become a philosopher or politician, and tried to educate him in matters of literature and philosophy. Galen claims that around 145 his father had a dream in which Asclepius told Nikon to send his son to study medicine. His father spared no expense, and at the age of 16, Galen began studying medicine at Asklepion, where he studied for four years. The Asklepion was both a temple and a hospital, where any sick person could come to seek the help of the clergy. The Romans came here in search of treatment. The temple was also a refuge famous people, such as the historian Claudius Charax, the orator Aelius Aristides, the sophist Polemon, the consul Rufinus Cuspius.

In 148, when Galen was 19 years old, his father died, leaving him his fortune. Galen followed Hippocrates' advice and went to study, visiting Smyrna, Corinth, Crete, Cilicia, Cyprus and finally the Great Medical School of Alexandria, studying various medical traditions. In 157, at age 28, Galen returned to Pergamon and became physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most powerful and wealthy men in the province of Asia. Galen claims that the high priest chose him after he removed the entrails of a monkey and suggested that other doctors return it to normal condition. After they refused, Galen did it himself, earning the high priest's trust. During his four years in this position, Galen became convinced of the need for diet, exercise, hygiene and prevention, studied anatomy, treatment of fractures and severe injuries, calling injuries “windows of the body.” The attention Galen paid to their injuries is evidenced by the fact that only five gladiators died during his work, while during the work of his predecessor there were sixty gladiators who died. At the same time, Galen continued to study theoretical medicine and philosophy.

Mature years

From 161, Rome was involved in war. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus fought with the Marcomanni in the north. In the autumn of 169, as Roman troops were returning to Aquileia, a terrible epidemic broke out and Galen was called back to Rome. He was ordered to accompany Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus to Germany. The following spring, Marcus Aurelius released Galen after it was reported that Asclepius was against this enterprise. He was sent as a physician to the imperial heir Commodus. It was here, at court, that Galen wrote a lot on medical topics. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169 and Marcus Aurelius in 180, both victims of the epidemic.

Galen was Commodus's personal physician for almost the entire emperor's life. According to Dio Cassius, around 189 during the reign of Commodus, the largest epidemic known to him occurred, with 2,000 people dying in Rome every day. It was most likely the same disease that struck Rome during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.

Antoninovo plague

The Antonine plague is named after the family name of Marcus Aurelius. It was also called the plague of Galen and occupied an important place in the history of medicine due to the fact that it was associated with the name of Galen. He was in Rome in 166 when the epidemic began, and also in the winter of 168-69 during a repeated epidemic among the troops in Aquileia. Galen called the epidemic very long. Unfortunately, Galen's surviving records are brief and unsystematic, since he did not try to describe the disease for posterity; he was more interested in the symptoms of the disease and methods of treatment.

The mortality rate was 7-10%. The epidemic over the years 165-6-168 claimed from 3.5 to 5 million lives. Some researchers [ Who?] it is believed that more than half the population of the empire died, and that this epidemic was the most catastrophic in the history of the Roman Empire. It is believed that the Antoninian plague was caused by the smallpox virus, since despite the incomplete description, Galen left enough information about the symptoms of the disease.

Galen wrote that the rash that covered the entire body was usually black, but there were no ulcers, and those who survived were left with a black rash due to residual blood in the pustular blisters and blisters present. Galen states that the skin rash was close to the one described by Thucydides. Galen describes gastrointestinal problems and diarrhea. If the stool was black, the patient died. Galen also describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, bad breath, cough.

Death

In his writings, Galen mentioned 304 plants, 80 animals and 60 minerals.

Quotes

• “Get up from the table slightly hungry, and you will always be healthy.”
• “Whoever wants to contemplate the creatures of nature should not trust works on anatomy, but must rely on his own eyes, practicing anatomy for the love of science.”
• "A good doctor must be a philosopher."
• “I often had to lead the hand of surgeons who were not very sophisticated in anatomy, and thereby save them from public shame.”
• “Without a nerve there is not a single part of the body, not a single movement called voluntary, not a single feeling.”
• “Thousands and thousands of times I have restored health to my patients through exercise.”
• “Health is a form of harmony, but its boundaries are very wide and not everyone has the same”

Heritage

Late Antiquity

During his lifetime, Galen was considered a legendary physician and philosopher; Emperor Marcus Aurelius described him as “Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum” (the first among doctors and unique among philosophers). Greek authors such as Theodotus the Tanner, Athenaeus, and Alexander of Aphrodisias supported this view.

However, the full importance of his contribution to science was not fully appreciated by his contemporaries. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the study of Galen's works completely ceased in the West. In Byzantium, however, many of Galen's works were preserved and studied. Syrian Christians learned about Galen's works at a time when Byzantium ruled Syria and Western Mesopotamia. In the seventh century, these lands were captured by Muslims. After 750, Muslims and Syrian Christians translated Galen's works into Arabic. Since then, Galen and all Greek medicine have been assimilated into medieval culture Islamic Middle East.

Influence on Islamic medicine

The first serious translator of Galen into Arabic was the Syrian Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi. Hunain translated 129 works of Galen. One of the Arabic translations, 'Kitab ila Aglugan fi Shifa al Amraz', which is kept in the Academy of Ibn Sina, is considered the most outstanding of Galen's translations. Part of the Alexandria collection of Galen's works, this 10th century manuscript consists of two parts that include detailed information O various types fever and various inflammatory processes. Moreover, it contains more than 150 recipes for medicines of both plant and animal origin. The book gives an excellent insight into Greek and Roman medicine and is a source of information about ancient medicines.

Arabic sources such as the works of Rhazes continue to provide information about the lost works of Galen. In the works of Rhazes, as well as Ibn Zuhr and Ibn an-Nafis, the works of Galen are not accepted as the ultimate truth, but serve as the basis for further research.

Introducing the West to the Works of Galen

Beginning in the 11th century, translations of Arabic medical treatises into Latin appeared in Europe. One of the translators of Galen from Arabic into Latin was Constantine Africanus, associated with the Salerno medical school. In the 12th century. Burgundy Pisan (English) Russian translated “ΠΕΡΙ ΚPACΕΩΝ” by Galen into Latin ( De complexionibus) directly from Greek. In the 13th century Students at the universities of Naples and Montpellier began to study Galen. From that time on, Galen was considered an indisputable authority, he was even called the “Medical Pope of the Middle Ages.” The works of Galen became the main textbooks for doctors along with the work of Ibn Sina Canon of medical science, which was also based on the works of Galen.

Unlike pagan Rome in Christian Europe there was no universal prohibition against dissecting the human body, and such examinations had been carried out regularly since at least the 13th century. However, Galen's influence in Europe, as in Arab world, was so strong that when discrepancies with Galen's anatomy were discovered during autopsies, doctors often tried to explain them within the framework of Galen's teachings. For example, Mondino de Luzzi, who described the circulatory system in his writings, argued that there should be air in the left ventricle. Some explained the differences by saying that human anatomy had changed since Galen's time.

Renaissance

Modern research

At the moment, there are only two translations of Galen's works into Russian. The first of them, “On the Purpose of the Human Body,” was published in 1971, edited by Academician V. N. Ternovsky. In 2014, employees of the department of history of medicine, history of the Fatherland and cultural studies First Moscow State Medical University them. I. M. Sechenov Dmitry Balalykin, Andrey Shcheglov and Natalia Shock published the book “Galen: Doctor and Philosopher,” which included a translation of three texts by the thinker and their historical and philosophical analysis. The translation included the following texts: “A way to recognize and treat any passions, including one’s own,” “On recognizing and treating the delusions of every soul,” “On the fact that the best doctor is also a philosopher.” According to the authors, in foreign historiography, interest in Galen’s philosophical and research method has increased precisely in the last twenty years. The authors associate this process with a revision of the views of historians and philosophers on the relationship between science and religion, as well as with a change scientific paradigm during the period of scientific and technological progress - recently the idea of ​​multidisciplinary medical training is considered the key to successful activities. This theory fits perfectly with Galen's hypothesis that a true physician must also be a philosopher - an expert in various disciplines. Since 2014, the same team began publishing the Works of Galen in Russian translation. Volume 1 has been published so far.

Notes

1. « Life, death, and entertainment in the Roman Empire" David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999). University of Michigan Press. p.63. ISBN 0-472-08568-9
2. Galen on the affected parts
3. Arthur John Brock (translator), Introduction. Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Edinburgh 1916
4. Galen on the brain
5. Ancient philosophy: Encyclopedic dictionary. M., 2008. P. 250
6. Andreas Vesalius. De humani corporis fabrica, Libri VII . - Basel, Switzerland: Johannes Oporinus, 1543.
7. William Harvey. Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus. - Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Sumptibus Guilielmi Fitzeri, 1628. - P. 72. - ISBN 0-398-00793-4.
8. Furley, D, and J. Wilkie, 1984, Galen On Respiration and the Arteries, Princeton University Press, and Bylebyl, J (ed), 1979, William Harvey and His Age, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
9. Greg Woolf.. - Cambridge University Press, 2003. - P. 248.

   Original text(English)

   So much of Galen's oeuvre has survived, in a range of languages ​​from its original Greek through Syriac, Arabic, Hebrew, Latin and Armenian, because of the dominant position Galen achieved in the classical medical tradition.

10. γαληνός . Liddell, H. G., Scott, R. A Greek-English Lexicon / on Perseus Digital Library.
11. Nutton, V. (1973). "The Chronology of Galen's Early Career". Classical Quarterly 23 (1): 158-171. DOI:10.1017/S0009838800036600. PMID 11624046 .
12. Metzger, B. M.

In the 2nd century BC. e. center philosophical thought moved from Greece to Rome. Naturally, the influence of leading Greek philosophers did not survive. Many philosophical schools discussed issues of ethics, astrology, eclectically mixing various doctrines. The views of these schools increasingly leaned towards mysticism. The establishment of Christianity as the official religion of Ancient Rome led to the closure of philosophical schools.

In the history of ancient medicine, the Alexandrian school of doctors, founded in the city of Alexandria by the physician Herophilus (born in 300 BC), played an outstanding role. His merits in the development of anatomical knowledge place him among the classics of anatomy. It is quite possible that he is the forerunner of the famous Andrei Vesalius in accurate description nerves, arteries and veins, liver, eyes, respiratory organs, excretion and reproduction. His research was continued by another anatomist, Erasistratus (d. 240 BC).

Subsequently, a subsidiary school of “empiricists” emerged from the Alexandrian school, whose representatives absolutized specific knowledge, refusing any theoretical explanations and conclusions. It is possible that the reason for the demarcation between doctors and philosophers at this stage was deep differences in views on living nature, the confrontation of numerous philosophical movements.

In any case, the beginning of the alienation of medicine from philosophy had been made, and the famous Claudius Galen (c. 130 - c. 201 AD), who rose to the top of medical Olympus during the times of Ancient Rome, was not involved in any of the feuds then philosophical schools. Naturally, he could not remain outside of any influence of philosophical doctrines, and the teleological understanding of the organization of the human body reflects in his work the praise of the creative principle of nature, its creative role. He left more than 100 works on purely philosophical issues and sought in philosophy a means to discover the intentions of God. For Galen, man is a perfect work of art, and the author of this work is God.

We have the right to call Claudius Galen an outstanding physician, a great physiologist, a great anatomist. It is difficult to find such an area of ​​​​knowledge in the mainstream of these sciences that would be outside the sphere of attention of Galen. One is also surprised at how long he had time to write his works. It is known that the total number of his works reaches 250. They included not only information gleaned from the manuscripts of Galen’s predecessors, which he diligently read, but also his own materials obtained in the process of personal research, including anatomical ones.

The works of Galen should certainly be considered the pinnacle of achievements in anatomy during the reign of the Ancient Roman Empire. This scientist is credited with an almost encyclopedic presentation of scientific data on anatomy, physiology, and medicine accumulated by that time. Galen's erudition evokes respectful surprise. It seemed that there was not a single manuscript related to medicine that would remain unknown to this widely educated doctor. Galen's philosophical prowess is beyond doubt. But questions of natural science were of no less interest to him. Causality He understands phenomena mechanistically, and considers movement within the limits of the circle allotted to the living. The legacy of ancient dialectics does not inspire Galen; it is therefore not surprising that his medical doctrines bear the stamp of a certain metaphysical limitation.

Galen's anatomy is designed to answer the question: what is it? To do this, you need to examine the organ and determine how it is built. It is anatomical data that makes it possible to evaluate the very thinginess of an object, its material substratum. But what is defined requires a name. This is how anatomical terms and attempts to systematize facts appear.

From the point of view modern science, there is a lot of naiveness in Galen’s physiological ideas. But for the 2nd century AD. e. these ideas are highest point speculative reasoning, a hard-won attempt to solve a number of complex issues in a logical way. The natural-philosophical nature of Galen's anatomical and physiological works leaves no doubt.

As an anatomist, Galen introduced a lot of new things into science: he brought accumulated knowledge into the system, made an attempt to reveal functional purpose each organ, explain the structural features. However, the mistakes he made in descriptive anatomy, the teleological assessment of the observed facts, and distorted ideas about the functions of organs predetermined the inevitability of the collapse of the entire system of his anatomical and physiological knowledge at the very first objective verification.

The inconsistency of his philosophical views. Claudius Galen was probably the last of the Mohicans of the glorious galaxy of medical luminaries of the ancient Greek and Roman schools.

He had not yet broken organic ties with anatomy, he was looking for an answer to the questions he posed, but routine was already establishing itself around him, the days of great Rome were numbered. The art of medicine became the property of the healing castes. Interest in theory faded. Medicine has become stagnant. The castes monopolized their principles of treatment. Thus, the Paeonids (followers of the doctor Paeon) cultivated pseudo-folk remedies supposedly indicated by the god Aesculapius himself. They had at their disposal special temples for the sick—paeonia. The same hospitals were created by the Asclepiads, who revered their chief apostle Asclepius. The Chironids (descendants of the doctor Khironi) and other castes competed with them. The cult of Aesculapius penetrated even into the Middle Ages.

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Biography

Claudius Galen born around 130 AD e. in the city of Pergamon. His father, Nikon, a wealthy man, was a famous architect, well versed in mathematics and philosophy. In order to give his son the best possible education, he first taught him himself, and then invited prominent Pergamon scientists to be his teacher. Galen was preparing to become a philosopher and studied the works of Greek and Roman thinkers. But by chance, Galen's dream was misinterpreted - and he became a physician, although he continued to be interested in philosophy all his life. At the age of 21, Galen lost his father. Having received a large inheritance, Galen set off on a seven-year journey. In Smyrna he studied philosophy and anatomy, in Corinth - natural science and the properties of medicines, in Alexandria - again anatomy. Returning to Pergamon, Galen began practicing surgery and became a doctor at a gladiator school. This work became for Galen a real school of medical art. He wrote: “I often had to lead the hand of surgeons who were not very sophisticated in anatomy, and thereby save them from public shame.” At the age of 34, Galen moved to Rome, where he received a position as court physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son Emperor Commodus. Claudius became so famous that in Ancient Rome coins with his image were issued. In the Temple of Peace, Galen opened a course of lectures on anatomy not only for doctors, but also for everyone. Galen, who was the first to use live cutting, demonstrated the dissection of dogs, pigs, bears, ruminants, even monkeys. Since dissecting human bodies was then considered blasphemy, Galen could only study human anatomy on wounded gladiators and executed robbers. Galen lived more than 70 years and died around 200 AD. e.

Achievements

Galen systematized the ideas of ancient medicine in the form of a single doctrine, which was theoretical basis medicine until the end of the Middle Ages.

Laid the beginning of pharmacology. Until now, “galenic preparations” are called tinctures and ointments prepared in certain ways.

Quotes

• “Get up from the table slightly hungry, and you will always be healthy.”
• “Whoever wants to contemplate the creatures of nature should not trust works on anatomy, but must rely on his own eyes, practicing anatomy for the love of science.”
• "A good doctor must be a philosopher."
• “I often had to lead the hand of surgeons who were not very sophisticated in anatomy, and thereby save them from public shame.”
• “Without a nerve there is not a single part of the body, not a single movement called voluntary, not a single feeling.”

Notes

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

See what “Claudius Galen” is in other dictionaries:

Galen: Galen (erroneously Claudius Galen; 129 or 131 about 200) ancient physician. Clemens August von Galen (1878 1946) German aristocrat, count, bishop and later cardinal of Rome Catholic Church. Galen, Pierre (1786 1821) ... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Galen (meanings). Galen Γαληνός ... Wikipedia

The template card ((Name)) is not filled out for this article. You can help the project by adding it. Claudius is a male Roman name... Wikipedia

- (129 199) Roman physician and naturalist. Born into the family of a wealthy Greek architect. He studied philosophy, medicine, and natural sciences. To gain medical knowledge, he traveled, visited Corinth, Smyrna, Alexandri... Psychological Dictionary

- (Claudius Galenus), Roman physician and naturalist, classic of ancient medicine. In Pergamum he studied medicine and the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Epicureans. Traveled to Alexandria, Smyrna, Corinth... ...

Galen Claudius- (129 199) Roman physician and naturalist. Biography. Born into the family of a wealthy Greek architect. He studied philosophy, medicine, and natural sciences. To obtain medical knowledge, he traveled and visited Corinth, Smyrna, Alexandria.… … Great psychological encyclopedia

GALEN- GALEN, Claudius (born around 130, died around 201 or 210 AD), the most famous doctor of antiquity, who, thanks to his great talent and education, was able to synthesize the experience accumulated over centuries in medicine, putting an end to the struggle between the two schools of that... ... Great Medical Encyclopedia

Claudius (Galenus, Claudius). Wonderful doctor, b. in Pergamon in 130 AD, and then lived at the court of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He died in 200 A.D., leaving many works on medical and philosophical issues, from ... Encyclopedia of Mythology

- (Claudius) after Hippocrates, the most famous physician of antiquity, born 131 AD in Pergamon, son of the architect Nikon. G. after a thorough and complete study of philosophy from supporters of the four main schools of that time: Stoic, Platonic, ... ... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Claudius (Claudius Galenus), Roman physician and naturalist, classic of ancient medicine. In Pergamon he studied medicine and the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle (See Aristotle), the Stoics, and the Epicureans. Took a trip to... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• On the purpose of the parts of the human body, Claudius Galen. The most outstanding representative of Roman medicine was Claudius Galen, a remarkable scientist of the 2nd century AD. Galen is the author of numerous studies that served as the basis for the development...

(approx. 130-approx. 200)

In a pharmacy you will sometimes see an inscription on the cabinet written in Latin letters: "Galenica". The packaging of many pharmaceutical tablets states: “Galeno-pharmaceutical factory.” This reminds us of the most famous physician of all time - Galen.

Claudius Galen lived about 2 thousand years ago.

Birth and youth of Galen

He was born in Pergamum, the capital of the once glorious kingdom of Pergamum. Long before the birth of Galen, this kingdom turned into a province of the Roman Empire. His father, a wealthy architect, spared no expense on his son's education. Claudius studied philosophy, mathematics, and natural sciences. At first he was interested in geometry: his father was an expert in this science and managed to interest his son in it. But when Claudius was 17 years old, his father decided that the young man should be taught the art of medicine. There were in Pergamon good doctors, knowledgeable anatomists and teachers for Galen were found. However, there was no agreement between them: each treated in his own way and reviled his opponents in every possible way. Claudius heard one thing, then something completely different; in front of him it was like a confusing crossroads of several roads. Which one is real, which one should you go for?

Galen travels

Galen was 21 years old when his father died. Having received a large inheritance, he went to travel: in the big cities of those times there was someone to learn from. Smyrna, Corinth, Alexandria... Galen visited several centers of culture on the east coast Mediterranean Sea. Later he visited Palestine and island of Cyprus, Lemnos and Syria, where he was interested in local medicines and wrote down recipes for all sorts of drugs. This journey lasted seven years, and Galen spent five of them in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. Here he studied anatomy: Alexandrian scientists were famous for their knowledge. True, they did not dissect corpses and studied the structure of the human body from “skeletons” - skeletons; they dissected monkeys, sheep and pigs. Of course, by studying the anatomy of a sheep, a pig and even a monkey, many secrets of the human body cannot be revealed. Is it any wonder that anatomists of that time sometimes made such mistakes that a schoolchild of our day gets a bad grade for them.

Galen - gladiator doctor

Returning from his trip, Galen took up the position of physician to gladiators in Pergamon.
Gladiatorial fights were the main popular spectacle in imperial Rome. Huge circuses were built for them and gladiator schools were created. Sometimes hundreds of gladiators fought in the circus arena during the day. They fought in pairs, and the battle ended with severe injuries, and more often with the death of one of the fighters. Gladiators fought in the circus arena and with wild animals: lions, tigers, leopards, bears. And again there were severe wounds, broken arms and legs.

Galen learned a lot and learned a lot as he bandaged wounded gladiators and treated sprains and fractures.

Galen - court physician

From Pergamum he moved to Rome, from there after 4 years he returned to his homeland, and then came again to Rome, where he became a court physician. The most skilled physician of his time, Galen treated, lectured and wrote.

Works of Galen

Galen's diligence as a writer is amazing: his manuscripts amounted to about 500 scrolls - long strips of parchment rolled into a tube. If all these scrolls were printed, there would be 80 volumes on the bookshelf. But not all the manuscripts survived; some of them burned, and we know about them only from the records of contemporaries.

One of Galen's main works is “On the Purpose of the Parts of the Human Body.” It describes human anatomy and physiology. Galen considered these sciences to be the basis of the art of medicine and dealt with them more than with treating the sick. It was he who laid the foundation for physiology: he made the first experiments on living animals.

But how can we describe human anatomy without doing much dissection? Based on what was seen during the dissection of sheep, pigs and monkeys? Of course, in this work of Galen there were many inaccuracies, and there were also gross errors. This is, for example, his description of the path of blood in the body.
And thousands of years before Galen they knew that life and blood in the body are inseparable. “With the blood flowing out of the body, life leaves” - this was taught by the centuries-old experience of warriors and hunters. But what is the role of blood, what is its path in the body - they did not know. “Blood flows only in the veins, it does not exist in the arteries, there is air there.” This was believed long before Galen, and doctors and anatomists affirmed the same in the days of his youth.

“Wrong!” Galen declared, without taking into account the opinions of scientists and even such a famous doctor of antiquity as Hippocrates, before whom Galen bowed, “There is blood in the arteries!” His experience as a practicing surgeon was good proof of this. But it is not enough to say: “There is blood in the arteries.” You also need to know how it gets there, how it moves through the body, how venous blood differs from arterial blood, what happens in the heart, in the lungs, in the liver.

Nature does nothing without a purpose!

All of Galen's arguments about what life is and what its manifestations are can be briefly summarized as follows. Nature does nothing without a purpose. Each organ has its own purpose. The body is characterized by various “forces”, and their carrier is “pneuma”, some mysterious invisible substance. It comes in three types: “vital” (in the heart), “physical” (in the liver) and “mental” (in the brain). Two types of pneuma turned out to be closely related to blood.

Liver according to Galen

The liver's job is to produce blood, grow and nourish the body. The blood formed in the liver is supplied with nutrients that enter the liver from the intestines. This “rough” or “raw” blood also contains “physical pneuma”. From the liver, the blood is partly carried through the veins throughout the body, carrying nutrition to the organs, and partly enters the heart.

Heart according to Galen

Heart - central authority"vital pneuma". His work, according to Galen, is as follows. Blood from the liver enters the right ventricle of the heart, and from here, through an opening in the heart septum, directly into the left ventricle. Here it meets the “pneuma” delivered from the lungs, is enriched with it, and in the form of “vital pneuma” passes into the arteries. "Vital pneuma" maintains body heat. If the “vital pneuma” has disappeared, life also disappears, a person dies. Galen's reasoning at first glance seemed very convincing: everyone knows that the body of the deceased quickly cools down and loses “warmth.”

It doesn't take long to notice the mistake of Galen and his supporters. After all, the body of the deceased “cools down” and loses its “warmth”: first death, and then the loss of “warmth”. It seems quite simple, and yet the famous doctor was mistaken: he assumed that the loss of “warmth” precedes death.

More and more new portions of blood are formed in the liver, enter the heart, and leave it for the arteries. Once in certain organs and parts of the body, the blood is consumed and, pushed out of the heart, not all of it returns back to it. Continuously forming again in the liver, blood is just as continuously and quickly consumed in the body, Galen believed.

Galen's circulatory scheme

Venous blood is dark and thicker, arterial blood is liquid and bright red. Galen noticed this correctly. Veins begin in the liver, and venous blood is born there; arteries begin in the heart, and arterial blood will be born in the left ventricle. Here Galen made a number of mistakes. He did not know that there were two circles of blood circulation; he did not reveal the role of the atria in the blood circulation system.
And yet Galen's circulatory system lasted for about 1,500 years.

Only in the middle of the 17th century. Harvey proved it wrong. Galen believed that the “soul” was located in the brain, and the carrier of everything spiritual was the “psychic pneuma.” It originates in the ventricles of the brain and travels through the nerves throughout the body. Once upon a time, the great philosopher of ancient Greece, Aristotle, argued that the brain is a special gland, and its purpose is to produce “mucus” to cool the excess heat of the heart.
Galen proved that this was not true; the brain does not produce any “cooling mucus.” He not only managed to learn some details of the structure of the brain, but also proved through experiments that nerves are conductors of excitation and that the “impulses” of these excitations come from the brain. Through the nerves, the irritations received by the sense organs are transmitted to the brain. The transmitter is the “psychic pneuma” that moves along the nerves.
The explanation seems very naive. But how much did science know in those days? Galen was wrong in his explanations, but he correctly noticed the essence of the phenomena: nerves serve as conductors, brain-center. The left side of the heart contains oxygen-rich blood; The temperature (“warmth”) of the body is associated with oxidative processes. Galen interpreted what he noticed as best he could: he replaced “pneuma” with phenomena whose origin remained a mystery to him.

Galen and his medicines

Three “pneuma” unite all parts of the body into one whole. A person is healthy as long as the components work correctly. He falls ill as soon as the correct functioning of the organs or the composition of the parts is disrupted. How to treat the disease? It is necessary to use the forces of the body itself, and medications with “opposite” effects are also necessary. With fever, the temperature rises, which means that “cooling” medications are needed; dryness is treated with moisture, and excess moisture is treated with “dryness”. Galen used many medicines, and some were very complex: one of them included 60 substances!

Medicines were made mainly from plants:

• tinctures" decoctions,
• syrups,
• hoods,
• ointments,
• plasters.

What kind of potions did Galen prepare? He laid the foundation not only for physiology, but also for pharmaceutical science - pharmacology, and his name has been preserved in it: all kinds of medicines plant origin are called “galenic preparations”.

Mustard plaster was invented by Galen

The simplest type of such a drug is the well-known mustard plaster.