Mysteries of the Etruscans that haunt scientists: What were the fashion, life and entertainment of the predecessors of Ancient Rome. Etruscans - the mysterious predecessors of Rome

Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, a mysterious civilization flourished in ancient Italy. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports, and spent money on magnificent jewelry and objects of art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ, this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization, which paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?

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Where are the Etruscans? In the same place where they were - in Italy, mixed with the Latins, who came there like savages and then became the princes of this world. The same as everywhere else. For scientists, the search for the Etruscans is endless, although you just need to read what they themselves wrote. Many have tried to do this since the time of Volansky, but it turned out. that everything is simpler - they wrote in Russian and in Russian runes. So who are they then? A stupid question that only academics ask. Following the “scientific” method - if it is written on the fence “Vasya was here”, it should be read - “Heinrich was here”. Maybe it's time to just hear the language we all speak? It, despite all the efforts of the “civilizers” (ce-lization, that is, licked savages), contains in its roots the fundamental principles, the images from which all secondary languages ​​originate. And the language in Russian is also the people. Interesting material on the topic of Russian roots of many languages ​​here:
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami/2013-01-02-132
And
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami_2/2013-02-08-135

Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, a mysterious civilization flourished in ancient Italy. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports, and spent money on magnificent jewelry and objects of art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ, this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization that paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?

>>History: Predecessors of the Romans

47. Predecessors of the Romans

1. Nature of Italy.

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The second material, dedicated to the military affairs of the Etruscans, will be based on the works, again, of English-speaking historians, who had at their service museums in Rome, Tuscany and, naturally, British museums, which house many interesting finds. Perhaps the most accessible to the Russian reader in this regard was and remains Peter Connolly, whose book “Greece and Rome in Wars” (in the Russian translation “Greece and Rome. Military Encyclopedia”) was published by the Eksmo publishing house already... sixteen years ago. That is... it is gradually becoming a rarity, and many have no longer read it simply due to age. An interesting publication is the English translation of the French author Michel Fugeret "Romans" (2002), which also has a section on the Etruscans and their weapons, although not a large one. And although it does not contain color illustrations, but only graphics and black and white photos, this is an excellent work for anyone interested in the military affairs of Rome.

Situla from Chiusi, 7th century. BC e. (610 - 600) “Women with braids stand, and a man in a Corinthian-type helmet with a crest approaches them. But women ignore him, as can be seen from their arms proudly crossed over their chests.” Archaeological Museum of Florence.

In the first material, “Etruscans against Russians,” we talked about where the Etruscans, along with their cows, moved to Italy. Now we will talk about the fact that here the Etruscans founded city-policies of the Greek model, and each Etruscan city, as well as the Greek city-polises, began to have its own army. The cities were allies, but very rarely acted together, which greatly weakened them. For some kind of campaign they could join forces, but more often they wasted their strength in the struggle of one city with another.

In the 7th century BC The Etruscans adopted Greek tactics and the Greek phalanx. Accordingly, they also used a formation of 12 by 8 hoplites with four Uraga commanders.

Situla from Chiusi, on which warriors in hoplite weapons are clearly visible. Archaeological Museum of Florence.

Like the later Romans, the Etruscans tried to use the troops that their allies or conquered peoples supplied them. Peter Connolly believes that the Roman army of early Roman history was a typical Etruscan army. Under Tarquin the Ancient, the first Etruscan king of Rome, it included three parts: the Etruscans (formed in phalanx), the Romans and the Latins. Warriors armed with spears, axes and javelins were placed on the flanks, as reported by Polybius, who saw with his own eyes the text of the very first treaty with Carthage, concluded around 509 BC. According to him, it was written in archaic Latin, so it could only be partially understood.

Etruscan warrior from Viterbe. OK. 500 BC Louvre.

Servius Tullius, the second of the Etruscan kings, being of Latin origin, decided to reorganize the army according to income, instead of origin. Six categories were established, the very first of which included the wealthiest people, who numbered 80 centuries according to Roman counting, or suckers according to Greek. Most of these people, apparently, were the same Etruscans. Warriors from this category needed to have a helmet, armor, leggings, shield, spear and, of course, a sword. Titus Livy used the word clipeus to describe their shield, and Dionysius called the shields of this century Argolic (Argive) shields. That is, all these people were armed as hoplites and lined up for battle in a phalanx. At their disposal were two centuries of master gunsmiths and builders (they were called fabri - “masters”, hence the word “factory”), who did not take part in the battles themselves.

Etruscan shield from Tarquin. Altes Museum, Berlin.

In the second category there were 20 centuries. These warriors were armed more simply and, in particular, did not have armor and used the scutum shield instead of the more expensive Argive shield. Both Dionysius and Diodorus unanimously argued that it was rectangular, and archeology confirmed this. The famous Kertos situla, dating back to 500 BC, was discovered, decorated with coinage with images of warriors with Argive, oval and also rectangular shields in their hands. That is, it is obvious that the shape of the shields was very different, and that there was no single pattern!

Kertos situla. And on it are images of warriors, around 500 BC. Their study allows us to conclude that in Italy three types of shields were used simultaneously. It is quite possible that on it we see typical Etruscan warriors of this time. Museum of Archeology in Bologna, Italy.

The third category also consisted of 20 centuries. These warriors were distinguished by the absence of leggings, which apparently were quite expensive if their presence or absence had such a dramatic impact on income. The fourth category was also divided into 20 centuries. Livy reports that they were armed with a spear and a javelin, but Dionysius armed them with a scutum, a spear, and a sword. The fifth category of the 30 centuries according to Livy consisted of slingers, but Dionysius also adds javelin throwers who fought outside the ranks to the slingers. The fifth grade consisted of two centuries of buglers and trumpeters. Finally, the poorest population was completely freed from military service. The army was divided according to age into veterans who served in the cities, while the stronger youth participated in campaigns outside their territory.

Etruscan ceramic vessel depicting fighting warriors. One of them is dressed in a typical “linen shell”. Martin von Wagner Museum, University Museum (Würzburg).

That is, the difference that the description of these two ancient authors gives us is small, so there is no reason not to believe them. Most likely, the second, third and fourth ranks acted on the flanks in the same way as the allies did before the reform of Servius Tullius. Livy, however, claims that they formed the second, third and fourth ranks in the general order of battle. If all Roman citizens formed central part troops, then perhaps this order was precisely the prototype of the legion of the Republican era, when warriors of different weapons were built together in three lines. Otherwise, it is difficult to imagine what such a construction looked like in reality. Be that as it may, it is known that when it was necessary to convene an army, each century collected the required number of soldiers. So, if an army of ten thousand was needed, then each century equipped two enomotives, that is, 50 people.

Etruscan funerary urn, mid-2nd millennium BC. Worcester Museum of Art in Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.

Then the Etruscans were expelled from Rome, but at the same time the army lost a large part of the soldiers who belonged to the first class. Naturally, this lowered the level of her combat effectiveness. No wonder Livy wrote that round shields (and, consequently, the phalanx) were used by the Romans until the introduction of payment for service at the end of the 5th century. With the liquidation of royal power, the role of commanders was assumed by two praetors, whose institution functioned until the middle of the 4th century, and each of them commanded half of the army.

Etruscans versus Romans. Etruscan warriors from the temple at Purgi in Cerveteri c. 550 – 500 BC National Etruscan Museum, Villa Giulia, Rome.

Just like Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus reports on the reorganization in the Etruscan-Roman army, which he carried out in the middle of the 6th century. Servius Tullius. Both accounts are essentially identical and most likely go back to Fabius Lictor, who wrote a history of Rome around 200 BC. It is believed that his information is based on documents from that era. In any case, the position of praetor - commander of veteran soldiers - was retained at a later time under the name praetor urbanus, although his functions now related exclusively to judicial activities. The two chief magistrates were now called consuls, and the word "praetor" denoted magistrates of the second rank; during Polybius there were already six of them.

Achilles bandages the wounded Patroclus. Both figures are wearing linothorax (“linen shells”), reinforced with scales; Patroclus’ untied left shoulder pad is straightened. Image from a red-figure vase from Vulci, circa 500 BC. e. Painting of a red-figure Attic vessel. State Museums, Altes Museum, Antique Collection, Berlin.

The warriors who were part of the phalanx and belonged to the first category had Greek-style weapons, that is, a round Argive shield, chased bronze armor, anatomical greaves, a helmet, a spear and a sword. However, although the Etruscans fought as a phalanx, even axes are found in their burials, which can hardly be used to fight in close formation. But perhaps, Connolly writes, these weapons were placed in the tomb according to custom. On the other hand, the ax could be used to fight in one-on-one duels, such as the one shown in the sculpture of two hoplites from Faleria Veteres. They are both armed according to the Greek model, except for the curved dagger in the hand of one of the fighters. But a weapon as part of funeral equipment is one thing, but an ax is definitely not allowed to be used in a phalanx.

Modern reconstruction appearance Etruscan warrior based on finds in Tarquinia. Altes Museum, Berlin.

The painting from Cheri (scientists call their finds that way: “warrior from Cheri” or somewhere else...) shows a typical hoplite in a Chalcidian helmet and with round breast plates. The image from Chiusi shows a hoplite in full Greek armor, but his helmet is decorated with feathers in the Italic, and not at all Greek, style. Well, the finds in the “Tomb of the Warrior at Vulci” (about 525 BC) provide an example of the presence of mixed types of weapons: a Negau helmet, an Argive shield and Greco-Etruscan type leggings.

Etruscan ship. Painting in a tomb at Tarquinia.

Judging by the frescoes in the tombs, Greek armor was widespread among the Etruscans; discoveries of disk-shaped breastplates dating back to the first half of the 7th century are known. However, their exact dating is difficult, since where and when they were found remains unclear. The painting from Cheri, which cannot be dated earlier than the end of the 6th century, gives reason to believe that this type of armor was used much later than the 7th century. By the way, we see the same disks on Assyrian bas-reliefs, and even later examples of them were found in Spain and also in central Europe. Connolly believes that they have a clear eastern origin. The "Cheri Painting" shows that they are secured to the torso by three straps, most likely leather. Why three? And on them back side Usually three loops are found: two at the top and one at the bottom, which secured this disk to the belts in a very ingenious way. Why it could not be secured on four straps crosswise, like the same Assyrians, is unknown. Although there are examples of such fastening.

The most popular early helmet in Etruria was the Negau type, which received its name from the name of the village in Yugoslavia, near which they were found in large numbers. An interesting specimen was discovered in Olympia, and you can see it in British Museum. The inscription on it says that it was dedicated to the temple by a certain Hiero, son of Deinomenes, and the inhabitants of Syracuse, who captured it from the Etruscans in the naval battle of Cumae in 474 BC. The earliest dateable example of such a helmet was discovered in the “Tomb of the Warrior” at Vulci. Without any changes, they were used until the 4th, and perhaps even the 3rd centuries. BC A characteristic feature of Negau helmets was a bronze ring with holes along its inner edge, intended for attaching a balaclava, thanks to which it sat tightly on the head. The helmet had a low ridge, which was sometimes located across. P. Connolly notes that such helmets were worn by Roman centurions, and it is also found on the famous figurine depicting a Spartan hoplite.

Etruscan warrior. "Mars from Todi". Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Vatican.

Of course, it is tempting to argue that this had some significance, for example, that such decoration was the insignia of the Lohagi; and why it was then adopted by the centurions is understandable. However, this is just speculation. There is no evidence for this opinion.

Leggings in Etruria were used of the Greek type, without an anatomically pronounced knee. They were used in the same way as helmets of the Negau type (i.e. until the 4th – 3rd centuries), and this is undoubtedly the case, since they are often found together.

Surprisingly, for some reason, in Etruria, protective armor for the hips, ankles and feet was used even when they were no longer used in mainland Greece. Bracers were also used there for just as long. A curved sword, or kopis, common in Greece and Spain from the 6th to the 3rd centuries. BC, according to P. Connolly, may have its origins in Etruria, since it was here that the earliest examples of these weapons were found, dating back to the 7th century. BC The bronze “saber” from Este in northern Italy could just be the forerunner of this terrible weapon and confirms its Italian origin.

Magnificent finds from the "Tomb of the Warrior" at Lanuvium near Rome, dating back to 480 BC. Combat equipment includes a bronze muscular (anatomical) cuirass (with traces of leather and linen lining), a bronze helmet of the negau type (with gilding and silvering, as well as glass paste in imitation of eye holes), and a sword - kopis. Other finds include a bronze sports disc, two iron body scrapers and a bottle for olive oil. National Museum of Baths of Diocletian, Rome.

Etruscan and early Greek swords of this type were cutting weapons with a blade about 60–65 cm long. Later examples from Macedonia and Spain were cutting and piercing weapons with a blade whose length did not exceed 48 cm.

Breastplate from the Warrior's Tomb.

The tombs of the Greeks and Etruscans were very different, and their views on afterlife. Here is a tomb from the archaeological reserve at Cape Makronides in Ayia Napa in Cyprus. The door is a little more than a meter high; inside there is a room at most 1.5 m high with two “beds” without a hint of painting. For the Etruscans, everything is completely different.

The Etruscan spears had a variety of tips. For example, these are long tips belonging to the Villanova type. In a 5th century tomb. in Vulci they found a typical pilum tip, with a tube for attaching to the shaft. This means that they were already fighting with such weapons at that time, and they have been known for quite a long time.

In the IV and III centuries. BC in Etruria they still continued to use the Greek heritage in the field of weapons, and then also adopted their late classical Greek style. On the sarcophagus of the Amazons and on the tomb of Giglioli (both monuments are located in Tarquinia) you can see images of typical Thracian helmets of the 4th century. BC and linen shells, however, they began to be covered with metal plates. They are clearly visible, for example, on the famous statue of Mars from Todi, who is depicted in typical Etruscan armor. At the same time, images of chain mail had already appeared on funeral urns, that is, the Etruscans also knew them. Moreover, in design it was still the same “linen cuirass”, but only chain mail. Well, the Romans adopted it along with all the other “finds” of the peoples surrounding Rome.

It is interesting that on Etruscan sculptures anatomical shells painted with gray paint are often visible. But this does not mean that they are iron; it is much more likely that they were simply silvered or even tinned with tin and, perhaps, that this was later done in the Roman army. The depiction of muscles is usually highly stylized, which makes it easy to distinguish Etruscan armor from Greek.

Tomb of the Lionesses in Tarquinia. Neither the Greeks nor the Slavs encountered anything like this.

A complete Etruscan armor was found in the "Tomb of the Seven Rooms" in Orvieto, near Lake Bolsena. It consists of a typical Etruscan armor of anatomical type, leggings of the Greek late classical type, an Argive shield, and a helmet of the Montefortine type with characteristic cheekpieces with three disks stamped on them. The pilum became a throwing weapon. The sharp-tang type of pilum first appeared in northern Italy in the 5th century. A pilum with a flat tongue, which is inserted into a slot on the shaft and fastened with one or two wooden rods, was depicted in the tomb of Giglioli at Tarquinia, sometime in the mid-4th century BC, but the earliest archaeological find of such a point dates back to the end of the 3rd century. and was made again in Etruria, in Telamon. Thus, P. Connolly concludes, the genesis of Etruscan weapons has a direct connection with the weapons and armor of the ancient Greeks, and then they themselves borrowed (or invented) something, and the Romans, in turn, borrowed it from them.

But the most important thing in the Etruscan culture is again connected not even with their military affairs, but with funeral rites. And this is once again confirmed by the fact that the Etruscans had nothing in common with the Slavs. The fact is that the traditions of commemorating the dead and their burial are among the most persistent. The custom of funeral fights at the grave of the deceased, borrowed by the Romans as entertainment, the tradition of constructing painted tombs - we see none of this among the Slavs, there is not even a hint of it, but this is the most important attribute of spiritual culture, preserved for many hundreds, or even thousands years!

An Etruscan vessel found in one of their tombs. This is how they looked at that distant time. Louvre.

This site will help you visit the Gregorian Etruscan Museum of the Vatican. There you can see the halls of the museum (and not only this museum itself) and photographs (and descriptions) of the artifacts exhibited there: http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/MGE/MGE_Main.html
At the address below you can find the alphabet, a dictionary, and much more: http://www.etruskisch.de/pgs/og.htm
But here everything is Etruscan!
http://ancientstudies.as.nyu.edu/docs/CP/963/EtruscanNews10_winter.pdf

From the very beginning of its existence, the Etruscan people appear in the eyes Ancient worldrich and powerful nation. The self-name of the Etruscans is “Rasena”, their name inspired great fear, constantly appearing in "Annals" which notes: "Even the Alpine tribes, especially the Rhaetians, are of the same origin as the Etruscans"; and Virgil, in his epic about the emergence of Rome, tells in detail about ancient Etruria.

The Etruscan civilization was primarily an urban civilization, played in ancient times important role in the fate of Rome and the entire Western civilization. Etruria fell to the Roman legions by the middle of the 3rd century BC. e., but it has not lost its cultural role. Etruscan priests spoke the Etruscan language both in Tuscany and Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire, that is, until the end of the 5th century AD. e. Starting from the Greek seafarers began to settle on southern coasts Italy and Sicily and traded with the inhabitants of Etruscan cities.

The inhabitants of Etruria were known to the Greeks as "Tyrrhenians" or "Tyrsenians", and the Romans called them Tusci, hence the current name of Tuscany. According to Tacitus(“Annals”, IV, 55), during the Roman Empire retained the memory of his distant Etruscan origin; The Lydians even then considered themselves brothers of the Etruscans.

"Tyrrhenians" is an adjective, most likely formed from the word "tirrha" or "tirra"in Lydia there is a place called Tyrrha - turris - “tower”, that is, “Tyrrhenians” are “people of the citadel”. Root very common in Etruscan. King Tarchon, brother or son of Tyrrhenus, founded Tarquinia and the dodecapolis -. Names with the root tarch were given to the gods or, the Black Sea region and Asia Minor.

The Etruscans are one of the peoples of ancient civilization, survivor of the Indo-European invasion from the north in the period from 2000 to 1000 BC. e., and the catastrophe of the destruction of almost all tribes. The relationship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Hellenic idioms of Asia Minor and the islands has been discovered Aegean Sea- proves connection Etruscans and the Middle Eastern world. The entire history of the Etruscans unfolded in the Aegean Sea basin, which is where the Etruscans come from religious presentations and rituals, their unique art and crafts that were previously unknown on Tuscan soil.

On the island Lemnos in the 7th century BC. e. spoke a language similar to Etruscan. The Etruscans apparently originated from a mixture of ethnic elements of different origins. There is no doubt the diversity of the roots of the Etruscan people, born through the fusion of various ethnic elements.

The Etruscans have Indo-European roots and appeared on the land of the Apennine Peninsula in the first years of the 7th century BC. e. Etruscan haplogroup G2a3a and G2a3b discovered in Europe; haplogroup G2a3b went to Europe through Starchevo and further through the archaeological culture of Linear Band Pottery, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany.

Etruscan culture had a significant influence on Roman culture : the inhabitants of Rome adopted their writing and the so-called Roman numerals that were originally Etruscan .The Romans adopted the skills of Etruscan city planning, ancient Etruscan customs and religious beliefs and the entire pantheon of Etruscan gods were adopted by the Romans.

Under the Etruscan king Tarquin the Ancient (VI century BC) in Rome drainage of the swampy areas of the city began through irrigation canals, a sewage system was built in Rome sewerage system and built Cloaca maxima, cloaca in Rome is still in effect today.

stood on a high foundation – podium and had only one entrance facing south. The Etruscans built the podium and foundations of temples from stone, and the buildings themselves, arches, vaults ceilings, complex rafter system they built made of wood. This speaks of ancient tradition Etruscan masters of wooden architecture A. The Romans are still amazed that The Etruscans built their houses from wood (log houses), and did not build houses from marble.

Rome borrowed their foundations from the Etruscans, the monumental character of Roman architecture was inherited from the Etruscans and embodied in marble and stone. Architectural layout of interior spaces , atriums are the central rooms in Etruscan houses, borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. "Signor Piranesi states that,When the Romans first wanted to build massive buildings, the solidity of which amazes us, they were forced to turn to their neighbors for help- Etruscan architects." The Romans built the Capitoline Temple with a southern entrance in all the occupied lands - a copy of the legendary building Etruscan architects Tarquinii and observed the rituals of all Etruscan religious holidays.

The Etruscans were skilled in geodesy and measuring technology, and Roman surveyors learned from them. The division of Italian lands and the territories of all provinces into squares with sides 710 meters - this is the merit of the Etruscans.

In essence, the Etruscan civilization settled on the seven hills of Rome. By the end of the 4th century BC. e. Etruscan letters. Initially, there was a monarchy in Etruscan cities.

Etruscan kings The Tarquins in Rome wore a gold crown, a gold ring and a scepter. Their ceremonial the clothing was a red toga-palmata, and the royal procession was led lictors carried on shoulders Fascia is a sign of the unlimited power of the ruler. The fasces consisted of rods and a hatchet- a ceremonial weapon and symbol of the political and religious power of the Tarquins.

In the 6th century BC. e. the monarchy in Rome was replaced by a republic; the king was replaced, regularly re-elected, officials. The new state was essentially oligarchic, with constant and strong Senate and replaced annually magistrates. All power was in the hands oligarchies, consisting of principes - leading citizens. Aristocratic class– ordo principum – controlled the interests of the community.

Etruscan families had different names – nomen gentilicum, Etruscan “gens” - “gens” - family group and cognomen- family branches, and Each Etruscan had a personal name. The onomastic system of the Etruscans was exactly adopted by the Romans. Onomastics(from ancient Greek ὀνομαστική) - the art of giving names, was adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans.

The Etruscans influenced the history of Rome and the fate of the entire West. Latin peoples were part of the Etruscan confederation, created by religious grounds.

In the 6th century BC. e. The Etruscan League arose, which was a religious association of Etruscan lands. Political meeting Etruscan League was held during the general Etruscan annual religious holidays, a large fair was held, the supreme leader of the Etruscan League was elected, wearing title rex (king), later - sacerdos (high priest), and in Rome - was elected praetor or aedile of the fifteen nations of Etruria.

The symbol of sovereignty survived in Rome after the expulsion Etruscan dynasty Tarquini from Rome to 510 BC e., when the Roman Republic arose, which existed for 500 years.

The loss of Rome was a serious blow for Etruria; difficult battles lay ahead on land and sea with the Roman Republic and with the period 450-350. BC e.

Throughout Roman history, the Romans repeated all religious rituals, performed by the Etruscan kings. During the celebration of triumph, victory over the enemy, a solemn procession went to the Capitol, for a sacrifice to Jupiter, and the commander stood in his war chariot, at the head of a cortege of prisoners and soldiers, and was temporarily likened to the supreme deity.

The city of Rome was founded according to the plan and ritual of the Etruscans. The founding of the city was accompanied by Etruscans sacred rituals. The site of the future city was outlined in a circle by the city line, and along it plowed the ritual furrow with a plow, protecting the future city from the hostile outside world. The plowed circle around the city corresponded to the Etruscan ideas about the Heavenly World - Templum (lat. templum) - “Temple.” The sacred walls of the city were called in Etruscan TULAR Spular (lat. tular spular) became known to the Romans as pomerium.

In the Etruscan city, they necessarily built three main streets, three gates, three temples - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.

Mundus, a hole in the ground where the souls of ancestors lived, was located on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Throwing a handful of earth brought from the homeland into a common pit (Mundus) is the most important rite when founding a city, since the Etruscans and Italics believed that The souls of ancestors are contained in the native land. That's why, a city founded according to such a ritual became their true homeland, where the souls of their ancestors moved.

Other Etruscan cities were founded and built in Etruria (on the Apennine Peninsula) in compliance with all Etruscan city planning rules and according to religious canons. This is how the Etruscan city was built Volterra, in Etruscan – Velatri, Lucumonius and others were surrounded by high city walls, and the city gate Velatri Porta del Arco, decorated with sculptures - the heads of deities have survived to this day. In Southern Italy, the Etruscans founded the cities of Nola, Acerra, Nocerra and the fortress city of Capua (Italian: Capua), the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua.

The famous ancient Roman roads that still exist today, for example, Via Appia, were built with the participation of the Etruscans.

The Etruscans built the largest hippodrome Ancient Rome– Circus Maximus, or Great Circus. According to legend, the first chariot racing competitions were held at the hippodrome in the 6th century BC. Etruscan king of Rome Tarquinius Priscus, who was originally from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia.

The ancient tradition of gladiator fights originates from the Etruscan culture of sacrifice, when captured warriors were given a chance to survive, and if the prisoner happened to survive, they believed that it was the will of the gods.

In Etruria, tombs were located outside the city walls - this Etruscan rule was invariably observed throughout the ancient Mediterranean: the settlements of the dead must be separated from the settlements of the living.

The Romans took as a model the design of Etruscan tombs, the interior decoration of tombs, sarcophagi, urns with ashes, as well as the funeral rituals of the Etruscans, who believed in an afterlife similar to earthly life.

The Romans believed in the power of the ancient Etruscan oaths, which had magical power, if they are addressed to the Etruscan deities of the Earth. The Etruscans built their houses from wood, a short-lived material, but The Etruscans built their tombs to last for centuries eternal life, stone tombs were carved out of rocks, hidden in mounds, decorated with wall with images of feasts, dances and games, and filling the tombs with jewelry, weapons, vases and other valuable items. “Life is a moment, death is forever”

Roman temples were built of stone and marble, but decorated according to the Etruscan style wooden temples that existed in ancient times Kose, Veii, Tarquinia, Volsinia, capital of the Etruscan Confederation.

Found in the Etruscan city of Veii temple (of Apollo), with many life-size terracotta statues of gods, executed with amazing skill, the work of an Etruscan sculptor Vulka.

The Romans introduced almost all the Etruscan gods into their pantheon. The Etruscan gods became Hades, (Aritimi) - Artemis, - Earth, (Etrus. Cel) — Geo (earth). In Etruscan “Cels clan” - Celsclan - “son of the Earth”, “tribe of the Earth”. (Cilens) — Strong, (Hercle) - Hercules, Hercules; - Swan, Swan; - Menerva. Etruscan god of vegetation and fertility, death and rebirth (Etruscan. Pupluna or Fufluna) originated in the city of Populonia. Etruscan Fufluns reigns at symposiums and funeral meals - corresponds to the Roman Bacchus, or Bacchus, the Greek Dionysus.

The supreme gods of the Etruscans were a trinity, which was worshiped in the triple temples - this . Greek goddess Hecate became the visible embodiment of the triune Etruscan deity. Trinity cult which was worshiped in Etruscan sanctuaries with three walls, each dedicated to one of three gods– also present in Cretan-Mycenaean civilization.

Just like the Etruscans, the Romans showed great interest in divination, fortune-telling, and haruspices. Etruscan tombs are often surrounded egg-shaped Etruscan columns cippi – low stone pillars (like the Scythians’ stone women) with decorations that are a symbol of the divine presence.

In Etruria, games and dances had a ritual origin and character. Etruscan warriors since ancient times learned military dances in gymnasiums, dancing was not just a variety military training, but also for conquest disposition of the gods of war.

On the frescoes of Etruria we see armed men in helmets, dancing and banging their spears on their shields to the beat - , dedicated god Pyrrhus

The Roman salii - warrior priests - performed a pyrrhic dance in honor of Mars, brutal gladiator fights (lat. Munera gladiatoria) the Romans also borrowed from Etruscan Tuscany in 264 BC. e.

The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sounds of a double flute, they fought, went hunting, cooked, and even punished slaves, as the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes with some indignation.

Rome invited Etruscan dancers and mimes to its celebrations, whom the Romans called "histriones" - "histriones" – the Romans used this term too taken from the Etruscans. According to Titus Livy, Etruscan dancers and mimes, with the rhythm of their movements, pacified the evil gods who sent a terrible scourge to the city of Rome - the plague in 364 BC. e.

The Etruscans owned specific methods of processing gold and silver. Found in 1836 in the Cerveteri mound gold jewelry and the finest engraving of silver and bronze mirrors represent the pinnacle of craftsmanship of the 7th century BC. — at this time Roman jewelry did not exist!

The treasures from the Regolini-Galassi tomb amaze with the perfection and technical ingenuity of amber and bronze jewelry and products chryselephantine, boxes for cosmetics, brooches, combs, necklaces, tiaras, rings, bracelets and archaic earrings testify to the high skill of Etruscan jewelers.

D achievements lead the Etruscans to 7th century BC to a leading position among artists of the Western Mediterranean. In the visual arts one can feel the connection with the Phoenician, Cretan-Mycenaean and , the same ones are depicted fantastic beasts– chimeras, sphinxes and winged horses. Fantastic Etruscan chimera actually represents animal image of the triune deity -, commanding Birth - this is the image of the Goat-nurse, commanding Life - the image of Leo, commanding Death - the image of the Snake.

In the middle of the 3rd century BC. e. Rome subjugated Etruria (Tascana), the military and political role of Etruria was eliminated, but Etruria did not lose its originality. Religious traditions and crafts flourished in Etruria before the Christian era, and Romanization proceeded very slowly. The Romans sent delegates to universal annual religious meeting twelve tribes Etruscans of 12 Etruscan cities in the main Sanctuary of Voltumna – Fanum Voltumnae; it was called "concilium Etruriae".

The cities of southern Etruria near Rome soon fell into decay, and northern Etruria was a mining region- Chiusi, Perugia, Cortona, have preserved the famous production workshops that produced objects made of malleable steel and bronze, Volterra and Arezzo - a large industrial center, Populonia - a metallurgical center ore mining and metal smelting, even under the rule of Rome retained its industrial and commercial power.

The predecessors of the Romans, who inhabited the territory of modern Italy in the 6th century BC, were the Etruscan tribes. Modern historians know virtually nothing about the origins of this people.

They had their own distinctive culture and beliefs. The Etruscan culture was very similar to the culture of the ancient Greeks, but was not so developed and multifaceted. Many elements of the art of the Etruscan tribes would later play a significant role in the formation of the art of the ancient Romans.

The Etruscans were fluent in the art of navigation. They knew how to build reliable ships, which gave them the opportunity to trade with the states of the Mediterranean coast - Ancient Phenicia, Egypt, Greece.

Like the ancient Phoenicians, the Etruscans also did not shy away from piracy and trafficking in captured people. IN Ancient Greece there was a myth that Etruscan sailors, in a thirst for profit, kidnapped the god Dionysus himself.

State structure and life of the Etruscans

At the head of each Etruscan city was a king, who was responsible for solving the social and political problems of the townspeople. An aristocratic stratum was also identified in society. The highest class was considered to be the generals who led the army and carried out periodic seizures of neighboring lands.

We can have an idea of ​​the life of the Etruscans thanks to archaeological excavations in Italy. Archaeologists found burial chambers that exactly replicated the model of their residential building. They were carved into the rock and consisted of several rooms.

Sarcophagi for the dead had elements of artistic painting. Clay jugs, bronze vases and other household items were discovered in the burial chambers, which speaks to the Etruscan beliefs in the afterlife.

Culture and religion of the ancient Etruscans

The Etruscans were famous for their ability to produce ceramics and jewelry. The Etruscans created ceramic products following the example of the ancient Greeks, but they introduced their own elements: a non-standard shape and a black coating that imitated metal.

A wide variety of materials were used in the manufacture of jewelry: glass, copper, wood, gold and silver. Women preferred jewelry made in the Greek style.

Special pendants were created for children - amulets that protected them from evil forces. Some Etruscan jewelry has survived to this day.

The religious ideas of the Etruscans were also very developed. They associated the whole world with the temple, upper part which was the sky, and the lower one was the kingdom of the dead.

The religious beliefs of the Etruscans were reminiscent of the mythological ideas of the ancient Romans: the most respected and revered was the supreme god Tin, who would be renamed Jupiter by the Romans, the mistress of all life on earth - Turan, was the prototype of the ancient Roman Venus.

The Etruscans very often resorted to fortune telling. Unlike other tribes, where only priests had the right to practice divination, in the Etruscan tribes anyone could practice divination. The tools for divination were birds, stones, as well as animal livers, which, according to the Etruscans, were of a divine nature.