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Experimental neuroses and Pavlov. Types of neuroses

Emotions are always accompanied by autonomic and endocrine reactions. This is explained by the fact that arousal is always associated with the hypothalamus. The meaning of these reactions: preparing the body for the upcoming muscular work associated with obtaining food, escaping, etc.

Experimental techniques for producing emotional stress were developed in the laboratory of I. P. Pavlov. Essence: difficult conditions are created for the activity of the brain, under which the processes of inhibition and excitation in the nerve centers are overstrained. For example, if a dog develops very fine differentiation for a long time, which requires intense work of the inhibition mechanisms, then the inhibition process may eventually become exhausted and persistent long-term excitation may develop, during which normal IRR becomes impossible.

3. Changing the usual hierarchical relationships

The weakest type – melancholic – is most susceptible to neurotic disorders. They are characterized by rapid exhaustion of nervous processes, weakness of internal cortical inhibition and passivity of reactions to influence. Neuroses often develop with the development of inhibition and passive-defensive reactions.

Cholerics develop neuroses of an excitatory type with the formation of active search reactions

Reasons: social, psychogenic.

Simple phobias – clausrophobia, cancerophobia

Social phobias - fear of public speaking, fear of using public transport

Obsessive-compulsive disorder - obsessive thoughts, ideas, constant self-checking (did you close the door, turn off the gas).

2. Hysterical neurosis (with inflated claims of the individual combined with underestimation and ignoring the requirements of the surrounding and real conditions. Rapid polymorphic variable symptoms are characteristic:

2) movement disorders

3) sensory disturbances

3. Neurasthenia – nervous exhaustion, with inflated demands of a person on himself, a discrepancy between his real capabilities and desires, with overwork, prolonged exposure to a traumatic situation. Characterized by irritability, lack of restraint, impatience, general weakness, decreased performance, drowsiness, vegetative and sexual disorders.

1. Autonomic reactions - tachycardia, arrhythmia, shortness of breath, redness or paleness of the face, sleep disturbance, appetite, heart pain

2. Sensorimotor - sensitivity to external influences, fussiness, gesticulation, transient paralysis and paresis, inadequate facial expressions.

3. Affective reactions - violent emotions: fear, anxiety, sobs, cursing; the patient does not control his feelings, the feelings control the patient.

4. Ideational (mental) processing of the situation and development of a program for overcoming a painful situation.

1. Allow the patient to speak out

2. Eliminate neurotic factors

6. For social phobias – behavioral psychotherapy

8. Sedation therapy

10. Physiotherapy, acupuncture, music therapy.

Experimental neuroses. Pavlov I.P.

Report at the 1st International Neurological Congress in Bern, read in German, September 3, 1931.

I report inseparably the results of my work together with my employees. Our material is currently quite significant, and now, here, I can, of course, convey only very little and general information from it.

By neuroses we mean chronic (lasting weeks, months and even years) deviations of higher nervous activity from the norm. For us, higher nervous activity is found mainly in the system of conditioned positive and negative reflexes to all kinds of stimuli and partly (to a small extent) in the general behavior of our animals (dogs).

The factors that have so far given rise to neuroses in our animals have been the following: firstly, too strong or too complex stimuli; secondly - overvoltage of the braking process; thirdly, the collision (direct consequence) of both opposing nervous processes, and, finally, fourthly, castration.

Neuroses manifested themselves in a weakening of both processes separately or together, in chaotic nervous activity and in various phases of a hypnotic state. Various combinations of these symptoms presented very specific disease pictures.

The following turned out to be significant. Whether the disease occurs or not, whether it manifests itself in one form or another, depends on the type of nervous system of the animal.

Based on our research, we had to establish three main types. The central one is an ideal, truly normal type, in which both opposing nervous processes are in balance. This type presented itself to us in two variations; calm, respectable animals and, on the other hand, on the contrary, very lively, active animals. The other two types are extreme: one is strong, in all likelihood too strong, but, however, not a completely normal type, because its inhibition process is relatively weak; and another weak type, in which both processes are weak, but the inhibitory process is especially weak. It seems to me that our classification of types of nervous systems most closely coincides with the classical classification of temperaments by Hippocrates.

For the sake of brevity, as an example, I will present in somewhat more detail only our latest experiments (Dr. M.K. Petrova) on castrated animals.

Under normal conditions, in animals of the central type, obvious disease after castration is observed only for a month; Then the animal behaves normally. Only with increased excitability was it possible to verify a constant decrease in the performance of cortical cells. Excitability, in the case of food conditioned reflexes, can be easily changed through various degrees of fasting.

In the less severe type, the obvious pathological condition after castration lasts for many months, up to a year or more, and improves only gradually. In such animals, the temporarily restoring normal effect of a regular break in our experiments or bromination is extremely pronounced. During normal daily work, conditioned reflexes are chaotic. Breaks of three days between experiments lead to a completely normal course of reflexes. This fact makes it quite obvious that each of our experiences represents serious nervous work. During bromination, normal activity is restored and maintained during daily experiments.

The following circumstance is unexpected and very peculiar. More or less strong types immediately after castration usually show a decrease in the efficiency of the nervous system: positive conditioned reflexes become smaller. For the weak type it is the other way around. Conditioned reflexes become stronger after castration for a few weeks. Only later does a sharp weakness of the cortical cells occur, and in this case, bromination no longer improves, but worsens the situation. This peculiar fact can also be satisfactorily explained, but at present I am not in a position to dwell on the details.

I have to cum.

Seriously analogizing the neurotic states of our dogs with various neuroses of people is a task hardly accessible to us, physiologists who are not thoroughly familiar with human neuropathology. But I am convinced, however, that the resolution or significant facilitation of the resolution of many important questions about the etiology, natural systematization, mechanism and, finally, the treatment of neuroses in people lies in the hands of the animal experimenter (Regarding some of these points, it seems to me that now the medial confirmation from the clinical side, having artificially deviated higher nervous activity from the norm in our dogs, we saw from the same techniques - difficult nervous tasks - in dogs of different types of nervous systems, two different forms of nervous disease, two different neuroses.

In an excitable (and at the same time strong) dog, neurosis consisted of an almost complete disappearance of inhibitory reflexes, i.e., an extreme weakening, almost to zero, of the inhibitory process. In another, inhibited (and at the same time weak) dog, all positive conditioned reflexes disappeared, and she entered a very lethargic, drowsy state in our environment. At the same time, the neurosis of the first dog quickly succumbed to bromine and was cured radically. In the second dog, the same dose of bromine rather worsened the situation, and the cure occurred very slowly, only thanks to a long rest, i.e., a break in experiments with conditioned reflexes.

Unfamiliar with the clinic of neuroses, we at first mistakenly, although guided by some considerations, called the neurosis of the first dog neurasthenia, and the second - hysteria. In later times, we found it more appropriate to call the neurosis of the first dog hypersthenia, and for the neurosis of the second dog to retain the name neurasthenia, referring, perhaps more correctly, the term “hysteria” to other disorders of the nervous system, which are now detected in our experiments under the influence of other causes. ).

Therefore, the main goal of my participation in this Congress is to warmly recommend that neuropathologists work with normal and pathological conditioned reflexes.

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Pavlov's experimental neuroses

Created by I. P. Pavlov The doctrine of higher nervous activity and its physiological analysis of experimentally induced nervous diseases revolutionized views on the nature of neuroses. Therefore, it is necessary to preface the presentation of the doctrine of childhood neuroses with a brief summary of the main provisions of I. P. Pavlov’s doctrine of experimental neuroses (Pavlov, 1947, 1949).

In the laboratories of I. P. Pavlov and his followers, it was established that in cases where experimental conditions place excessive demands on the strength, balance or mobility of nervous processes, transient or persistent disturbances of higher nervous activity may occur - experimental neurosis (Erofeeva, 1912; Shenger-Krestovnikova, 1921; Petrova , 1925, 1926, 1937, 1945a, b, 1955; Razenkov, 1926; Ivanov-Smolensky, 1927, 1933, 1952a; , 1956; Bykov, 1942 , 1953; Masserman, 1943, 1944; Anokhin, 1956a, b; Yakovleva, 1957; Davidenkov, 1963;

Development of a neurotic state is due to various reasons. Disturbances in higher nervous activity can occur with simultaneous exposure to a complex of strong stimuli (for example, neurosis after a flood, described by A. D. Speransky, 1925). Subsequently, in these cases, disorders of higher nervous activity are caused by the action of one of the components of the traumatic situation. Sometimes the use of one very strong irritation is sufficient for the occurrence of neuroses.

Power overvoltage, balance and mobility of nervous processes may be due to experimental tasks difficult for the nervous system (formation of subtle or complex complex differentiations, alteration of the signal meaning of stimuli, formation of complex conditioned reflex systems, etc.). Especially often, to induce experimental neurosis, the so-called collision of positive and inhibitory stimuli is used, that is, their use at a short interval or simultaneously, as well as the simultaneous use of stimuli of different biological significance, for example, conditioned food and conditioned defensive stimuli.

Neurotic conditions develop either in the process of solving a difficult task, or when the task seems to have already been completed. Neurosis develops more easily in cases where one difficult task is replaced by another, that is, when a long-term traumatic situation occurs.

Cardinal sign developing neurotic condition is a decrease in the performance of cortical cells and the associated increase in transcendental inhibition. Reactions to conditioned stimuli change, and various phase states can be detected (equalizing, paradoxical, ultraparadoxical and narcotic phases).

Processes of excitation and inhibition become explosive or stagnant. In some cases, the picture of neurosis is dominated by a violation of active cortical inhibition, in others - by excitation, and therefore neuroses are divided into inhibitory and irritable, but the line between them is unclear.

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Experimental neuroses (I.P. Pavlov, M.K. Petrova). The importance of types of higher nervous activity in the development of neuroses.

Emotions are always accompanied by autonomic and endocrine reactions. This is explained by the fact that arousal is always associated with the hypothalamus. The meaning of these reactions is to prepare the body for the upcoming muscular work associated with obtaining food, escaping, etc.

Normally, all emotional reactions have a certain degree and are always adequate to the life situation. Excitation processes in emotional centers are characterized by a certain strength and duration. They are controlled and promptly inhibited by the corresponding inhibitory structures. If, for some reason, excessive stimulation of the emotional centers occurs, which is called emotional stress, a persistent disturbance in the activity of the central nervous system may occur, which clinically manifests itself in the form of neurosis.

Experimental methods for producing emotional stress were developed in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov. Essence: difficult conditions are created for the activity of the brain, under which the processes of inhibition and excitation in the nerve centers are overstrained. For example, if a dog develops very fine differentiation for a long time, which requires intense work of the inhibition mechanisms, then the inhibition process may eventually become exhausted and persistent long-term excitation may develop, during which normal IRR becomes impossible.

Emotional stress can also be caused by exposure to very strong or unusual stimuli or by exposing an animal to pain at varying intervals over a long period of time.

Very often, the cause of emotional stress is a “conflict situation” in which a person or animal cannot satisfy its leading biological or social needs. In a conflict situation, especially in a long-term or frequently recurring one, emotional tension increases, which, due to insufficient inhibition processes, can turn into persistent excitation of certain nerve centers. This excitation through the ANS and the hypothalamic-pituitary apparatus leads to disruption of the internal organs and endocrine system, the formation of stable hypertension, coronary heart disease, ulcerative lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, diabetes mellitus, thyrotoxicosis, menstrual irregularities, etc.

Methods for modeling neuroses in animals::

1. Limitation of the reflex - the instinct of freedom - fixation in the machine

2. Changing the daily rhythm of nutrition and lighting

4. Asthenization of the nervous system (noise, radiation, isolation from parents in childhood).

A phlegmatic person is characterized by the development of excitatory type nervousness with pathological mobility of nervous processes.

The sanguine person is the most resistant type to the reproduction of neuroses. Increasing the strength of the stimulus, a sharp increase in activity and repetition of influences can lead to neurosis.

3 groups of neuroses:

1. Neuroobsessive states (if it is impossible to realize the aspirations, desires, needs of the individual for moral or other reasons. In the cortex there is a persistent pathological focus of excitation. The onset of neurosis is formed according to the type of pathological conditioned reflex. The feeling of fear of certain objects, activities, situations is repeated.)

4) vegetative and sexual disorders.

Manifestations of neurotic conditions:

Principles of treatment of neuroses:

3. Work and rest schedule

4. Reassure, reassure, encourage, tell the essence of the disease, personality correction

5. Psychotherapy for anxiety disorders - relaxation, meditation

7. Avoid alcohol, caffeine, and smoking

170. Violation of the trophic function of the nervous system: etiology, pathogenesis, main manifestations. The concept of trophogens and pathotrophogens

Modern ideas about neurotrophic function.

Nerve trophism refers to the trophic influences of a neuron, which ensure the normal functioning of the structures it innervates - other neurons and tissues. Neurotrophic influence is a special case of trophic interactions between cells and tissues, cells of one population (neuron - neuron) and different populations (neuron - executive cell).

The significance of the interaction of cells of one population is to maintain their optimal quantity for the body within a determined region, coordinate function and distribute the load in accordance with the principle of functional and structural heterogeneity, preserve the functional capabilities of the organ and their optimal structural support. The significance of the interaction of cells of different populations is to ensure their nutrition and maturation, compliance with each other in terms of differentiation level, functional and structural capabilities, mutual regulation, which determines the integrity of the organ based on the interaction of different tissues, etc.

Intercellular interaction of a neurotrophic nature is carried out using neuroplasmic current, i.e. movement of neuroplasm from the nucleus to the periphery of the neuron and in the opposite direction. Neuroplasmic flow is a universal phenomenon, characteristic of animals of all species with a nervous system: it occurs in both central and peripheral neurons.

It is generally accepted that the unity and integrity of the body are determined primarily by the activity of the nervous system, its impulse (signal) and reflex activity, which provides functional connections between cells, organs and anatomical and physiological systems.

Currently, the dominant point of view in the literature is that each neuron and the cells it innervates, as well as satellite cells (glia, Schwann cells, connective tissue cells) constitute a regional trophic microsystem. Innervated structures, for their part, exert trophic influences on the neuron innervating them. This system functions as a single entity, and this unity is ensured by intercellular interaction with the help of trophic factors called “trophogens” or “trophins”. Damage to this trophic circuit in the form of disruption or blockade of the axoplasmic current flowing in both directions, transporting trophic factors, leads to the occurrence of a dystrophic process not only in the innervated structure (muscle, skin, other neurons), but also in the innervating neuron.

Trophogens - substances of a protein and, possibly, nucleic or other nature, are released from axon endings and enter the synaptic cleft, from which they move into the innervated cell. Trophic factors, in particular, include substances of a protein nature that promote the growth and differentiation of neurons, for example, nerve growth factor (Levi-Montalcini), fibroblast growth factor and other proteins of various composition and properties.

These compounds are found in large quantities in the developing nervous system in the embryonic period, as well as during the regeneration of nerves after their damage. When added to a culture of neurons, they prevent the death of some cells (a phenomenon similar to the so-called “programmed” death of neurons). The growth of the regenerating axon occurs with the obligatory participation of trophic factors, the synthesis of which increases with injuries to the nervous tissue. The biosynthesis of trophogens is regulated by agents that are released when neuronal membranes are damaged or when they are naturally stimulated, as well as when neuronal activity is inhibited. The plasma membrane of neurons contains gangliosides (sialoglycolipids), for example GM-I, which enhance the growth and regeneration of nerves, increase the resistance of neurons to damage, and cause hypertrophy of surviving nerve cells. It is assumed that gangliosides activate the formation of trophogens and secondary messengers. Regulators of this process also include classical neurotransmitters that change the level of secondary intracellular messengers; cAMP and, accordingly, cAMP-dependent protein kinases can affect the nuclear apparatus and change the activity of genes that determine the formation of trophic factors.

It is known that an increase in the level of cAMP in the intra- or extracellular environment inhibits the mitotic activity of cells, and a decrease in its level promotes cell division. cAMP has the opposite effect on cell proliferation. Along with this, cAMP and activators of adenylate cyclase, which determines the synthesis of cAMP, stimulate cell differentiation. Probably, trophogens of different classes that ensure the proliferation and maturation of target cells exert their influence largely through various cyclic nucleotides. A similar function can be performed by active peptides (enkephalins, b-endorphin, substance P, etc.), which play the role of modulators of neurotransmission. They are also of great importance as inducers of trophogens or even directly perform the function of trophogens. Data on the important role of neurotransmitters and active peptides in the implementation of neurotrophic function indicate a close connection between functional and trophic influences.

It has been established that the trophic influence of a neuron on a target cell is realized through its genetic apparatus. Much evidence has been obtained that neurotrophic influences determine the degree of tissue differentiation and denervation leads to loss of differentiation. In its metabolism, structure and functional properties, denervated tissue is close to embryonic tissue. Entering the target cell through endocytosis, trophogens are directly involved in structural and metabolic processes or affect the genetic apparatus, causing either the expression or repression of certain genes. With direct inclusion, relatively short-term changes in the metabolism and ultrastructure of the cell are formed, and with indirect inclusion, through the genetic apparatus, long-term and sustainable changes in the properties of the target cell. In particular, during embryonic development and during the regeneration of cut axons, nerve fibers growing into the tissue release trophogens, which ensure the maturation and high differentiation of regulated cells. On the contrary, these cells themselves secrete their trophogens, which orient and stimulate the growth of nerve fibers, as well as ensuring the establishment of their synaptic connections.

Trophogens determine the functional properties of innervated cells, features of metabolism and ultrastructure, as well as the degree of their differentiation. With postganglionic denervation, the sensitivity of these target cells to neurotransmitters increases dramatically.

It is known that by the time of birth, the entire surface of the skeletal muscle fibers of animals is sensitive to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and during postnatal development, the cholinoreception zone expands again, spreading to the entire surface of the muscle fiber, but it narrows during reinnervation. It has been established that during the process of ingrowth of nerve fibers into the muscle, trophogens, passing into it via a transsynaptic route, cause repression of the synthesis of cholinergic receptors at the transcription level, since under conditions of derenvation their enhanced formation is inhibited by inhibitors of protein and RNA synthesis.

During derenvation (cutting or extirpation of nerve elements, immunosympathectomy), it is possible to disinhibit the proliferative potency, for example, of the corneal epithelium and eye lens tissue, and hematopoietic tissue cells. In the latter case, with mixed (afferent-efferent) denervation of the bone marrow area, the number of cells with chromosomal aberrations increases. Probably, in this case, not only a metabolic disorder occurs in the derenvated area, but also a disorder in the elimination of mutant cells.

Trophic functions are characteristic not only of terminal neurons that regulate the activity of executive organ cells, but also of central and afferent neurons. It is known that transection of afferent nerves causes dystrophic changes in tissues, while at the same time, substances formed in this tissue can travel along afferent nerves to sensory neurons and even to neurons of the central nervous system. A number of authors have shown that transection of both neurons and dendrites of sensory neurons of the trigeminal (Gasserian) ganglion leads to the same dystrophic changes in the cornea of white rats.

N.I. Grishchenkov and other authors identified and described a general neurodystrophic syndrome that occurs after encephalitis, traumatic brain injury, vascular and other brain lesions. This syndrome is manifested by widespread lipodystrophy, facial hemiatrophy, Leschke pigmentary dystrophy, total baldness, impaired bone tissue trophism, swelling of the skin and subcutaneous fat.

Extremely severe changes in metabolism with the development of atrophy or dystrophy are detected with lesions of the efferent nerves of various origins, which provide trophic influences to the mucous membranes, skin, muscles, bones, and internal organs. Disturbances in the trophic function of efferent neurons can occur not only as a result of their direct damage, but also as a result of disruption of the activity of central, including intercalary, or afferent neurons.

At the same time, target tissues can retrogradely exert trophic influences on effector neurons, and through them on intercalary, central and afferent neurons. In this sense, it seems fair that every nerve, no matter what function it performs, is also a trophic nerve.

According to G.N. Kryzhanovsky (1989), the nervous system is a single neurotrophic network in which neighboring and separated neurons exchange not only impulses, but also trophic signals, as well as their plastic material.

Nerve trophism disorders.

Neurotrophic function can be disrupted both due to damage to the nervous system itself and to pathological processes in regulated organs. This leads to pronounced disorders of their metabolism, structure and activity, which manifest themselves, in particular, in the form of dystrophy. It is assumed that the occurrence of neurotrophic disorders proper, i.e. associated with neuroplasmic current, possibly with a decrease (cessation) or increase in the entry of trophogens into regulated cells, as well as in the case of the entry of abnormal, pathogenic trophic factors or pathotrophogens.

The most studied mechanism for disrupting the nervous trophism of target cells is the cessation of the entry of trophic factors into them, which occurs in many diseases of the nervous system, especially in many diseases of the nervous system, especially in the so-called diseases of the nervous system, especially in the so-called diseases of old age.

Pathotrophogens arise in pathologically altered cells. Thus, in epileptic neurons, substances can arise that, entering other neurons with an axoplasmic current, induce epileptic properties in them. Pathological proteins – degenerins – take part in the mechanisms of “programmed death” of neurons. The role of a pathotrophogen is apparently played by b-amyloid, which is found in large quantities in plaques in the brain tissue of Alzheimer's disease.

A characteristic feature of denervated tissue is the simplification of the structure of the tissue is the simplification of the structural organization of its organelles, which become similar to embryonic ones. In denervated tissue, the concentration of RNA and proteins usually decreases, the activity of respiratory enzymes decreases, and the activity of anaerobic glycolysis enzymes increases. In the muscle, during denervation, the physicochemical properties of myosin change and its ATPase activity decreases.

With local neurogenic dystrophy, resulting from a violation of local innervation, a progressive ulcerative process usually develops. In addition to local dystrophy, a generalized dystrophic process is possible, which is formed when higher vegetative centers are damaged. In these situations, damage to the oral mucosa (ulcers, aphthous stomatitis), tooth loss, hemorrhage in the lungs and focal pneumonia, erosion and hemorrhage in the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines are observed. Due to the weakening of intracellular and cellular regeneration, such ulcerative processes acquire a chronic, recurrent nature, tend to generalize, and rejection of an organ or part of it often occurs. Such changes of the same type can occur in various chronic nervous lesions, which is why they are called the standard form, nervous dystrophy. It is possible that pathotrophogens take part in the mechanisms of occurrence of this form of pathology. It should be noted that the mechanisms of development of neurogenic dystrophy in different organs cannot be reduced only to a deficiency of trophogens or changes in their properties, although this mechanism is apparently one of the most important. In any case, many manifestations of neurodystrophy during denervation are reproduced by the axoplasmic toca blocker, colchicine.

During denervation, the loss of action on the target cells of the corresponding neurotransmitter and the shutdown or weakening of organ function can be of great importance. This is due to the fact that neurotransmitters themselves can have a regulatory effect on the formation and release of trophogens from nerve endings and target cells through cyclic nucleotides or other secondary messengers. In addition, the action of neurotransmitters necessarily includes a metabolic component aimed at trophic provision of enhanced cell function. Finally, loss of function (for example, striated muscles) or its weakening (during denervation) itself affects the metabolism and leads to atrophy due to inactivity.

In addition to the loss of trophic and neurotransmitter influences, the resulting disorders of organ circulation and microcirculation are of undoubted importance in the development of neurogenic atrophy and dystrophy. In the development of neurogenic dystrophy, an important role is also played by changes in the reactivity of denervated tissue in relation to endocrine influences, kinins and prostaglandins, as well as the body’s autoimmune reaction.

Based on the study of experimental neuroses, it was possible to approach the resolution of the following basic issues of functional nervous pathology from the physiological side:

1) elucidation of the main pathophysiological phenomenon or neurodynamic essence of neurotic symptoms,

2) clarifying the basis of the nervous type on which nervous symptoms arise,

3) and the study of the physiological dynamics of pathogenic causes that cause neuroses.

To what extent can these data be used for the physiological analysis of human neuroses?

To solve this problem, academician. I.P. Pavlov came to the need to take into account the characteristics of human higher nervous activity and make an appropriate increase:

“This increase concerns the speech function, which introduced a new principle into the activity of the cerebral hemispheres.

If our sensations and ideas related to the surrounding world are for us the first signals of reality, concrete signals, then speech, especially especially kinesthetic stimuli coming to the cortex from various organs, are the second signals, signal signals. They represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which constitutes our superfluous, specifically human higher thinking” (Pavlov).

Thus, in a person it is necessary to distinguish between 3 levels of nervous activity: the subcortex with its most complex unconditioned reflexes, instincts, drives, emotions, the first signaling system (concrete thinking directly addressed to reality) and the second signaling system.

Depending on the predominant importance and strength of signaling systems, Acad. I.P. Pavlov distinguishes the following particular types of the nervous system in humans (in addition to those described above that are common in humans and animals).

1. Artistic type - these are people who use the first signaling system and the subcortex closely related to it.

2. The second type is mental, it works most of all with the second signaling system; These types are rare, but even rarer are people in whom these two sides are strongly manifested (Leonardo da Vinci).

3. Usually, in the average type, signaling systems do not reach great development, but are more or less balanced.

When suffering from neurosis of a systemically balanced type, neurasthenic symptoms are obtained due to various pathological conditions of the cortical cells.

The main symptom of neurasthenia - irritable weakness - has as its physiological substrate an increased lability of the irritable process, which is called pathological explosiveness.

In these cases, due to a decrease in the working capacity of the cortical cell, the irritable process quickly reaches its limit and causes extreme inhibition. This mechanism may explain the symptom ejaculatio praecox. Weakness of concentration is explained by a weakening of the concentration of the irritable process, and some forms of insomnia are explained by a weakening of internal, active inhibition. Neurasthenia can develop against the background of both a strongly unbalanced and a weak type. In the first case, symptoms of excitement will predominate (excitatory form of neurasthenia), in the second - symptoms based on the weakness of the irritative and inhibitory process, various phases of inhibition (depressor form of neurasthenia).

When a generally weak or weakened type is combined with an artistic type, the ground is created for the development of a hysterical syndrome. The main physiological substrate of hysteria is academician. Pavlov believes that the weakening of cortical tone is mainly due to internal inhibition. From this follow particular physiological phenomena that explain both the forms of behavior and the symptoms of hysteria.

1. The weakness of the tone of the cortical cells determines that ordinary stimuli are supermaximal and cause extreme inhibition. Therefore, hysteria can be considered as chronic hypnosis. This explains the physiological basis of increased suggestibility, concentrated irritation, accompanied by a strongly pronounced induction.

2. Thanks to the weakening of the cortex, the behavior of the hysteric takes on an emotive character, being controlled more by the subcortex. This also explains the concentration of nervous processes in individual points of the cortex.

3. When the cortex is weakened, first of all, the activity of the second signaling system is disrupted. As a result of its inhibition, the activity of the first signaling system, which is controlled by the subcortex, increases. Hence the tendency to twilight states and fantasies.

4. Violation of mental synthesis is explained by the disconnection of the activity of signaling systems.

As for hysterical seizures, affective outbursts and convulsive seizures are a consequence of acute inhibition of the cortex and excitation of the subcortex according to the law of positive induction. If inhibition spreads down the brain, then we see a passive state in the form of hysterohypnotic catalepsy or lethargy. This difference is explained both by different degrees of weakness of nervous processes and by the power relations of the cortex and subcortex.

When a generally weak or weakened type is combined with a thinking type, the ground is created for psychasthenic neurosis.

If the weakness is congenital, then you get the symptoms that are characteristic of Janet’s psychasthenia: extreme indecision, timidity, loss of the function of the real, inability to live, but at the same time a tendency to hover in the world of abstract thoughts. I.P. Pavlov was very interested in psychasthenics and studied them very carefully.

He understood psychasthenic stigmata as follows. Psychasthenia develops due to a weakening of the subcortex and the first signaling system while maintaining the second signaling system. Since the subcortex and the first signaling system are the instances that directly connect us with reality, when they are weakened, the result is inadaptability to life, fear of it, and indecision. “If a person is hungry, he will not choose food for a long time” (Pavlov). The indecision of a psychasthenic is explained by the weakness of the instinctive fund (food, sexual, aggressive). As a weak type, a psychasthenic has a pronounced passive-defensive reflex. Hence his timidity, fear of everything new. The preservation of the second signaling system explains the tendency towards abstractions. Constant doubts and an obsessive desire to check one’s actions and impressions are explained by a weakening connection with reality and overcompensation on the part of the second signaling system. This tendency to obsessive states, which is based on the very nervous constitution of the psychasthenic, academician. I.P. Pavlov distinguishes it from obsession syndrome, which can develop on different constitutional backgrounds.

The basis of the symptom of obsession is, as we indicated above, the pathological inertia of the irritable process. The cause may be either an overstrain of the irritable process or a collision of opposing processes. The same reasons can cause obsessional neurosis in people. “Both abnormal development and a temporary exacerbation of one or another of our emotions (instincts), as well as a painful state of some internal organ or an entire system, can be sent to the corresponding cortical cells at a certain period of time or constantly, incessantly or excessively. irritation and thus finally produce in them pathological inertia - a persistent idea and sensation when the real reason then ceases to act. Some strong and stunning life experiences could do the same. Our second reason should have created no less, if not more cases of pathological inertia (I.P. Pavlov) 1 .

These reasons can concentrate pathological inertia in different instances of cortical activity: in the first signaling system or in the second signaling system, or in both. It is also necessary to distinguish neuroses of fear and phobias from psychasthenic fearfulness. The latter is based on an overstrain of the inhibitory process, which acquires special sensitivity, depending on the situation, being associated with any external or internal stimulus (phobia).

Source of information: Aleksandrovsky Yu.A. Borderline psychiatry. M.: RLS-2006. — 1280 p.
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When humans and animals interact with the external environment, situations arise that are characterized by a conflict between needs and the possibilities of satisfying them. They lead to the formation of a state of tension - emotional stress, the adaptive value of which is manifested in the mobilization of protective forces aimed at overcoming the conflict.

The impossibility of its resolution leads to the formation of long-term stagnant emotional arousal, manifested in disorders of the motivational-emotional sphere and in various somatic diseases.

Emotional stress can lead to the development of coronary heart disease, hypertension, ulcer formation, and endocrine system dysfunction. In this case, profound changes in the balance of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides in the central nervous system are observed. In humans, such disorders are associated primarily with social conflicts. Some of these manifestations can be modeled in animals. Thus, the leader of a herd of monkeys, isolated but able to observe subsequent hierarchical changes in the relationships of animals previously subordinate to him, develops arterial hypertension, and in some cases, myocardial infarction.

Degree of stability animals' response to stress factors is different and can be established in special experiments. Thus, animals less resistant to stress respond to stimulation of the negative emotiogenic zones of the ventromedial hypothalamus primarily with pressor vascular reactions, and more resistant animals with pressor-depressor reactions. Reducing emotional stress and, accordingly, preventing visceral disorders is achieved by stimulating “reward zones” or administering pharmacological drugs that normalize the balance of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system.

The study of various manifestations of emotional stress turned out to be useful for developing the problem of neuroses - a group of reversible functional disorders of a psychogenic nature. In Russian literature, it is customary to distinguish three forms of neurosis: hysterical, obsessive states and neurasthenia. The emergence of neurosis and its form are determined by the interaction of the traumatic situation with the initial characteristics of the individual. In some cases, a neurotic state develops against the background of insufficiency of the structures of the limbic-reticular complex. Emotional disorders occupy one of the leading places in the symptoms of neuroses.

I. P. Pavlov introduced the concept experimental neuroses. - functional disorders (disruption) of higher/nervous activity as a result of overstrain of basic nervous processes. I. P. Pavlov’s teaching on experimental neuroses turned out to be fruitful for understanding a number of aspects of the pathology of mental activity in humans. However, one cannot equate the complex clinical picture of neurosis in humans with behavioral disorders in animals, on which certain symptoms of the disease can only be modeled. The tendency to identify most of the functional disorders of animal behavior with experimental neuroses has created a situation that makes it difficult to directly compare clinical and experimental data. At the same time, the ability to study individual manifestations of neurosis in humans in animals, as well as to conduct their pharmacological analysis, brings significant benefits to the neurological clinic.

The main methods of developing experimental neurosis by I. P. Pavlov and his colleagues were the creation conflict situation when there is a collision of multidirectional motivations, for example, food and defensive, or when it is necessary to solve a difficult problem (differentiation of conditioned signals with similar parameters, etc.).

The massive manifestation of neurotic reactions in dogs kept in a vivarium flooded during the Leningrad flood of 1924 allowed I.P. Pavlov to draw a number of important general conclusions about the patterns of development of pathology of higher nervous activity. He postulated the dependence of neuroticism on strength, mobility And poise cortical processes of excitation and inhibition. In accordance with them, a classification of human temperaments was proposed.

Experiments conducted on dogs have shown that neuroses arise more easily in animals with weak and strong unbalanced types of higher nervous activity. Analyzing the origin of hysteria, I. P. Pavlov considered it as a consequence of weakness of the nervous system.

Modern research methods have complicated this scheme. It turned out that in experimental neurosis, functional changes occur primarily in the frontal regions of the neocortex, limbic structures and the reticular formation of the midbrain. The balance of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system and in the blood is disrupted, in particular, between catecholamines and acetylcholine. Although neuroses are considered functional diseases, it turned out that they are accompanied by the development of reactive and degenerative processes in various parts of the brain. The role of information factors in the development of pathology of motivational-emotional behavior is shown. Memory impairment plays a major role in this.

The study of the pathology of higher nervous activity has confirmed the role of feedback from somatic and visceral systems in maintaining a negative emotional state. Facts were presented in support of the existence emotional memory(“affective memory”, “memory of feelings”), which was first noticed at the end of the last century by psychiatrist S. S. Korsakov, and I. S. Beritashvili identified it as a special form of memory.

It is especially clearly manifested in neuroses, which are based on inert foci of excitation (traumatic neuroses, pathological desires - alcoholism, drug addiction).

Emotional conditioned reactions can be enhanced or inhibited by external stimuli, mainly situational. Thus, the already mentioned taste aversions can be sharply weakened in a familiar environment and fully manifested in an unusual one. In humans and animals, negative emotional reactions with the whole complex of vegetative manifestations can be reproduced when faced with a situation accompanied by traumatic factors, even if many years have passed since their impact.

The emotional state is determined by the genotypic characteristics and conditions in which the animals developed. Early influences play a particularly important role in this regard. Thus, isolation from peers or from adults in early ontogenesis increases instability to neurotic stimuli. An external environment enriched or depleted in stimuli affects the morphofunctional development of the brain, in particular, its emotiogenic systems. These data obtained on animals make it possible to develop recommendations for creating conditions for raising children, starting from the neonatal period, that contribute to the optimal development of their motivational and emotional sphere.

Experimental neuroses (I. P. Pavlov, M. K. Petrova)

Emotional stress can also be caused by exposure to very strong or unusual stimuli or by exposing an animal to pain at varying intervals over a long period of time.

Methods for modeling neuroses in animals::

1. Limitation of the reflex - the instinct of freedom - fixation in the machine

2. Changing the daily rhythm of nutrition and lighting

3. Changing the usual hierarchical relationships

4. Asthenization of the nervous system (noise, radiation, isolation from parents in childhood).

Cholerics develop neuroses of an excitatory type with the formation of active search reactions

A phlegmatic person is characterized by the development of excitatory type nervousness with pathological mobility of nervous processes.

Reasons: social, psychogenic.

3 groups of neuroses:

Simple phobias – clausrophobia, cancerophobia

Social phobias - fear of public speaking, fear of using public transport

Obsessive-compulsive disorder - obsessive thoughts, ideas, constant self-checking (did you close the door, turn off the gas).

2) movement disorders

3) sensory disturbances

4) vegetative and sexual disorders.

Manifestations of neurotic conditions:

1. Autonomic reactions - tachycardia, arrhythmia, shortness of breath, redness or paleness of the face, sleep disturbance, appetite, heart pain

2. Sensorimotor - sensitivity to external influences, fussiness, gesticulation, transient paralysis and paresis, inadequate facial expressions.

3. Affective reactions - violent emotions: fear, anxiety, sobs, cursing; the patient does not control his feelings, the feelings control the patient.

4. Ideational (mental) processing of the situation and development of a program for overcoming a painful situation.

Principles of treatment of neuroses:

1. Allow the patient to speak out

2. Eliminate neurotic factors

3. Work and rest schedule

4. Reassure, reassure, encourage, tell the essence of the disease, personality correction

5. Psychotherapy for anxiety disorders - relaxation, meditation

6. For social phobias – behavioral psychotherapy

7. Avoid alcohol, caffeine, and smoking

8. Sedation therapy

10. Physiotherapy, acupuncture, music therapy.

Lecture 30 physiological basis of individual differences. Experimental neuroses. Physiological basis of sleep. Lecture outline

Ideas about the first and second signal systems of reality. Types of GNI typical for humans.

Experimental neuroses, implications for medicine.

Physiological basis of sleep.

Types of higher nervous activity common to animals and humans.

In the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov it was noticed that the behavior of dogs in a natural environment and during the development of conditioned reflexes is different. Some animals are very active, excitable and curious, others are slow and cowardly. Between these extreme types there are a number of intermediate ones. Based on the properties of nervous processes, I.P. Pavlov managed to divide animals into certain groups.

The classification of GNI types was based on the properties of nervous processes: strength, balance and mobility. Based on the criterion of the strength of nervous processes, strong and weak types are distinguished. In the weak type, the processes of excitation and inhibition are weak, so mobility and balance are nerves.

These processes cannot be characterized sufficiently accurately.

The strong type of nervous system is divided into balanced and unbalanced. A group is distinguished that is characterized by unbalanced processes of excitation and inhibition with a predominance of excitation over inhibition (uncontrolled type), when the main property is imbalance. For a balanced type, in which the processes of excitation and inhibition are balanced, the speed of change in the processes of excitation and inhibition becomes important. Depending on this indicator, mobile and inert types of VND are distinguished. Experiments carried out in the laboratories of I.P. Pavlov made it possible to create the following classification of types of GNI, which to a certain extent coincided with the types of temperament of Hippocrates:

Weak (according to Hippocrates - melancholic).

Strong, unbalanced with a predominance of excitation processes (according to Hippocrates - choleric).

Strong, balanced, agile (according to Hippocrates - sanguine).

Strong, balanced, inert (according to Hippocrates - phlegmatic).

These types of GNI characterize equally the behavioral characteristics of both animals and humans.

Ideas about the first and second signal systems of reality. Types of VND typical for humans.

The types of GNI discussed above are common to animals and humans. It is possible to identify special typological features inherent only to humans. According to I.P. Pavlov, they are based on the degree of development of the first and second signaling systems. First signaling system- these are visual, auditory and other sensory signals from which images of the external world are built, which reflect the physical side of the surrounding world (color, amplitude, frequency, etc.).

The perception of direct signals from objects and phenomena of the surrounding world and signals from the internal environment of the body, coming from visual, auditory, tactile and other receptors, constitutes the first signaling system that animals and humans have. Separate elements of a more complex signaling system begin to appear in social species of animals (highly organized mammals and birds), which use sounds (signal codes) to warn of danger, that a given territory is occupied, etc. But only a person develops in the process of work and social life second signaling system- verbal, in which the word as a conditioned stimulus, a sign that is a symbol of objects and phenomena of the material world, becomes a strong information stimulus. This signaling system consists of the perception of words - audible, spoken (aloud or silently) and visible (when reading and writing). The same phenomenon, object in different languages is denoted by words that have different sounds and spellings, and abstract concepts are created from these verbal (verbal) signals.

Stimuli of the second signaling system reflect the surrounding reality with the help of generalizing, abstract concepts expressed in words. A person can operate not only with images, but also with thoughts associated with them, meaningful images containing semantic (semantic) information. With the help of a word, a transition is made from the sensory image of the first signaling system to the concept, representation of the second signaling system. The ability to operate with abstract concepts expressed in words serves as the basis for mental activity.

Taking into account the relationship between the first and second signaling systems in a particular individual, I.P. Pavlov identified specific human types of GNI depending on the predominance of the first or second signaling system in the perception of reality. People with a predominance of the functions of cortical projections responsible for primary signal stimuli were classified by I.P. Pavlov as an artistic type (in representatives of this type the imaginative type of thinking predominates). These are people who are characterized by brightness of visual and auditory perception of events in the surrounding world (artists and musicians).

If the second signaling system turns out to be stronger, then such people are classified as the thinking type. Representatives of this type are dominated by the logical type of thinking, the ability to construct abstract concepts (scientists, philosophers). In cases where the first and second signaling systems create nervous processes of equal strength, then such people belong to the average (mixed type), which is the majority of people. But there is another extremely rare typological variant, which includes very rare people who have particularly strong development of both the first and second signaling systems. These people are capable of both artistic and scientific creativity; I.P. Pavlov included Leonardo da Vinci among such brilliant personalities.

The material basis of the first and second signaling systems of reality is the asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres. In right-handed people (people with a dominant right hand), the mechanisms of the first signaling system of reality are localized in the right hemisphere, while the mechanisms of the second signaling system are localized in the left hemisphere of the brain.

In the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov, it was possible to induce experimental neuroses (functional disorders of the central nervous system) using overstrain of nervous processes, which was achieved by changing the nature, strength and duration of conditioned stimulation.

Neuroses can occur: 1) when the excitation process is overstrained due to the use of a long-term intense stimulus; 2) when the inhibitory process is overstrained by, for example, prolonging the period of action of differentiating stimuli or developing subtle differentiations into very similar figures, tones, etc.; 3) when the mobility of nervous processes is overstrained, for example, by converting a positive stimulus into an inhibitory one with a very rapid change of stimuli or by simultaneously converting an inhibitory conditioned reflex into a positive one.

The essence of neurosis is a decrease in the performance of nerve cells. Often, with neuroses, transitional (phase) states develop, reflecting the transition of a number of nerve cells in the brain from a state of excitation to a state of inhibition: equalizing, paradoxical, ultraparadoxical phases. Phase states reflect violations of the law of force relations characteristic of normal nervous activity. Braking in this situation performs a protective-restorative function.

Normally, there is quantitative and qualitative adequacy of reflex reactions to the current stimulus, i.e. to a stimulus of weak, medium or strong strength, a correspondingly weak, medium or strong reaction occurs. In neurosis, an equalizing phase state is manifested by reactions of equal severity to stimuli of different strengths, a paradoxical state is manifested by the development of a strong reaction to a weak influence and weak reactions to strong influences, an ultraparadoxical state is manifested by the occurrence of a reaction to an inhibitory conditioned signal and the loss of a reaction to a positive conditioned signal.

With neuroses, inertia of nervous processes or their rapid exhaustion develops. Functional neuroses can lead to pathological changes in various organs. For example, skin lesions such as eczema, hair loss, disruption of the digestive tract, liver, kidneys, and endocrine glands occur. Diseases that existed before the neurosis become aggravated.

Experimental neuroses

In the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov, it was possible to induce experimental neuroses (functional disorders of the central nervous system) using overstrain of nervous processes, which was achieved by changing the nature, strength and duration of conditioned stimuli.

1. when the excitation process is overstrained due to the use of a long-term intense stimulus;

2. when the inhibitory process is overstrained by, for example, extending the period of action of differentiating stimuli or developing subtle differentiations into very similar figures, tones, etc.;

3. when the mobility of nervous processes is overstrained, for example, by converting a positive stimulus into an inhibitory one with a very rapid change of stimuli or by simultaneously converting an inhibitory conditioned reflex into a positive one.

With neuroses, a breakdown of higher nervous activity occurs. It can be expressed in a sharp predominance of either an excitatory or inhibitory process. When excitation predominates, inhibitory conditioned reflexes are suppressed and motor excitation appears. When the inhibitory process predominates, positive conditioned reflexes are weakened, drowsiness occurs, and motor activity is limited. Neuroses are especially easily reproduced in animals with extreme types of nervous system: weak and unbalanced. The essence of neurosis is a decrease in the performance of nerve cells. Often, with neuroses, transitional (phase) states develop: equalizing, paradoxical, ultraparadoxical phases. Phase states reflect violations of the law of force relations characteristic of normal nervous activity. Normally, there is a quantitative and qualitative adequacy of reflex reactions to the current stimulus, i.e., to a stimulus of weak, medium or strong strength, a correspondingly weak, medium or strong reaction occurs. In neurosis, an equalizing phase state is manifested by reactions to stimuli of varying strengths of equal severity, a paradoxical state is manifested by the development of a strong reaction to a weak influence and weak reactions to strong influences, an ultraparadoxal state is manifested by the occurrence of a reaction to an inhibitory conditioned signal and the loss of a reaction to a positive conditioned signal.

With neuroses, inertia of nervous processes or their rapid exhaustion develops. Functional neuroses can lead to pathological changes in various organs. For example, skin lesions such as eczema, hair loss, disruption of the digestive tract, liver, kidneys, endocrine glands and even the occurrence of malignant neoplasms occur. Diseases that existed before the neurosis become aggravated.

EXPERIMENTAL NEUROSES - a functional disorder or disruption of higher nervous activity in animals under experimental conditions, caused by overstrain of the basic nervous processes. The concept of experimental neurosis was introduced into science by I. P. Pavlov, who defined by this term chronic (lasting weeks, months and even years) deviations in. n. d. from the norm in animals. N. e. is a special case of experimentally induced pathology in animals. n. d. For the first time in the laboratory of I. Pavlov, signs of N. e. in dogs were noted as a result of a collision of food and defensive reflexes, and subsequently, when it was necessary to solve a difficult problem (when the dog differentiated visual conditioned stimuli that were similar in form). Systematic studies of N. e. were started in 1924 after A. D. Speransky discovered the possibility of conditioned reflex reproduction of pathology. n. etc. and consisted of modeling individual symptoms and syndromes of disorders in animals. n. in humans to study their causes, mechanisms of occurrence and develop new methods of prevention and therapy.

Under N. e. understand long-term patol, deviations in. n. etc., arising under the influence of functional influences on the animal’s brain and manifested in the formation of inadequate, non-adaptive, pathol. reactions and states of the brain and other pathols accompanying them, changes in the body. Most often N. e. manifests itself in disturbances in analytical-synthetic and orientation-research activity, long-term and short-term memory, spatial orientation, regulation of emotions, complex unconditioned reflex reactions (instincts) - defensive, sexual, food, etc. At the same time, hyperkinesis, trophic ulcers, and dysregulation are observed in animals cardiovascular, digestive, hematopoietic, endocrine and other systems of the body.

The following methods of neurotization of animals are used: overstraining the analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, for example, performing a difficult task on a hungry animal (differentiation of close conditioned stimuli with small time intervals between them); frequent changes in the stereotype of conditioned reflexes; disturbance of biorhythms (see Biological rhythms), including the wakefulness-sleep cycle; violation of intraspecific relationships, for example, partial intraspecific isolation of animals in the early stages of ontogenesis (see); sensory hyperstimulation, for example, prolonged use of strong sound stimuli in the form of extraneous noise during the development of a conditioned reflex; information deprivation, for example, a long-term lack of information about the means of optimally solving a problem, which is achieved in an experiment on hungry animals with a low probability of reinforcement of conditioned stimuli with food; partial motor inactivation, e.g. artificial limitation of the motor activity of animals through prolonged immobilization (this method is especially effective on monkeys); a collision of complex unconditioned reflex reactions (instincts), for example, alternation of food and defensive reflexes over short periods of time.

However, no method fully reproduces the symptoms of human N., since only humans have a second signaling system (see Signaling systems), which is constantly involved in the patol, process in N. The effectiveness of neurotization of animals is determined by biol, the adequacy of the methods used with taking into account the evolutionary and ecological characteristics of the animal species. Thus, primates easily become neurotic when the hierarchical subordination of individuals in the herd is violated.

According to the conditions of occurrence, primary and secondary AD are distinguished. With primary N. e. psychogenic, for example, conditioned reflex factors are the leading cause of pathology c. n. d.; in the secondary case, factors that asthenize the brain (organic trauma, anemization, castration) facilitate psychogenic traumatization. Secondary N. e. in animals they are models of neurosis-like conditions in humans. The speed of their occurrence, depth and symptoms are significantly determined by the typological features of the disease. n. d. animals. It has been established that N. occurs more easily in animals with weak and strong unbalanced type B. n. d. In addition, the phenotype (see Genotype) is of great importance in the development and symptoms of N., due to both the traits of the type and changes that arose under the influence of the environment, for example, the conditions of intraspecific relationships in the early stages of ontogenesis. Thus, animals raised in isolation from peers or adults are extremely unstable to neurotic influences.

Initially, in accordance with the general ideas of the Pavlovian school about mechanisms in. n. etc., it was believed that A.D. are caused by a violation of the strength, mobility and balance of the cortical processes of excitation and inhibition, which was defined as a breakdown in. n. d. Further development of these ideas about the mechanism of N. e. received in the works of P. S. Kupilov (1952), who discovered the importance of shortened conditioned reflexes in the formation of patol, behavior, for example, reproduction of patol, reactions not to an existing pathogenic stimulus, but to its trace in the nervous system in the form of a new function, state of the brain. Understandings) of the mechanism of N. e. contributed to the study of the patterns of relationship between the internal environment of the body and the higher parts of the brain, as well as the discovery of certain genetically determined properties of the nervous system that contribute to the development of neuroses.

To determine the mechanisms of N. e. knowledge of scientific facts in their totality, established in the 60-70s, is necessary. 20th century; First of all, this concerns the role of emotions and memory in pathology. n. etc. So, according to the concept of P.K. Anokhin (1975), neurosis arises as a result of a collision of two competing functions, systems, accompanied by a long-term negative emotional state, which is characterized by extremely high activity of nerve cells. An important factor in long-term (inert) arousal is hormonal chemicals. shift in the blood. Since the most important manifestation of N. e. is a violation of intersystem relationships, it is believed that the mechanism of N.E. associated with disorganization of intracentral functions and relationships, which are recorded in long-term memory and are easily reproduced according to the type of temporary connection. As a result of neurophysiological studies, it was established that with N. e. functional, changes primarily occur in the frontal regions of the neocortex, limbic structures and the reticular formation of the midbrain, which allows us to talk about the involvement of one or another brain system in the patol process. On the EEG with N. e. disturbances in the regularity of basic rhythms and polymorphism of potentials are observed, but in general these changes are not specific and do not always correlate with conditioned reflex manifestations of N.E. It has been established that one of the early signs of N. e. is a change in the content of acetylcholine and catecholamines in the c. n. With. and blood. N. e. accompanied by ultrastructural and biochemical changes in the neocortex, which indicate the development of reactive and degenerative processes.

I.P. Pavlov and his students conducted research on the treatment of N.E., for example, with a combination of bromine and caffeine, hypnotics, which have found use in medicine. practice. Models of N. e. are used to develop medicinal and non-medicinal methods for the prevention and treatment of pathology c. n. d. person.

Among the drugs tested are psychotropic drugs that affect memory, regulate emotions, and analytical and synthetic activity. Non-medicinal effects include increased muscle load, development of new functional systems, and climatotherapy. These models are also used to increase the resistance of the nervous system to neurotic factors.

The creation of new animal models of neurosis that are adequate to the conditions of human neurosis, their comprehensive study at different morphophysiological levels of brain organization play a significant role in the development of the prevention and treatment of human neuroses.

Bibliography: Airapetyants M. G. Disturbances in the dynamic balance of neurotransmitters in the peripheral blood during the development of experimental neurosis in dogs, Zhurn. higher nervous deyateln., vol. 27, v. 2, p. 379, 1977; Anokhin P.K. Essays on the physiology of functional systems, M., 1975; Davidenkov G. N. Neuroses, JT., 1963; Dolin A. O. and Dolin S. A. Pathology of higher nervous activity, M., 1972; Ivanov-Smolensky A. G. Ways of interaction between experimental and clinical pathophysiology of the brain, M., 1965; Pavlov I.P. Complete works, vol. 3, book. 2, p. 189, M.-JI., 1951; Petrova M.K. On the role of a functionally weakened cerebral cortex in the occurrence of various pathological processes in the body, D., 1946; Khananashvili M. M. Experimental pathology of higher nervous activity, M., 1978.

Experimental neuroses

From a pathophysiological point of view, neurosis is a typical form of pathology of the nervous system. It arises as a result of overvoltage and disruption of internal pressure under the influence of influences, the adequacy of responses to which is not ensured by its functionality.

The pathogenetic basis of neuroses consists of disturbances in the strength, mobility and balance of the basic nervous processes - excitation and inhibition, or their collision (“collision”) at the same (or close) time and in the same structures of the cerebrum.

Neuroses are characterized by disorders of the internal nervous system, the development of phase states in the nervous system, neurogenic disorders of autonomic functions, movement, sensitivity, trophism, as well as a decrease in the body’s resistance to various endo- and exogenous pathogenic agents.

The experimental reproduction of neuroses is based on a single principle: presenting an animal with an unsolvable (impossible) task. For this purpose, influences are used that cause overstrain and disruption of the excitatory and/or inhibitory process, disruption of their mobility and balance, or “collision” of instincts of alternative biological significance.

† Overvoltage and disruption of the process of cortical excitation is achieved by using the following influences:

‡ Strong unconditioned stimuli (for example, pain, light, sound). They are characterized by high intensity, duration or repetition of exposure.

‡ Complex pathogenic conditioned stimuli (for example, the development of a conditioned reflex, accompanied by a hypertensive reaction to a complex of influences following each other in a certain sequence - light, sound, tactile).

‡ Unusual irritants that have a biologically negative meaning (for example, fire, strong wind, explosions).

As a result of these influences, after a certain time (different in different animals), a neurotic state develops with signs of a predominance of the inhibition process.

† Overvoltage and failure of the braking process is ensured in the experiment by a number of methods:

‡ “Withholding reinforcement” (this causes disruption of the process of active cortical inhibition).

‡ Development of subtle and complex differentiations (which ensures disruption of “differentiation” inhibition).

‡ Cancellation of reinforcement (which leads to disruption of “extinction” inhibition) in previously developed conditioned reflexes.

In this way, a neurotic state with a predominance of the excitation process is modeled.

† Overstrain and disruption of the mobility of the main cortical nervous processes. This is achieved by:

‡ Redesign of the signal value of various conditioned stimuli (for example, a light signal instead of a previously positive reinforcement - receiving food, is accompanied by subsequent pain).

‡ Breaking the existing dynamic stereotype (a series of sequential conditioned reflexes).

Such influences usually lead to the development of neurotic conditions with pathological mobility of nervous processes.

† “Collision” of reflexes-instincts of mutually exclusive (opposite) biological significance. It is carried out by urgently changing the quality of the reinforcing effect, for example, by applying an electric current to the floor of the feeder at the time of food reinforcement of any signal, or by exposure to a strong painful stimulus (biologically negative) at the time of sexual intercourse.

† Modern approaches to methods of experimental reproduction of neuroses in animals are aimed at bringing them as close as possible to the conditions of their occurrence in humans. These methods include:

‡ Restriction of the “reflex-instinct of freedom” (for example, forcibly restraining an animal in a pen).

‡ Disruption of the natural daily diet or light rhythm associated with the change of day and night.

‡ Change in habitual herd-hierarchical or herd-sexual relations (for example, in monkeys).

‡ Preliminary asthenia of the nervous system (for example, under the influence of chronic noise, ionizing radiation, isolation of the animal from its parents in early childhood).

Types of experimental neuroses.

† Neurosis with a predominance of the excitation process. Develops as a result of weakening of the braking process. It is characterized by constant and inadequate agitation, combined with the aggressiveness and malice of the animal. This type often develops into a neurosis of the inhibitory type due to the development of extreme inhibition.

† Neurosis with a predominance of the inhibition process. It is a consequence of a weakening of the excitation process. It is characterized by the development of passive defensive reactions, depression and drowsiness of the animal.

† Neurosis with pathological mobility of nervous processes. Develops as a result of disruption of the process of optimal change of excitation and inhibition.

‡ Neurosis with pathological inertia. Characterized by frequent development of phobias.

‡ Neurosis with pathological lability. It manifests itself as “fussiness,” incompleteness of actions, and increased physical activity.

† Circulatory (cyclical) neurosis. It is characterized by a chaotic alternation of the types of neurosis listed above.

The role of GNI characteristics in the occurrence of neuroses.

The same experimental influences often cause various disturbances of nervous processes in the higher parts of the nervous system. To a large extent this depends on the type of GNI. In the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov established the dependence of the probability of occurrence and characteristics of the development of neurosis on the characteristics of GNI:

† The weak type is most susceptible to neurotic disorders. This type (melancholic, according to Hippocrates) is characterized by rapid exhaustion of the excitatory process, weakness of internal cortical inhibition, and passivity of the reaction to influence. This predetermines the occurrence of neurosis as a result of disruption of the main cortical nervous processes with the development of inhibition and the formation of passive defensive reactions.

† Choleric (strong unbalanced type; unrestrained according to I.P. Pavlov). This type is characterized by a strong excitatory process, weak cortical inhibition, and active reactions to stimuli. This causes the development of neurosis of the excitatory type with the formation of active search reactions.

† Phlegmatic (strong balanced inert type). Characterized by the development of neurosis with pathological mobility of nervous processes.

† Sanguine (strong, balanced, mobile type). It is most resistant to the reproduction of neuroses due to its high resistance to various pathogenic agents. Increasing the strength of the stimulus, “confusing” instincts, increasing activity and repeating influences can lead to neurosis.

Manifestations of experimental neuroses.

† GND disorders. They are expressed by the loss of conditioned reflexes, an increase in latent periods of responses to influences, the difficulty or impossibility of developing new conditioned reflexes and, as a consequence, adequate adaptation to changing living conditions. This leads to a decrease in the adaptive capabilities of the nervous system and the body as a whole, the loss of individual response traits, and a decrease in the ability of animals to “learn” new skills.

† Development of so-called phase states in the nervous system. They are characterized by qualitative and/or quantitative inadequacy of an individual’s response to stimuli depending on the currently dominant phase state.

† Violation of autonomic functions. This symptom is a constant, earliest and most stable manifestation of neuroses. Changes in autonomic functions, as a rule, lose their adaptive significance and become inadequate to the stimulus that does not correspond to the accompanying locomotor reactions (for example, the development of arterial hypotension and hypoglycemia during a defensive reaction).

† Movement disorders. They are diverse and are expressed in the form of various hyper- and hypokinesis, ataxia.

† Nerve trophism disorders. They are manifested by various dystrophies, up to the appearance of erosions and ulcers; changes in the immunogenic and nonspecific reactivity of the body (for example, allergies or diathesis).

† Sensory disorders. This is expressed by the development of hypo- and hyperesthesia, hyperpathia, paresthesia, polysthesia and other dysesthesias.

Physiology of experimental neuroses

Neurosis is a chronic disorder of higher nervous activity caused by psycho-emotional stress and manifested by disturbances in the integral activity of the brain - behavior, sleep, emotional sphere and somato-vegetative activity. This is a psychogenic disease that occurs against the background of personality characteristics and insufficient mental defense with the formation of a neurotic conflict. Neurosis covers all areas of the body's activity; it is an extremely universal phenomenon.

The relevance of this problem is associated with the continuous increase in the number of sick people - over the past 70 years, the frequency of neuroses has increased 25 times.

The psychogenic factor in all cases is external or internal conflicts, the effect of traumatic circumstances or massive overstrain of the emotional or intellectual spheres of the psyche.

Along with exogenous factors (difficult tasks, conflict situations), endocrine factors also play an important role in the development of pathological conditions of internal dysfunction, among which endocrine-vegetative influences come to the fore. Among endocrine factors, sex hormones occupy a special place. The connection between nervous disorders and sexual dysfunction has been known since ancient times.

Classification of neuroses. True or psychogenic, major neuroses: neurasthenia, hysteria and obsessive-compulsive neurosis. Neurosis is a disease of the whole organism, which resonates in disruption of the activities of various body systems. Neurosis disguises itself as a variety of somatic diseases: coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction. Many patients (up to 90%) have a neurological component and it must be treated. It is necessary to distinguish neurosis-like states from neuroses, which, with a clinical picture similar to neuroses, have organic lesions of the nervous system, and not psycho-emotional overstrain. For example, endocrine disorders - hyper- or hypothyroidism affect autonomic function, or hypertension, or peptic ulcers.

And psychoses are also neuroses, but with neurosis the patient critically evaluates himself, knows that he is sick and can exaggerate his illness, while with psychosis the patient denies everything.

1) physiological - study of GNI using physiological techniques (I.P. Pavlov) and

2) psychophysiological study - Sigmund Freud.

Modern psychiatry views neurosis as a consequence of psychogenic conflict. At present, neither in the clinic nor in experiment is it completely clear where neurosis begins, which specific cerebral mechanisms are disrupted earlier and which later; what is the specific significance of individual structures in this pathology. True, thanks to the brilliant work of I.P. Pavlov and his school back in the twenties, it was established that neurosis is a breakdown of the internal nervous system due to overstrain of nervous processes or their mobility with a violation of intercentral cortical-subcortical relations, the reflection of which on the periphery is various vegetative-visceral disorders.

Among the causes of neuroses, there are 3 groups - biological, psychological and social. Biological factors include heredity and constitution, pregnancy and childbirth, gender, age, and previous diseases. Psychological factors include premorbid personality characteristics, childhood mental trauma, and traumatic situations. And the parental family, the characteristics of sexual education and marital status, education, profession, and work activity are considered in the group of social factors. However, it is more correct to consider them as predisposing factors that contribute to the implementation of the etiological factor, which is mental trauma. The experience of studying neuroses reveals the significance of two-stage mental traumatization. The vast majority of the patients examined had “childhood psychogenies” - single-parent families, conflicting relationships between parents, loss of significant objects, disruption of emotional contact with one or both parents, immoral behavior of parents. And in some patients, against this background, forms of neurotic reactions characteristic of children arose: enuresis, logoneurosis, tic hyperkinesis. Others had no visible neurotic disorders. Then actual psychogenies arose, which had the character of a “second blow.” Apparently, there is a certain factor that determines the individual reaction to seemingly unambiguous external environmental situations. This factor is the significance of the psychogenic influence for the individual.

Questions of the pathogenesis of neuroses. Against the background of the interaction of mental trauma and the characteristics of the personality structure, a key link in the pathogenesis is formed - a neurotic conflict. The formation and subsequent resolution of conflict is closely related to the state of the individual’s defense mechanisms. Attitudes that exist outside the sphere of consciousness play a role in the choice of behavior. The presence of flexible attitudes that quickly adapt to changing environmental conditions is a factor that counteracts the emergence of neurosis or contributes to the successful resolution of a neurotic conflict. Sleep research has shown its protective psychological significance. In addition, neurophysiological, neurochemical, psychophysiological and morphological aspects play a huge role. The formation of neuroses is associated with the type of GNI.

According to Pavlov, 4 types of GNI are distinguished based on strength, mobility and balance of the main nervous processes (excitation, inhibition, mobility).

What is the type of VND? This is a set of congenital and acquired properties of the nervous system that determine the nature of the interaction of the body with the environment, which is reflected in all functions of the body. At the same time, the specific importance of congenital and acquired in the phenotype may vary depending on the conditions of interaction of the organism with the environment. Under normal conditions, the behavior of humans and animals is dominated by individual experience, habits, and acquired skills. However, when the body finds itself in unusual - extreme - conditions, then predominantly innate mechanisms of nervous activity come to the fore in its behavior.

Neurasthenia - impotence, nervous exhaustion - the most common neurosis, the main manifestation of which is a state of irritable weakness, increased exhaustion and slow recovery of mental processes.

At the beginning of the disease (hypersthenic stage), mood swings, general hyperesthesia, and increased irritability periodically occur. At the same time, even minor irritants: loud conversation, creaking doors, etc. unbalance the patient - he cannot restrain himself and raises his voice. Patients complain of difficulty falling asleep, vegetative dystonia - increased sweating, palpitations, headaches. These disorders disappear with treatment.

The second (intermediate) stage is manifested by a more persistent state of irritable weakness, increased emotional excitability, lack of restraint, intolerance of waiting against the background of increased mental exhaustion, weakening of active attention, a rapid transition to a feeling of fatigue, often with tears. Difficulty falling asleep may be accompanied by anxious anticipation of insomnia; characterized by shallow sleep with disturbing dreams, after which the patient feels sleep-deprived. Autonomic disorders are characteristic - complaints about the heart, intestines as an organic pathology. The third stage (hyposthenic), which is characterized by severe exhaustion, lethargy, adynamia, and apathy.

In the initial stage of neurasthenia, weakness of internal inhibition predominates, in the second, the process of excitation begins to weaken and becomes pathologically labile with rapid exhaustion, and in the third stage, weakness of both nervous processes develops with a predominance of extreme inhibition. According to I.P. Pavlov, persons with a weak type of nervous system are prone to neurasthenia.

Hysteria is a type of psychogenic disorder that occurs in connection with a psychotraumatic situation in persons with a hysterical character and in previously healthy persons in severe extreme conditions. More often appears at a young age, mainly in women. It is expressed in numerous functional disorders that outwardly resemble a variety of diseases, for which it received the name “chameleon”, “the great simulator.” A feature of patients with hysteria is the desire to attract the attention of others in any way and a very high suggestibility and self-hypnosis.

The symptoms of hysteria can be divided into motor, sensory, autonomic and mental disorders. Motor - expressed in the form of hysterical seizures, paresis, muscle contractures, various gait disorders, stuttering. A hysterical attack occurs in someone’s presence and is manifested by a fall, usually harmless in the form of a slow descent with various movements, screams, peculiar poses with characteristic facial expressions, but they do not lose consciousness. The seizure can be interrupted by external influence and often turns into crying, a state of weakness, fatigue, and less often into sleep.

Hysterical sensory disorders can be manifested by a decrease in sensitivity to complete anesthesia to tactile, temperature, pain stimuli, or hyperesthesia to the same reagents.

Autonomic-visceral disorders are very diverse; There may be a feeling of compression of the larynx - a lump in the throat, a feeling of lack of air (reminiscent of bronchial asthma), a feeling of obstruction of the esophagus, urinary retention, constipation. Intestinal paresis, reminiscent of intestinal obstruction, is possible. Disorders of the cardiovascular system simulating angina pectoris or myocardial infarction. Hysterical fainting, etc. are possible.

On the mental side, psychogenic amnesia, total or partial, is more typical. Hysterical hallucinations - very bright, imaginative, colorful. Delusional fantasies are possible.

I.P. Pavlov explained the symptoms of hysteria by the characteristic predominance of subcortical activity over the cortical one and the first signaling system over the second.

Obsessive states are thoughts, doubts, actions, fears, movements that arise independently and against the wishes of the patient, moreover, irresistibly. Patients treat them critically, understand their meaninglessness and painful nature, but cannot free themselves.

Obsessive fears (phobias) occur very often and in a wide variety of forms. The most common ones are the following:

Agoraphobia is the fear of open space.

Acrophobia - fear of heights.

Dysmorphophobia - fear of ugliness.

Claustrophobia is the fear of closed spaces and enclosed spaces.

Nosophobia is the fear of getting some serious illness. This includes acarophobia (fear of scabies), bacteriophobia, and cancerophobia.

Thanatophobia is the fear of death, Taphephobia is the fear of being buried alive. In the group of obsessive fears, particularly obsessive fears can be identified - the impossibility of performing any ordinary life or professional act. The singer is afraid that she will not sing a well-known aria and refuses to perform. With obsessive memories, a figurative memory of some unpleasant, discrediting event painfully arises in the patient’s mind again and again. In n-x - syndromes:

1. asthenic - weakness of nervous activity;

2. hysterical – emotional incontinence;

3. depressive - oppression, fear;

4. phobic - fear, apprehension;

5. hypochondriacal - complaints about the activity of internal organs.

Experimental models of neuroses (since 1921 I.P. Pavlov):

1) Animals develop excitatory and inhibitory food reflexes (+) in a circle - food, an ellipse with (-) - a differentiation image without food, active internal inhibition is formed and when the ratio of the ellipse axes is 7:8 the animal does not distinguish it from the circle - a violent reaction - barking, restlessness, and conditioned reflexes are disrupted for several months due to a breakdown of the IRR - neurosis.

2) Overstrain of the strength of nervous processes (excitation) under the influence of super-strong stimuli, a large number of stimuli.

3) Overstrain of the active inhibitory process when the action of the inhibitory stimulus is prolonged from 30 seconds to 10 minutes.

4) Overstrain of the mobility of nervous processes - “collision” - a collision of heterogeneous reflexes (+) and (-). Call No. 1 (-) without food and after 5 minutes call No. 2 (+) - food. If there is a 5-minute pause between calls, everything is fine, but if the calls follow each other, the processes of excitation and inhibition collide - the main method of causing neuroses.

Later, Pavlov developed 3 models of neuroses adequate to human ones:

5) Collision of biologically opposite activity “collision” develops a conditioned food reflex to irritation of the skin with a weak electric current and then increases the strength of the current - pain and food.

6) Redesign of the dynamic stereotype of conditioned reflex activity - a group of stimuli of different signs follow each other in the same order and at equal intervals of 5 minutes (M-metronome):

but when changing the order of presentation of the stimulus or changing the time of its presentation, neurosis easily arises. Human activity is always stereotypical, it’s easier, and for most people, altering the life stereotype causes neurosis.

7) Information neuroses - from an abundance of vital information with a lack of time for its full processing: they develop 4 complex stereotypes of conditioned reflex activity in animals in chamber 1 2 and at the end of the corresponding last signal, animal 4 3 receives food in a certain feeder out of 4. If the time intervals between stereotypes are large - several hours - the animal runs exactly to the desired feeder, but when the time of stereotypes approaches, breakdowns, mistakes, and an explosion of emotions occur. A person receives a lot of vital information and does not have time to process it → neurosis due to a breakdown in GNI.

8) Even fixing animals in a pen for six months caused disturbances in conditioned reflex activity - after all, movement was eliminated.

It turned out that the occurrence of neuroses depends on the type of GNI. For a weak type of nervous activity, any overstrain causes neurosis. In an unrestrained person, it is necessary to overstrain the inhibitory processes (circle/ellipse), in an inert person, it is necessary to overstrain mobility (confusion), in a balanced person it is much more difficult to get neurosis. I.P. Pavlov considered neuroses to be a consequence of overexertion and failure of the GNI.

So a young family lives with her mother-in-law and for a long time the young wife does not react to her mother-in-law’s comments and everything is fine. But after a few years, over a trifle, an explosion of emotions - hysterical neurosis due to many years of active central inhibition (experience of physiological understanding).

And this is especially important for old people - moving to a new apartment, retiring - breaking the stereotype.

Pathogenesis of experimental neuroses. The clinical picture of almost all forms of neuroses includes, as a rule, sleep disturbances, vegetative-visceral, mainly cardiovascular, disorders. This naturally directs the attention of researchers trying to find the local address of neurotic disorders to the structures of the limbic or so-called visceral brain, and above all to the emotiogenic parts of the hippocampus, corpus amygdaloideum, and hypothalamus. Recently, there has been increasing evidence of an important role in the pathogenesis of neuroses for the structures of the limbic-reticular complex, which is associated with the main symptoms of the disease. In addition, it is generally accepted that for the development of neurosis, in addition to stress, there must also be a genetically or lifetime predisposition. In this regard, the scientific and technological revolution with its “information overload”, etc. should be considered not as a cause, but as conditions that asthenize the nervous system and thereby predispose to the development of neuroses.

Disturbances in conditioned reflex activity after neurotizing influences were observed in all cases in all animals, but they were expressed differently: in the form of an increase in latent periods and a violation of the force relations of reflexes with the development of phase states (equalizing, paradoxical, ultraparadoxical), a decrease or loss of conditioned reflexes, etc. . The dependence of the nature of disorders of conditioned reflex activity on the typological characteristics of the nervous system was clearly revealed. These disturbances were long-lasting and, especially at the beginning of the disease, had a wave-like character: periodic improvement, without any apparent reason, was again replaced by deterioration. Scientists propose to consider these wave-like changes in the state of GNI not as a manifestation of an incipient disease, but rather as a mobilization of the body’s defenses. Changes in autonomic functions were observed in all animals and manifested differently in representatives of different types of VNI.

On the part of the endocrine system, it has been shown that the administration of hydrocortisone in moderate therapeutic doses in dogs of the strong type of NS increases conditioned reflexes and improves differentiation, while in dogs of the weak type these doses worsen conditioned reflex activity, reducing conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. Chronic use of cortisone (as well as ACTH) leads to long-term disturbances in IRR in animals even after cessation of drug administration. These hormones are considered as essential components of stress reactions; they are “triggered” under the influence of adrenaline, released in any stressful situations. As a rule, the introduction of small doses of hormones: thyroid-stimulating hormone, ACTH, cortisone, sex hormones, adrenaline - has a stimulating effect on GNI, and high doses doses of hormones depress it, disrupting conditioned reflex activity.

On the ECG in dogs with experimental neurosis, along with an increase in heart rate, extrasystole, smoothness or even loss of the P wave, an increase or two-phase T wave, and an increase in the R wave were recorded.

The EEG shows increased theta and alpha frequencies in all structures.

In general, factors contributing to increased cerebral blood flow during emotional stress and increased autonomic reactions may be catecholamines secreted by the catecholaminergic systems and adrenal glands. It is known that with an increase in blood pressure, the blood-brain barrier becomes permeable to catecholamines, which increase the rate of metabolic processes and brain tissue and increase local cerebral blood flow (CBC). With neurotic disorders caused by prolonged stress, depletion of catecholamine systems occurs, which can lead to a decrease the intensity of metabolic processes and a decrease in LMK. Disturbances in all phases of sleep were noted - a shortening of the duration of deep phases of sleep, an increased number of awakenings - its defectiveness and functional inferiority. Neurotransmitter disorders were identified, and there were vascular and glioneuronal disorders, indicating the development of hypoxia in the central nervous system. A decrease in the speed of local blood flow by 2-3 times was detected.

Psychopathological direction (founder Sigmund Freud) - the basis of neuroses is a violation of the unconscious mental activity of a person - instincts: love and aggression. Freud identified 3 levels: the unconscious, the subconscious and the level of consciousness. Freud considered the source of neuroses to be the suppression of unconscious activity, because in humans it is constantly restrained by the level of consciousness. Raising people is a constant restriction of instinct and this (according to Freud) leads to neuroses. Instinct cannot disappear, and when it is suppressed, it will appear distorted - in the form of neurosis (according to Pavlov - “crash”). Freud proposed a method of psychoanalysis:

1) behavior analysis;

2) analysis of erroneous human actions;

3) free expression of thoughts that come to mind when a person is asked about something - the method of free associations. The patient needs to be cleared of worries and obsessive thoughts.

So, the cause of neurosis is chronic psycho-emotional stress associated with overstrain of the internal nervous system - the closure of the physiological and psycho-emotional directions.

Scheme of the pathogenesis of neuroses: psycho-emotional stress → stimulation of brain activity; stress reactions → disruption of integrative activity (disintegration of nervous activity, behavioral and sleep disorders) → disturbances of autonomic nervous activity, neurotransmitter activity, endocrine system (sympathoadrenal shifts, increased production of dopamine, vagotonia, insular shifts) → disturbances in the metabolism of microstructures and microcirculation → disturbances in the activity of internal organs and somatic sphere. A vicious circle is formed - brain hypoxia stimulates psycho-emotional stress and stimulates brain activity.

In children, neuroses are characterized by poor delineation, blurring, and great variability of clinical signs. There are no classical forms, except hysterical and phobic; motor disinhibition predominates. There are no clear complaints from the child and an abundance of them from others. There is a main symptom or syndrome that determines the characteristics of the disease (the so-called monosymptomatic neurosis); changes in behavior and decline in academic performance.

Neuroses in children are characterized by the presence of distinct predisposing factors that contribute to the occurrence of neurosis, a favorable course and prognosis. They have the following features: the younger the child’s age, the less differentiation of neurosis, the more often its picture is represented by transient neurotic reactions. With age, the picture of neurosis becomes more typical and clinically more defined. The child’s emotional experiences are fixed on the activity of internal organs and systems. Children are also characterized by a great fixation on a conflict situation, which easily leads to fear, for example: fear of the dark, loneliness, appetite disorder.

In old age, the same picture of neurosis occurs as in childhood, but with the opposite dynamics.

1) cessation of the chronic effect of the stressor - everything will change;

2) the presence of high goals in life and real opportunities to achieve them;

3) creation of a philosophy of life - we will all die - rejoice while you live;

4) make your neighbor love you as himself.

What is experimental neurosis?

By experimental neurosis I. P. Pavlov understood disruption of higher nervous activity, i.e., a violation of the dynamics of conditioned reflexes developed in experimental animals without damage to the central nervous system of an organic order. A distinctive feature of neurosis is inadequacy behavior.

How can you get neurosis in an experiment?

1. Experimental neurosis can be obtained by overstrain of “cortical excitation” processes. For example, in experimental animals the formation of neurosis is observed when long-term use of excessively strong conditioned stimuli. The formation of neurosis can be observed when placing animals with developed conditioned reflexes in conditions that threaten their lives.

A.D. Speransky observed nervousness in experimental dogs that survived a flood when masses of water flooded the vivarium. After the dogs were transferred to a secure facility, they were noted to have: disappearance of all conditioned reflexes, refusal to consume food when food reinforcement is presented. Restoration of conditioned reflex activity was achieved after about a month and a half; however, if, while working with dogs, the experimenter opened a water tap, the sight of a stream of flowing water, through the mechanism of a conditioned reflex, again caused to the development of a neurotic state.

2. Experimental neurosis can be obtained by overstrain of “cortical inhibition” processes, for example, when lengthening the time of action of differentiation stimuli, when using ultra-fine differentiations, in which the non-reinforced inhibitory stimulus turns out to be very similar in characteristics to the positive stimulus. In these cases, a special state of the central nervous system is formed. It develops against the background of a biologically negative emotion as a result of a mismatch between the image of the desired reinforcement (ARD) and real afferentation, signaling the absence of this reinforcement. Continuation of such experiments often causes experimental neurosis in the animal.

3. Experimental neurosis can be obtained by overstrain of the mobility of nervous processes in experiments with the transformation of positive conditioned stimuli into inhibitory ones, and inhibitory ones into positive ones. Overstrain of the mobility of nervous processes is observed during the alteration of dynamic stereotypes.

What is the functional manifestation of the state of experimental neurosis in an animal?

In violation law of force relations. The normal conditioned reflex response of an animal is characterized by correspondence(within certain limits ) between the strength of the conditioned signal and the strength of the conditioned response(law of force relations). In this case, a weak conditioned signal (in the simplest case, according to physical characteristics) causes a weak conditioned reaction (small salivation), while a strong signal causes a stronger conditioned reaction (large salivation). In animals in a state of neurosis there is such a “correct” relationship between the strength of the conditioned signal and the strength of the conditioned response No.

Describe the dynamics of violations of the law of power relations during the development of experimental neurosis in an animal?

At the initial stage development of a neurotic process in an animal is observed equalization phase, within which weak and strong conditioned signals cause approximately conditioned reflex responses of equal strength.

In case of deepening of the neurotic state there is a transition of the equalizing phase into paradoxical, which is typical perversion of reactions to weak and strong conditioned stimuli - weak irritants begin to cause stronger responses than strong.

With further deepening of the neurotic state in animals an ultraparadoxical phase is noted. In the ultraparadoxical phase positive conditioned stimuli produce inhibitory effects, and inhibitory ones, for example, differentiation ones, produce positive effects.

Subsequent development of a neurotic state leads to a natural decrease in responses to all types of stimuli - weak, strong, differentiation, etc. – inhibitory (narcotic) phase.

It is interesting that phase phenomena in higher nervous activity also occur outside of neurotic states; an example is phase phenomena during the transition from sleep to wakefulness and vice versa.

How does the rate of development of experimental neurosis in animals depend on the typological characteristics of higher nervous activity (HNA)?

A breakdown of higher nervous activity (experimental neurosis) is relatively easily reproduced in animals if the experimenter, choosing a certain methodological technique, takes into account the typological features of the GNI of the experimental animal, its strengths and weaknesses.

Yes, y animals of choleric temperament in which excitation processes predominate over inhibition, one can easily develop experimental neurosis when overstraining the processes of “cortical inhibition”" In this case, the form of the neurotic state usually gives a behavioral picture in which we note a significant predominance of excitation over inhibition - differentiation disappears, saliva in experiments with food conditioned reflexes is released in the period between conditioned signals, motor restlessness is noted, the normal relationship between the strength of the conditioned signal and the magnitude of the conditioned reflex is disrupted.

In animals The weak point of a phlegmatic temperament is the mobility of the basic nervous processes. Due to this experimental neurosis in animals of phlegmatic temperament one can easily obtain overstrain of the mobility of nervous processes. At the same time, phenomena are observed in animals excessive, pathological mobility. Pathological mobility is usually expressed in the form of “irritable weakness” - at the moment the conditioned signal is turned on, the animal experiences a violent conditioned response, which, however, is replaced by an inhibitory state even during the action of the conditioned signal.

Without much difficulty, Using any experimental technique, it is possible to obtain experimental neurosis in animals of melancholic temperament. The neurotic state in these animals usually gives a picture of a disturbance in the processes of cortical excitation and a predominance of inhibition processes. At the same time, positive conditioned reflexes decrease and disappear, and drowsiness develops.

Elimination of pathological disorders higher nervous activity that arose in an animal in the process of developing a state of experimental neurosis is usually achieved providing rest - stopping experiments for several weeks, months and easing experimental conditions by refusing to use stimuli or influences that caused a neurotic breakdown.

Experimental neuroses in animals, containing in their functional organization increased activity of emotiogenic brain structures, often lead to disorders in the functioning of internal organs(M.K. Petrova, K.M. Bykov, etc.).

From the point of view of modern ideas of the problem experimental neuroses and emotional stress must be considered from the same positions. In fact, we are talking about the same thing, since there can be no experimental neurosis outside of a state of emotional stress. The differences between the concepts of experimental neurosis and emotional stress are insignificant, largely formal, reflecting differences in historical concepts and approaches to the mechanisms of psychosomatic pathology caused by functional disorders of the central nervous system.

As already mentioned, the scientific understanding of neuroses as a single group of diseases with a certain characteristic and a common essence became possible only on the basis of the teachings of I. P. Pavlov on higher nervous activity.

This forces us to briefly dwell on its main provisions.

I. P. Pavlov’s doctrine of higher nervous activity was based on the reflex principle, which makes it possible to combine the influences of the external environment and the body’s responses strictly determined by them.

The complexity and variability of the external environment dictates, under phylogenetic conditions, the inevitability of constant complication and development of the nervous system as an organ that establishes interaction between the external environment and the organism.

As a result, this process led to the formation of a most complex organ of adaptation, balancing the organism with the external environment - the animal brain, and then the human brain with its diverse and complex activities.

I. P. Pavlov explained the complex human psyche without violating either the principle of reflexivity or the unity of the nervous system. He did not separate the mental, i.e., higher forms of nervous activity, from the processes occurring in the lower parts of the nervous system, just as he did not separate the higher nervous activity of animals from the human psyche by an impassable abyss, recognizing both their general foundations and special differences.

Experimental studies of the higher nervous activity of animals have made it possible to establish that their adaptation to constantly changing external conditions is ensured by a complex system of innate unconditioned reflexes and conditioned reflexes acquired in the individual life of animals.

I. P. Pavlov characterized conditioned reflex activity as “signal”, because countless phenomena perceived from the external environment, connecting in time with some unconditioned reflex activity of important biological significance, become signals of the latter.

In man, during the period of his phylogenetic formation in the process of labor activity, a new system of signaling biologically and socially important phenomena for the body - signaling by word, speech - appeared, and then developed, improved and took a dominant position.

I. P. Pavlov wrote: “animals before the appearance of the family homo sapiens communicated with the surrounding world only through direct impressions from its various agents, acting on various receptor devices and the corresponding cells of the central nervous system that conduct excitation. These impressions were the only signals from external objects. In the future man, signals of the second degree appeared, developed and were extremely improved, the signals of these primary signals - in the form of words, spoken, audible and visible.

These new signals eventually came to mean everything that people directly perceived both from the external and from their internal world...

Such a predominance of new signals determined, of course, the enormous importance of the word, although words were and remained only the second signals of reality.”

The fundamental qualitative difference between man and animal thus lies in the fact that he communicates with the environment through two signaling systems. The first signaling system, which it shares with animals, includes sensations, perceptions and ideas; the second signaling system - the system of speech, words - determines the possibility of generalization, abstraction and development of concepts. It constitutes, according to I.P. Pavlov, a system of “interhuman signaling.”

I.P. Pavlov believed that the leading link in human behavior and activity in the external environment is the second signaling system. At the same time, it influences both the first signaling system and the activity of the subcortex and internal organs.

I. P. Pavlov wrote: “There are enough reasons to accept that not only from the skeletal-motor system come centripetal, afferent impulses from each element and moment of movement to the cortex, which makes it possible to precisely control skeletal movements from the cortex, but also from other organs and even from individual tissues, why it is possible to influence them from the cortex.”

K. M. Bykov, A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky, K. I. Platonov and others showed that through words it is possible to change the course of internal processes in the human body.

The presence in a person of a second signaling system with its leading role in the life of the body changes the functions of not only the first signaling system, but also subcortical activity. Therefore, there is no reason to consider these parts of the central nervous system in animals and humans to be equivalent.

Both signaling systems are interconnected and are in constant interaction. It is impossible to separate the activity of the second signaling system from the first. The second signaling system reflects in words the influence of the external and internal world on the first signaling system. The separation of one signal system from another is tantamount to the separation of form from content.

The interaction of signaling systems is carried out through 2 main processes: the process of elective or selective irradiation, as a result of which words are associated with the immediate stimuli they denote, and intersystem induction.

A.G. Ivanov-Smolensky and his colleagues replaced the immediate conditioned stimulus with a word designating it in children after strengthening the conditioned reflex. They showed that a conditioned reflex reaction of the same strength and with the same latent period appears to substitute words from the spot as to a direct conditioned stimulus. These studies showed that in children the process of elective, selective irradiation from the first signal system to the second predominates.

In the majority of adult subjects, and especially in elderly people, replacing the immediate stimulus with a word does not succeed.

In adult subjects, in response to a substitute word, a conditioned reflex usually does not appear, but a completely adequate reaction of expectation or denial of the presence of the conditioned stimulus occurs. Obviously, they do not have that strong connection between the first and second signaling systems based on elective irradiation, as in childhood.

In connection with the acquired life experience, with the variety and multiplicity of newly formed temporary connections in an adult, along with the process of elective irradiation, the process of intersystem induction arises.

I.P. Pavlov especially insisted on the importance of inductive relationships, believing that normal higher nervous activity is ensured by negative induction from the second signaling system to the first signaling system.

The unity and integrity of the nervous system is ensured by the commonality of the most basic laws for the first and second signaling systems of reality. There is no doubt, however, that while the basic patterns in the activity of both signaling systems are common, there are also significant differences between them. One of them is the greater mobility of nervous processes in the second signaling system. This is evident from the fact that in an adult, both healthy and in some pathological conditions of higher nervous activity, when developing conditioned reflexes to immediate stimuli, the correct verbal report precedes the formation of a motor conditioned reflex.

In the activity of the second signaling system, systematicity and inductive relationships are much more pronounced than in the first signaling system. Systematicity is manifested in the response to the action of a conditioned stimulus with a constant complex reaction that includes several interconnected components. The formation of such a system is based on the process of selective irradiation of excitation. The widespread development of the irradiation process in the second signal system ensures the development of the principle of generalization, and the predominance of inductive relations determines the emergence of the principle of abstraction.

The establishment of two signal systems of reality in humans led I.P. Pavlov to the need to supplement the doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity.

I. P. Pavlov believed that the 4 main types of higher nervous activity experimentally established in animals and their variations, depending on the ratio of strength, mobility and balance of nervous processes, also occur in humans. The classification established by I.P. Pavlov of the types of higher nervous activity common to animals in humans coincides with the classification of temperaments created by Hippocrates, although it is based not on empirical, but on scientifically proven physiological principles.

IP Pavlov characterized the main types of higher nervous activity in humans common to animals in the following words: “melancholic temperament is a clearly inhibited type of nervous system. For a melancholic person, obviously, every phenomenon of life becomes an agent inhibiting him, since he does not believe in anything, does not hope for anything, sees and expects only the bad and dangerous in everything. The choleric type is clearly a fighting type, perky, easily and quickly irritated. A phlegmatic person is a calm, always even, persistent and persistent worker of life. A sanguine person is an ardent, very productive worker, but only when he has a lot of interesting things to do, that is, there is constant excitement.”

Intermediate types or variations, while maintaining the same relationship between the irritable and inhibitory process, as the main types of higher nervous activity, depend on different strengths of both excitation and inhibition. Depending on the strength of the irritative process, in addition to strong, excitable or balanced types, a weak variation of strong types was identified.

Especially many variations, depending on both the strength and mobility of nervous processes, occur among representatives of the weak type of higher nervous activity.

P. S. Kupalov identified a second unbalanced type in animals, the imbalance of which depends not on different strengths, but on different mobility of the basic nervous processes. In humans, this type has not yet been studied in detail.

Even in animals with relatively simple nervous activity, the innate type of higher nervous activity changes under the influence of upbringing and environmental influences. The change in type depends on the plasticity of the nervous system, especially its higher parts.

In humans, the type of higher nervous activity, to an even greater extent than in animals, depends on the conditions of upbringing and the influences of the social environment. The strength and mobility of nervous processes can be weakened by chronic somatic diseases of early childhood. On the other hand, with pampering upbringing, the type of higher nervous activity is also weakened due to the lack of training of the inhibitory process.

In human society, biological features such as higher nervous activity largely lose their significance. A.G. Ivanov-Smolensky writes: “the importance of the strength of the nervous system in human society largely recedes into the background compared to the importance of the social value of the individual.”

However, the basic properties of the type of higher nervous activity influence both the occurrence and course of various diseases, including neuroses.

The presence of two signaling systems in humans explains the existence in him, along with the type of higher nervous activity common to animals, of a specifically human type.

Depending on the degree of development and correlation of signaling systems, a person develops: an average type with uniform development of both signaling systems; artistic with a relative predominance of the first signaling system and mental with a predominance of the second signaling system.

I. P. Pavlov wrote: “Life clearly points to two categories of people, artists and thinkers. There is a sharp difference between them. Some - artists of all kinds - writers, musicians, painters, etc. - capture reality entirely, completely, completely, living reality, without any fragmentation, without any separation. Other thinkers precisely crush it and thus, as it were, kill it, making some kind of temporary skeleton out of it, and then only gradually, as it were, collect its parts and try to revive them in this way, which they still fail to do.”

In addition to the type of higher nervous activity, a strong dynamic stereotype, or character traits, that develop under the influence of upbringing and examples from surrounding people from early childhood, acquires enormous importance in a person.

Manifestations of a dynamic stereotype, in addition to character traits, also include high feelings of patriotism, class solidarity, camaraderie, a sense of duty, etc., in the development of which both the second and the first signaling systems take part.

The teaching of I. P. Pavlov about the types of higher nervous activity, common to animals and especially human, and the life stereotype solves the problem of character from a materialistic physiological position, without ignoring either the complexity of the issue or the connection of character with the influence of social conditions.

The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity is of particular importance in the question of the essence of neuroses and their classification.

I. P. Pavlov studied human neuroses on the basis of the unity of clinical observations and experiments on animals. Clinical observations gave him the basis to understand the facts obtained in the experiment and carry out new research options, and from the experimental data an understanding of the symptoms and essence of human neuroses was born.

By neurosis, I.P. Pavlov understood a chronic, long-term disruption of normal higher nervous activity caused by overstrain of nervous processes in the cerebral cortex due to the action of external stimuli of inadequate strength or duration. Pathological conditions of higher nervous activity, which are based not on overstrain of higher nervous activity, but on disturbances of cortical processes of a different nature, and also on disturbances not of the cerebral cortex, but of other parts of the central nervous system, cannot be classified as neuroses.

IP Pavlov classified neuroses into three main forms: neurasthenia, hysteria and psychasthenia.

Overstrain of a person’s nervous processes is created by his difficult experiences, sometimes unfavorable living and working conditions, conflict situations, etc.

I.P. Pavlov found that changing a stereotype for an organism is a difficult task. In this regard, the cause of neurosis often lies in the collision of an incorrect stereotype that does not correspond to social conditions, formed during childhood, with the demands of the social environment imposed on an adult.

V. N. Myasishchev emphasizes the importance for the development of neurosis of a person’s attitude to the events of his life and the occurrence of the disease. He writes: “A panicky, serious and responsible, frivolous or anxious-suspicious attitude towards the disease determines specific reactions and experiences, which, in turn, are reflected in the entire physiological balance of the body; a person’s attitude towards illness turns out to be mediated by his attitude towards his work activity, towards strangers and close people.”

This relationship is based on a complex system of temporary connections developed throughout a person’s entire previous life.

At the same time, the reason that determined the development of neurosis cannot always be objectively assessed as a difficult experience that can cause overstrain of nervous processes. It takes on a pathogenic character in connection with previous life conditions, events, impressions, etc. Depending on past life experience, experiences that are insignificant in themselves can become supermaximal and, as a result, pathogenic.

The experimentally proven role of overstrain of nervous processes for the occurrence of neuroses resolved the question of the psychogenic etiology of human neuroses. Somatic diseases, by weakening the body and the strength of nervous processes, can only prepare the ground for the development of neurosis, but not create it. Experimental studies by I. P. Pavlov on animals showed that the type of higher nervous activity is the basis for the development of neurosis. The “supplier” of neuroses is weak and unbalanced types of higher nervous activity. However, exposures of extreme strength and duration can break even a strong, balanced type of nervous system.

The importance of the biological type of higher nervous activity is preserved to a certain extent in humans. For people with weak nervous processes, a large number of life demands and environmental influences can become overwhelming and cause overstrain of nerve cells, and consequently a pathological condition - neurosis.

When there is inertia and inactivity of nervous processes, positions that require a constant change of nervous processes are pathogenic.

Specifically human types of higher nervous activity can also contribute to the emergence of neurosis if there is a discrepancy between the conditions of existence, the nature of professional activity, etc. and the specifically human characteristics of the type, the imbalance of signaling systems.

I.P. Pavlov showed that the form of neurosis depends on the purely human type of nervous activity. “Neurasthenia is a painful form of a weak general and average human type,” wrote I. P. Pavlov. “A hysteric is a product of a weak general type combined with an artistic type, and a psychasthenic is a product of a weak general type combined with a mental one.”

The difference in the clinical picture of the three forms of neuroses (neurasthenia, hysteria and psychasthenia) depends not on the different nature of the diseases, but on the different soil on which the neurosis develops, on which signaling system is weaker and, therefore, more susceptible to change. IP Pavlov, thus, established that all forms of neuroses are diseases that arise exogenously, and that the difference between them depends on the typological characteristics of the patient, thereby denying the constitutional or psychopathic nature of neuroses.

The teachings of I. P. Pavlov were supplemented and developed by his students, which made it possible to reveal some features of the origin and course of neuroses, understand their symptoms and develop new treatment methods based on the principles given by I. P. Pavlov.