The structure of the human stomach diagram. How is the human digestive system organized? Structure and functions of the stomach
The normal residence time of the contents (digested food) in the stomach is about 1 hour.
Anatomy of the stomach
Anatomically, the stomach is divided into four parts:- cardiac(lat. pars cardiaca), adjacent to the esophagus;
- pyloric or gatekeeper (lat. pars pylorica), adjacent to the duodenum;
- body of stomach(lat. corpus ventriculi), located between the cardiac and pyloric parts;
- fundus of the stomach(lat. fundus ventriculi), located above and to the left of the cardiac part.
The figure on the right shows: 1. Body of the stomach. 2. Fundus of the stomach. 3. Anterior wall of the stomach. 4. Greater curvature. 5. Small curvature. 6. Lower esophageal sphincter (cardia). 9. Pyloric sphincter. 10. Antrum. 11. Pyloric canal. 12. Corner cut. 13. A groove formed during digestion between the longitudinal folds of the mucosa along the lesser curvature. 14. Folds of the mucous membrane.
The following anatomical structures are also distinguished in the stomach:
- anterior wall of the stomach(lat. paries anterior);
- posterior wall of the stomach(lat. paries posterior);
- lesser curvature of the stomach(lat. curvatura ventriculi minor);
- greater curvature of the stomach(lat. curvatura ventriculi major).
The shape of the stomach depends on the position of the body, the fullness of food, and the functional state of the person. With average filling, the length of the stomach is 14–30 cm, width 10–16 cm, length of the lesser curvature 10.5 cm, greater curvature 32–64 cm, wall thickness in the cardiac region 2–3 mm (up to 6 mm), in the antrum 3 –4 mm (up to 8 mm). The stomach capacity is from 1.5 to 2.5 liters (the male stomach is larger than the female). The normal weight of the stomach of a “conditional person” (with a body weight of 70 kg) is 150 g.
The stomach wall consists of four main layers (listed from the inner surface of the wall to the outer):
- mucous membrane covered with single-layer columnar epithelium
- submucosa
- muscle layer, consisting of three sublayers of smooth muscle:
- inner sublayer of oblique muscles
- middle sublayer of circular muscles
- outer sublayer of longitudinal muscles
- serous membrane.
Stomach mucosa
The mucous membrane of the stomach is formed by a single-layer columnar epithelium, a layer of its own and a muscular plate that forms folds (relief of the mucous membrane), gastric fields and gastric pits, where the excretory ducts of the gastric glands are localized. In the proper layer of the mucous membrane there are tubular gastric glands, consisting of parietal cells that produce hydrochloric acid; main cells producing the proenzyme pepsin pepsinogen, and accessory (mucosal) cells secreting mucus. In addition, mucus is synthesized by mucous cells located in the layer of the surface (integumentary) epithelium of the stomach. The surface of the gastric mucosa is covered with a continuous thin layer of mucous gel consisting of glycoproteins, and underneath is a layer of bicarbonates adjacent to the superficial epithelium of the mucosa. Together they form the mucobicarbonate barrier of the stomach, which protects epithelial cells from the aggression of the acid-peptic factor (Y.S. Zimmerman). The mucus contains antimicrobial activity immunoglobulin A (IgA), lysozyme, lactoferrin and other components.
The surface of the mucous membrane of the body of the stomach has a pitted structure, which creates conditions for minimal contact of the epithelium with the aggressive intracavitary environment of the stomach, which is also facilitated by a thick layer of mucous gel. Therefore, the acidity on the surface of the epithelium is close to neutral. 
The mucous membrane of the body of the stomach is characterized by a relatively short path for the movement of hydrochloric acid from the parietal cells into the lumen of the stomach, since they are located mainly in the upper half of the glands, and the main cells are in the basal part. An important contribution to the mechanism of protecting the gastric mucosa from the aggression of gastric juice is made by the extremely rapid nature of gland secretion, caused by the work of the muscle fibers of the gastric mucosa. On the contrary, the mucous membrane of the antral region of the stomach (see the figure on the right) is characterized by a “villous” structure of the surface of the mucous membrane, which is formed by short villi or convoluted ridges 125–350 µm high (Lysikov Yu.A. et al.).
Stomach in children
In children, the shape of the stomach is not constant and depends on the constitution of the child’s body, age and diet. In newborns, the stomach has a round shape; by the beginning of the first year it becomes oblong. By the age of 7–11, a child’s stomach does not differ in shape from an adult’s. In infants, the stomach is positioned horizontally, but as soon as the child begins to walk, it takes on a more vertical position.By the birth of a child, the fundus and cardiac part of the stomach are not sufficiently developed, and the pyloric part is much better, which explains frequent regurgitation. Regurgitation is also promoted by swallowing air during sucking (aerophagia), with improper feeding technique, short frenulum of the tongue, greedy sucking, and too rapid release of milk from the mother's breast.
Gastric juice
The main components of gastric juice are: hydrochloric acid secreted by parietal cells, proteolytic enzymes produced by chief cells and non-proteolytic enzymes, mucus and bicarbonates (secreted by accessory cells), intrinsic Castle factor (production of parietal cells).The gastric juice of a healthy person is practically colorless, odorless and contains a small amount of mucus.
Basal secretion, not stimulated by food or otherwise, in men is: gastric juice 80-100 ml/h, hydrochloric acid - 2.5-5.0 mmol/h, pepsin - 20-35 mg/h. Women have 25–30% less. About 2 liters of gastric juice are produced in the stomach of an adult per day.
The gastric juice of an infant contains the same components as the gastric juice of an adult: rennet, hydrochloric acid, pepsin, lipase, but their content is reduced, especially in newborns, and increases gradually. Pepsin breaks down proteins into albumins and peptones. Lipase breaks down neutral fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Rennet (the most active enzyme in infants) curdles milk (Bokonbaeva S.D. et al.).
Stomach acidity
The main contribution to the total acidity of gastric juice is made by hydrochloric acid produced by the parietal cells of the fundic glands of the stomach, located mainly in the area of the fundus and body of the stomach. The concentration of hydrochloric acid secreted by parietal cells is the same and equal to 160 mmol/l, but the acidity of the secreted gastric juice varies due to changes in the number of functioning parietal cells and neutralization of hydrochloric acid by alkaline components of gastric juice. Normal acidity in the lumen of the body of the stomach on an empty stomach is 1.5–2.0 pH. The acidity on the surface of the epithelial layer facing the lumen of the stomach is 1.5–2.0 pH. The acidity in the depths of the epithelial layer of the stomach is about 7.0 pH. Normal acidity in the antrum of the stomach is 1.3–7.4 pH.
Currently, the only reliable method for measuring gastric acidity is intragastric pH-metry, performed using special devices - acidogastrometers, equipped with pH probes with several pH sensors, which allows you to measure acidity simultaneously in different areas of the gastrointestinal tract.
Stomach acidity in relatively healthy people (who do not have any subjective gastroenterological sensations) changes cyclically during the day. Daily fluctuations in acidity are greater in the antrum than in the body of the stomach. The main reason for such changes in acidity is the longer duration of nocturnal duodenogastric reflux (DGR) compared to daytime, which throws duodenal contents into the stomach and, thereby, reduces the acidity in the lumen of the stomach (increases pH). The table below shows the average acidity values in the antrum and body of the stomach in apparently healthy patients (Kolesnikova I.Yu., 2009):
The general acidity of gastric juice in children of the first year of life is 2.5–3 times lower than in adults. Free hydrochloric acid is determined during breastfeeding after 1–1.5 hours, and during artificial feeding – after 2.5–3 hours after feeding. The acidity of gastric juice is subject to significant fluctuations depending on the nature and diet, the state of the gastrointestinal tract.
Gastric motility
In terms of motor activity, the stomach can be divided into two zones: proximal (upper) and distal (lower). There are no rhythmic contractions or peristalsis in the proximal zone. The tone of this zone depends on the fullness of the stomach. When food arrives, the tone of the muscular lining of the stomach decreases and the stomach reflexively relaxes.
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Motor activity of various parts of the stomach and duodenum (Gorban V.V. et al.)
The figure on the right shows a diagram of the fundic gland (Dubinskaya T.K.): 1 - mucus-bicarbonate layer Microflora of the stomachUntil recently, it was believed that due to the bactericidal effect of gastric juice, microflora that penetrated the stomach died within 30 minutes. However, modern methods of microbiological research have proven that this is not the case. The amount of various mucosal microflora in the stomach of healthy people is 10 3 –10 4 /ml (3 lg CFU/g), including in 44.4% of cases identified Helicobacter pylori(5.3 lg CFU/g), 55.5% - streptococci (4 lg CFU/g), 61.1% - staphylococci (3.7 lg CFU/g), 50% - lactobacilli (3. 2 lg CFU/g), in 22.2% - fungi of the genus Candida(3.5 lg CFU/g). In addition, bacteroides, corynebacteria, micrococci, etc. were sown in an amount of 2.7–3.7 lg CFU/g. It should be noted that Helicobacter pylori were determined only in association with other bacteria. The environment in the stomach turned out to be sterile in healthy people only in 10% of cases. Based on their origin, the gastric microflora is conventionally divided into oral-respiratory and fecal. In 2005, strains of lactobacilli that adapted (similar to Helicobacter pylori) to exist in the sharply acidic environment of the stomach: Lactobacillus gastricus, Lactobacillus antri, Lactobacillus kalixensis, Lactobacillus ultunensis. In various diseases (chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer, stomach cancer), the number and diversity of bacterial species colonizing the stomach increases significantly. In chronic gastritis, the largest amount of mucosal microflora is found in the antrum, and in peptic ulcer disease - in the periulcerous zone (in the inflammatory ridge). Moreover, the dominant position is often occupied by non- Helicobacter pylori, and streptococci, staphylococci, |
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- Skeletotopy of the stomach
- Structure and functions of the stomach
- The structure of the organ mucosa
- What do you need to know about the structural features of the stomach?
- X-ray anatomy and physiology of the stomach
- Endoscopy of the organ in question
What is the structure of the stomach and what does this organ look like? The stomach is an extension of the digestive tract in the form of a bag. In this organ, food accumulates after it moves through the esophagus; the initial stages of digestion go through, when the solid components of food must turn into a liquid composition or porridge.
Food that enters the organ undergoes further digestion, which begins in the oral cavity.
Skeletotopy of the stomach
The abdomen has anterior and posterior walls. The bent, upward and to the right extreme part of the organ is called the lesser curvature. The convex, downward and leftward-oriented extreme part of the organ is called the greater curvature. On the slight curvature, near the exit end, you can see a notch where several sections of the slight curvature meet at an acute angle.
The sections of the human stomach are presented as follows:
- digestive sac (digestorius);
- physiological sphincter;
- dome-shaped element (bottom of the stomach);
- the entry point of the esophagus, which is located close to the heart (ostium cardiacum);
- exit point;
- proximal stomach;
- exit hole;
- adjacent part of the organ;
- organ body;
- an area that is located next to the body;
- stomach canal;
- a narrow tube-shaped part (canalis pyloricus), which is located near the pylorus.
Syntopy, holotopy, skeletopy, the structure of its walls - all this makes up the topographic anatomy of the stomach.
This organ is located in the epigastrium. Most of the organ is located to the left of the middle of the plane. The greater curvature of the organ, if it is filled, will be located in the regio umbilicalis. The gastric vault can reach the lower part of the 5th rib. Ostium cardiacum is located on the left side of the spine, at a distance of 2-3 cm from the extreme part of the sternum.
The syntopy of the stomach is as follows: in the case of an empty organ, the pylorus will lie along the midline or to the right of it. In the case of a full state, the upper part of the abdomen will be in contact with the lower base of the left part of the liver. In the posterior part, the organ is in contact with the upper pole of the left kidney and the adrenal gland, with the anterior base of the pancreas.
When the abdomen is not full, due to the contraction of the walls, the organ will go deeper, and the transverse colon will occupy the freed space. The latter can be located in the front of the stomach, under the diaphragm. The size of the organ may vary. In the case of an average level of distension, the length of the element is approximately 20-25 cm. The dimensions of the newborn's stomach are small (length is 5 cm). The capacity of the organ will largely depend on the dietary habits of the subject, the value most often being in the range of 1-3 liters.
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Structure and functions of the stomach
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The structure of the organ mucosa
The wall consists of several shells:
- Tunica serosa is the muscular serous lining of the stomach.
- Tunica mucosa - mucous membrane. It has a developed submucosa. Designed to perform the main function of the stomach, namely processing consumed food. There are several glands in the mucosa that produce gastric juice. This substance contains hydrochloric acid.
- Tunica muscularis - muscular layer. Represents itself as myocytes and muscle tissue. In the form of bags, they are placed in three layers. The middle layer is more pronounced than the longitudinal one. The circular layer of the stomach will thicken closer to the exit.
The reverse valve, in the event of contraction of the pyloric constrictor, will completely separate the abdominal cavity from the duodenal cavity. There is also a device that regulates the passage of food from the stomach into the intestine and prevents it from returning. Otherwise, neutralization of the acidic environment of the stomach could occur.
Classification of glands:
- Cardinal.
- Pyloric, which consist exclusively of main cells.
- Gastric. There are quite a lot of them in the body. They are located in the area of the vault and body of the organ. The composition contains various cells: main and lining cells.
The pancreas is located behind the organ in question.
In some places, single follicles are scattered in the mucosa.
Soaking food with stomach juice can be achieved due to the ability of the mucous membrane to form folds. This can be ensured by the presence of a loose submucosal base, which contains vessels and nerves and allows the mucous membrane to connect into various folds. The blood supply to the stomach occurs thanks to the vessels that surround it. Along the slight curvature, the folds of the stomach, the structure of which is being considered, will have a longitudinal direction and form a path, which, in the event of muscle contraction, will become a channel through which food fluids will pass from the esophagus to the pylorus, bypassing the fundic element. The peritoneal ligaments of the stomach on the side of the slight curvature belong to the small omentum.
In addition to folds, the mucosa may have rounded elevations called fields. Small pits may be found at their base. The glands will open into these pits. At the inlet of the esophagus, under a microscope, you can see a clear boundary between the epithelium of the stomach and esophagus. In the area of the pylorus opening there is a circular fold that separates the acidic environment from the alkaline one.
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What do you need to know about the structural features of the stomach?
The oblique muscle fibers are connected into bundles that fit around the left side of the ostium cardiacum and create a loop for support.
The structure of the ruminant stomach is characterized by a complex digestive system.
The outer layer of the wall will be formed by a serous film, which is an element of the peritoneum. The serous membrane will connect to the stomach in all places except the two curvatures. Vessels will be located between several layers of the peritoneum. At the base of the stomach on the left side of the ostium cardiacum there is a small area that is not covered by the peritoneum. At this point the organ is in contact with the diaphragm.
Despite its relatively simple shape, the human stomach, controlled by an innervation device, is a perfect organ that allows a person to easily adapt to various eating patterns.
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X-ray anatomy and physiology of the stomach
Such diagnostics of this organ in sick people makes it possible to identify the dimensions, shape, location of the stomach and an image of the folds of its mucous membrane. In this case, the tone of the muscle membrane is important. The human stomach will not retain X-ray rays and therefore will not produce shadows on the X-ray image. Only clearing can be detected, which corresponds to a gas bubble: air and gases penetrating along with food, rising to the vault of the stomach.
To prepare the stomach for diagnosis, contrast contrast with a suspension of barium sulfate should be used. In the contrast image, you will notice that the cardiac sphincter, fornix and body of the organ will form the descending part of the shadow. The pyloric part of the stomach forms the ascending part of the shadow. The ratios of such parts can be individual in each case. The following types and positions of the organ are most often observed:
- Horn-shaped organ. The body of the stomach is located almost transversely, the pyloric part of the stomach narrows slightly. The pylorus is located on the right side of the extreme part of the spinal column and is the lowest point of the organ. As a result, there will be no angle between the parts of the stomach. The entire organ is located almost transversely.
- Hook-shaped organ. The descending part is located obliquely or almost vertically down. The ascending part is placed obliquely. The pylorus is located near the right edge of the spinal column. An angle is formed between these parts, which is slightly less than a right angle. In general, the stomach is placed obliquely.
- An organ in the shape of a stocking. It looks like a hook-shaped organ. The only difference is that the descending part of the organ is longer and descends vertically. The ascending part rises sharply upward. In this case, the angle formed will be approximately 35-40°.
The stomach is located on the left side of the midline and slightly extends beyond it in some places. The organ is placed vertically. A correlation can be noted between the shape and placement of the stomach: an organ in the form of a horn in most cases has a transverse position, an organ in the form of a hook has an oblique position, and an elongated organ has a vertical position.
The shape of the organ is more closely related to the body type.
In patients with a brachymorphic body type and a small body, you can often find a horn-shaped stomach. The organ is located transversely, the lowest part is 3-5 cm above the line that connects the iliac crests.
In patients with a dolichomorphic physique and an elongated body of small width, one can often find an elongated organ with a vertical location. Almost the entire stomach is located to the left of the spinal column. The pylorus will be projected on the spine, the lower line of the organ in question will fall below the linea biiliaca.
In patients with a transitional physique, a hook-shaped organ can be found. The stomach is placed obliquely. This shape and position are most common.
Muscle tone also affects the shape. On an empty stomach, the organ is in a collapsed state. If food gets into it, the stomach will begin to stretch to embrace its contents.
The stomach meridian starts from the wing of the nose and rises to the inner corner of the eye, where it connects with the bladder meridian.
The glands of the mucous membrane will secrete juice, which contains digestive pigments, as well as hydrochloric acid. Such juice will have a bactericidal effect.
The stomach is located between the duodenum and the esophagus. It is an extension of the digestive tract, sac-shaped. Performs important functions: accumulation, partial digestion and further movement of food into the intestines. This organ is an important part.
Anatomical structure of the human stomach
The stomach is usually divided into the following sections:
- Cardiac. The department acquired its name due to its anatomical proximity to the heart. This area is the transition from the esophagus to the stomach. The muscle fibers are very well developed and reverse movement of food is impossible.
- Fundus (vault) of the stomach. It is shaped like a dome and is located above and to the left of the cardia. Air accumulates in this section, which accidentally penetrates with the food mass. The fornix has a large number of glands that produce hydrochloric acid.
- Body. The largest part of the stomach makes up two-thirds of the total size. This is where food is stored and broken down. Determines the volume of the stomach.
- Pyloric. This part of the stomach is located below the rest and passes into the duodenum. Its main function is to transport food. Consists of a canal and a cave.
The size of the organ is directly related to the physique and degree of filling. In slender people, the stomach has an elongated shape and is located lower. Such people have a predisposition to gastritis and peptic ulcers.
The shape of the organ changes as it ages. Currently, the structure of the human stomach and its main functions have been thoroughly studied.
The structure of the walls of the human stomach, diagram
The inner surface of the stomach is lined with mucous membrane. It is represented by one layer of epithelial cells, therefore it is extremely sensitive to negative influences. The shell has a pitted structure. Cells produce active hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and regulate the digestion process.
The mucous membrane is nourished by the submucosal membrane. Rich in blood vessels and nerve endings. The shell is a connective tissue with a loose structure. It also helps regulate digestion.
Nerve endings react to the ingestion of food and give a signal for the production of enzymes.
The walls of the stomach have a muscular layer. It softens, mixes and pushes food. This shell consists of 3 layers:
- longitudinal,
- circular
- oblique.
The outer layer of the stomach is represented by the serous membrane. This is a thin film covered with epithelium. This sheath contains a large number of nerve fibers. Therefore, many stomach diseases are accompanied by severe pain symptoms.
The outer layer produces a small volume of fluid to reduce friction between the internal organs. The serous membrane is a kind of barrier against the aggressive environment of the intestine.
The special structure of the walls of the stomach allows it to effectively cope with its functions. Any violation in this pattern leads to digestive problems.
It is also important that food enters the stomach without disturbances from the section preceding it - the esophagus. Learn and follow the necessary dietary rules.
Nutrition is a complexly coordinated process aimed at replenishing the energy of a living organism through processing, digestion, breakdown, and absorption of nutrients. All these and some other functions are performed by the gastrointestinal tract, which consists of many important elements combined into a single system. Each of its mechanisms is capable of performing a variety of actions, but when one element suffers, the operation of the entire structure is disrupted.
This is due to the fact that food entering our body undergoes multi-stage processing; these are not only the familiar processes of digestion in the stomach and absorption in the intestines. Digestion also includes the absorption of those same substances by the body. Thus, the diagram of the human digestive system takes on a broad picture. Pictures with captions will help you visualize the topic of the article. 
The digestive system usually consists of the gastrointestinal tract and additional organs called glands. The organs of the digestive tract include:
The visual arrangement of the organs of the gastrointestinal tract is shown in the figure below. Having familiarized yourself with the basics, it is worth considering the structure of the organs of the human digestive system in more detail. 
The initial section of the gastrointestinal tract is oral cavity. Here, under the influence of teeth, mechanical processing of incoming food is performed. Human teeth have a variety of shapes, which means their functions are also different: incisors cut, canines tear, premolars and molars grind.
In addition to mechanical treatment, chemical treatment also begins in the oral cavity. This happens under the influence of saliva, or rather, its enzymes that break down some carbohydrates. Of course, complete breakdown of carbohydrates cannot occur here due to the short stay of the food bolus in the mouth. But enzymes saturate the lump, and the astringent components of saliva hold it together, ensuring its easy movement to the pharynx.
Pharynx- this tube, consisting of several cartilages, performs the function of carrying the bolus of food to the esophagus. In addition to carrying food, the pharynx is also a respiratory organ; 3 sections are located here: the oropharynx, nasopharynx and laryngopharynx - the last two belong to the upper respiratory tract.
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From the pharynx, food enters esophagus- a long muscular tube that also performs the function of carrying food to the stomach. A feature of the structure of the esophagus is 3 physiological narrowings. The esophagus is characterized by peristaltic movements.
At its lower end, the esophagus opens into the stomach cavity. The stomach has a rather complex structure, since its mucous membrane is rich in a large number of tissue glands, various cells that produce gastric juice. Food stays in the stomach for 3 to 10 hours, depending on the nature of the food taken. The stomach digests it, saturates it with enzymes, turns into chyme, then the “food gruel” enters the duodenum in portions.
The duodenum belongs to the small intestine, but it is worth paying special attention to it, since this is where some of the most important elements of the digestive process come - intestinal and pancreatic juices and bile. Bile is a liquid rich in special enzymes produced by the liver. There are cystic and hepatic biles; they differ slightly in composition, but perform the same functions. Pancreatic juice, together with bile and intestinal juice, constitute the most important enzymatic factor in digestion, which involves the almost complete breakdown of substances. The duodenal mucosa has special villi that are capable of capturing large lipid molecules that, due to their size, are not able to be absorbed by blood vessels. 
Next, the chyme passes into the jejunum, then into the ileum. Following the small intestine comes the large intestine, it begins with the cecum with a vermiform appendix, best known as the “appendix”. The appendix does not have any special properties during digestion since it is a vestigial organ, that is, an organ that has lost its functions. The large intestine is represented by the cecum, colon and rectum. Performs functions such as absorption of water, secretion of specific substances, formation of feces and, finally, excretory function. A feature of the large intestine is the presence of microflora that determines the normal functioning of the entire human body as a whole.
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Digestive glands are organs capable of producing enzymes that enter the gastrointestinal tract and digest nutrients.
Large salivary glands. These are paired glands, distinguished:
- Parotid salivary glands (located in front and below the auricle)
- Submandibular and sublingual (located under the diaphragm of the oral cavity)
They produce saliva - a mixture of secretions from all salivary glands. This is a viscous transparent liquid consisting of water (98.5%) and dry residue (1.5%). The dry residue includes mucin, lysozyme, enzymes that break down carbohydrates, salts, etc. Saliva enters the oral cavity through the excretory ducts of the glands during meals or during visual, olfactory and auditory stimulation. 
Liver. This unpaired parenchymal organ, located in the right hypochondrium, is the largest gland in the human body; its weight in an adult can be approximately 1.5-2 kg. The shape of the liver resembles an irregular wedge; with the help of ligaments it is divided into 2 lobes. The liver produces golden-colored bile. It consists of water (97.5%) and dry residue (2.5%). The dry residue is represented by bile acids (cholic acid), pigments (bilirubin, biliverdin) and cholesterol, as well as enzymes, vitamins, and inorganic salts. In addition to digestive activity, bile also performs an excretory function, that is, it is capable of removing metabolic products from the body, for example, the above-mentioned bilirubin (a breakdown product of hemoglobin).
Hepatocytes are specific cells of the liver lobules; they are the tissue of the organ. They serve as filters for toxins that enter the blood, therefore, the liver has the ability to protect the body from poisons that poison it.
The gallbladder is located under the liver and adjacent to it. It is a kind of reservoir for hepatic bile, which enters it through the excretory ducts. Here, bile accumulates and enters the intestines through the bile ducts. This bile is now called bladder bile and is dark olive in color.
The protective functions performed are realized by producing a special secretion that helps destroy harmful microorganisms that enter the stomach. The specific anatomical structure helps the organ to return poor-quality food and prevent the penetration of harmful components from it into the further located intestine. Thus, it prevents poisoning and protects against its negative consequences.
