Cheat sheet: Mental cognitive processes. Mental cognitive processes What cognitive processes are involuntary and voluntary

4.1 Attention

4.2 Feeling

4.3 Perception

4.4 Memory

4.5 Thinking

4.6 Imagination

4.1. A person understands the world around him with the help of attention, sensations, perception, memory, thinking and imagination. Each of these cognitive processes provides knowledge of certain properties of the surrounding world.

1.Attention how the orienting-search process directs and concentrates consciousness on certain objects of reality while simultaneously distracting from others, determines selectivity and selection of information coming through the senses.

Attention is associated with the activity of a number of brain structures, primarily the reticular formation and attention neurons, located mainly in the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. The physiological basis of attention is the conditioned orientation reflex “What is this?” (I.P. Pavlov) Ukhtomsky A. A. is the dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex.

Properties attention :

volume- an indicator of the number of objects simultaneously in the field of attention (for an adult, on average it is five to seven objects);

sustainability-temporal characteristics of attention, an indicator of the duration of maintaining the intensity of attention;

concentration-an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on an object;

distribution- the ability to maintain attention on several objects at the same time, which makes it possible to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention;

switching-an indicator of the speed of transition from one type of activity to another;

objectivity- the ability to highlight certain complexes of signals in accordance with attitudes and personal significance; for example, when listening to music, a person does not pay attention to other sounds.

Depending on the conditions of occurrence, various types of attention.

Types of attention

Type of attention	Occurrence condition	Features of manifestation
Involuntary	Impact of strong Or significant Irritant	Is carried out unpredictably moderately, does not require volitional efforts; easily switching occurs and termination
free	Staging and acceptance tasks as paths problem solving	Requires willpower maintaining control behind behavior, for a long time concentration causes fatigue
Post-voluntary	Passion for the process problem solving	High concentration on solving the problem when releasing tension, does not require significant volitional efforts

Attention is a necessary condition for successful human activity. Therefore, it is important to develop attention management skills. It should be taken into account factors contributing to attracting attention:

the nature of the stimulus (novelty, contrast, physical characteristics - size of the object, etc.);

the relationship of the stimulus to the needs (what is important for a person, is more consistent with his needs, will attract his attention first of all).

To maintain attention, you should also neutralize factors reducing his stability:

monotony and stereotyping of the actions performed;

monotony and insufficiency (excess) of information.

So, attention organizes in a special way the processes of mental reflection of reality, the primary form of which is feeling-mental process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

4.2. In fact, sensations are products of processing by the central nervous system (and primarily the cerebral cortex) of stimuli arising in the process of human life.

I. Pavlov called the anatomical and physiological apparatus that serves to receive and process such stimuli analyzer.

Each analyzer consists of the following organs:

receptor(sensory organs) - sensory cells “tuned” to receive certain stimuli (auditory, gustatory, etc.) and convert their effects into electrochemical impulses;

nerve (conducting) pathways, transmitting these impulses to the central nervous system;

analyzer center- a specialized area in the cerebral cortex in which impulses are “decoded”, the physiological process turns into a mental one (sensations) and a person realizes what is affecting him - noise, smell, heat, etc.

The following are distinguished: types of sensations:

External (exteroceptive), arising from the influence of stimuli on receptors located on the outer surface of the body - visual (the most important for the functioning of the human psyche), auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory;

Organic (interoceptive), signaling what is happening in the body (feelings of pain, hunger, thirst, etc.);

Kinesthetic (proprioceptive), with the help of which the brain receives information about the position and movement of various parts of the body; their receptors are located in muscles and tendons.

To the number features of sensations include:

a) adaptation - adaptation of sensory organs (eyes, auditory analyzers, etc.) to the strength of existing stimuli. It can manifest itself as a complete disappearance of sensation as a result of prolonged exposure to an irritant, or as an increase or decrease in sensitivity under the influence of exposure to an irritant;

b) sensitization - an increase in the sensitivity of analyzers due to an increase in the excitability of the cerebral cortex under the influence of the simultaneous activity of other analyzers. For example, the feeling of rhythm helps to enhance muscle-motor sensitivity. It can also be developed with the help of special exercises (for musicians - auditory sensitivity, for tasters - olfactory and gustatory sensitivity, etc.);

V) interaction sensations - can be illustrated by the research of Academician P. P. Lazarev, who found that lighting the eyes makes audible sounds louder. Sound stimulation (for example, a whistle) can sharpen the visual sense, increasing its sensitivity to light stimuli.

d) the phenomenon of contrast - a different sensation of the same stimulus depending on the experience or simultaneous action of another stimulus. Weak stimuli increase sensitivity to other simultaneously acting stimuli, while strong ones reduce it;

e) sequential images - continuation of sensations after the cessation of the stimulus.

E) synesthesia- (from Greek - joint feeling) increased interaction of analyzers can lead to the fact that under the influence of one stimulus additional sensations characteristic of another may arise. For example, music can evoke color sensations, some colors can evoke sensations of coolness or warmth. One of the subjects with exceptionally pronounced synesthesia, the famous mnemonist Sh., was studied in detail by A. R. Luria.

4.3. As a result of information processing by the senses, individual sensations are combined into integral images of objects and phenomena in the environment. The process of creating these images is called perception.

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses.

Physiological basis of perception is the complex activity of the system of analyzers of the cerebral cortex, which compares various types of incoming sensations.

Compared to sensations, perception is a higher form of analytical-synthetic activity of the brain, without which a meaningful understanding of the nature of the influencing stimulus is impossible. It is this that ensures the selection of the object of perception, on the basis of which the synthesis of all its properties in a holistic image is carried out.

Types of perception:

1.Depending on the goal: intentional (based on a conscious goal and volitional efforts) and unintentional.

2.Depending on the presence of organization: organized (depending on the second signaling system, they are purposeful, systematic) and unorganized.

3.Depending on the form of reflection:

The perception of time is a reflection of objective reality, the speed and sequence of life phenomena; it is based on a rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition.

The perception of movement is a reflection in time, a change in the position of objects or the observer himself in space.

Observing movement, they perceive: character, shape, amplitude, direction, speed, duration and acceleration.

The perception of space is the perception of shape, size, volume, objects. the distance between them, the relative location, distance and direction in which they are located.

The main properties of perception include:

constancy- constancy of the image of perception under changing physical conditions; for example, the color and shape of familiar objects are perceived the same regardless of viewing conditions; thanks to this, a person can perceive and cognize the world of stable things that retain their basic characteristics even with the slightest change, for example, illumination or distance to the perceived object;

objectivity- perception of the external world not in the form of a set of unrelated sensations, but in the form of objects isolated in space; in this case, the perceived reality is divided into two layers - the image of the object (figure) and the image of the space surrounding the object (background); It is interesting that different objects are distinguished as figure and background depending on a person’s past experience; such dependence on the content of a person’s mental activity is called apperception;

integrity- independence of the perceived image from distortion and replacement of its components; for example, you can preserve a portrait likeness by depicting a person with strokes, dotted lines, and other elements; the perception of figures and their parts not separately, but in the form of integral images allows us to explain some illusions of perception, for example, the illusion of an arrow;

(the length of the middle part of the first arrow seems longer than the length of the second; it is explained by the installation: if the whole is larger, then its parts are larger)

generality- the ability to correctly identify an object and assign it to a certain class, regardless of its individual characteristics; Thus, we can recognize a table as such, regardless of its shape, size, etc.; read any text regardless of the font or handwriting features. These properties are not innate and develop throughout life.

Selectivity- This is a person’s ability to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him.

The conditions for the formation of adequate perception (and sensory forms of cognition in general) are human activity, the establishment of feedback in practical interaction with the outside world, and the provision of a certain minimum and habitual structure of information coming from outside.

These conditions and properties must be taken into account by a person when developing perception, observation (learning not only to look, but also to see, not only to listen, but also to hear, etc.) as a result of observation - deliberate, systematic perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

4.4. The images that arise in the process of perception are preserved and made possible in the future by human memory - the process of imprinting, preserving and restoring past experience. It is based on the ability of the brain to retain traces of external influences, as well as influences coming from within the body.

The physiological basis of memory are traces of former neural processes stored in the cerebral cortex. As a result of the plasticity of the nervous system, any process does not pass unnoticed for the nervous tissue, leaving a trace in it in the form of functional changes. In the future, this facilitates the flow of nervous processes when they are repeated. In the last 30 years, studies have been carried out that have shown that the imprinting, storage and reproduction of traces are associated with deep biochemical processes, in particular with the modification of RNA, and that memory traces can be transferred humoral, biochemically. Intensive research began on the so-called excitation reverberation processes, which began to be considered as a physiological substrate of memory. Research has emerged that has attempted to isolate the areas of the brain required for memory retention and the neurological mechanisms underlying remembering and forgetting.

There are several main approaches to classifying types of memory:

1) according to the nature of mental activity prevailing in the activity, memory is divided into:

motor;

emotional;

figurative;

verbal-logical;

2) according to the nature of the goals of the activity:

Involuntary;

free;

3) according to the duration of consolidation and preservation of the material (in connection with its role and place in the activity) on:

short-term;

long-term;

operational.

4) the degree of meaningfulness of memorization (mechanical, logical, or semantic memory

There are several memory levels depending on the duration of storing information:

instantaneous (sensory) memory - stores information about how the world is perceived at the receptor level for 0.3-1.0 s; Of particular importance is instant visual (iconic) memory, which, by retaining images for the period of closing the eyes during blinking and other movements, provides a continuous perception of the world; with the help of iconic memory a person can obtain significantly more information than he can later reproduce; this fact is used in the well-known phenomenon of the “25th frame”, when during editing every 25th frame is pasted into the film with information that gradually accumulates, as research has shown, in the subconscious;

short-term memory - ensures rapid storage and processing of information received from the senses in limited portions (7+2 structural units);

intermediate memory - retains information for several hours and has a significantly greater capacity than short-term memory; An interesting hypothesis is that during night sleep, information in small portions (7+2 units) enters short-term memory, where it is processed (at the stage of “slow sleep”) and stored for further processing (at the stage of “rapid sleep”);

long-term memory - retains information throughout a person’s life and has an unlimited volume; At the same time, repetition is considered the main mechanism for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Memory processes.

1. Memorization is the imprinting in a person’s mind of the forms he has received, which are necessary for enrichment with new knowledge, experience, and forms of behavior. The productivity of memorization also depends on how memorization is carried out: in general or in parts. In psychology, there are three ways to memorize large amounts of material: holistic, partial and combined. The first method (holistic) is that the material (text, poem, etc.) is read from beginning to end several times until completely mastered. In the second method (partial), the material is divided into parts and each part is learned separately. First, one part is read several times, then the second, then the third, etc. The combined method is a combination of integral and partial. The material is first read in its entirety one or several times depending on its volume and nature, then difficult parts are highlighted and memorized separately, after which the entire text is read in its entirety again. If the material, for example, a poetic text, is large in volume, then it is divided into stanzas, logically complete parts, and memorization occurs in this way: first, the text is read once or twice from beginning to end, its general meaning is clarified, then each part is memorized, after which the material is read in its entirety again.

2. Retention is the retention of acquired knowledge in memory for a long time.

3. Reproduction is the activation of previously fixed content of the psyche.

4. Recognition is a mental phenomenon that allows the memory process to function more efficiently. Occurs in the process of repeated perception.

5. Forgetting is expressed in the inability to restore previously perceived information. The physiological basis of forgetting is certain types of cortical inhibition, which interferes with the actualization of temporary neural connections. Most often this is the so-called extinctive inhibition, which develops in the absence of reinforcement.

It should be noted that forgetting occurs unevenly over time. The greatest loss of material occurs immediately after its perception, and later forgetting occurs more slowly. For example, Ebbinghaus's experiments showed that an hour after learning 13 meaningless syllables, forgetting reaches 56%, but then it goes slower. Moreover, the same pattern is characteristic of forgetting meaningful material. However, the forgetting process can be slowed down. To do this, it is necessary to organize a timely repetition of the perceived material, without delaying this work for a long time.

Although memory depends on many factors (features of the nervous system, environment, nature of activity, attitude, personality characteristics), there is a general way to improve it - mastering the techniques of productive memorization.

R. Granovskaya divides productive memorization techniques into two groups:

based on the introduction of artificial logical connections from the outside into the memorized material (mnemonic devices);

based on identifying logical connections in the memorized material.

Mnemonic techniques (from the Greek tpetotkop - the art of memorization) are based on the formation of associative connections between the elements of the memorized and reference series. Well-known objects (the location of rooms in an apartment, houses on the street) can act as a reference row; visual images; words organized into a meaningful phrase.

So, to remember the order of colors in the spectrum, they use the phrase “Every hunter wants to know where the pheasant sits,” in which the first letters of each word are also the first letters of the corresponding color of the spectrum. Phone numbers are remembered by linking them with well-known dates of events or breaking them into parts in a certain rhythmic structure.

Techniques based on identifying logical connections in memorized material include a number of logical operations: semantic grouping (dividing the material into parts), highlighting semantic strong points (giving a name to each highlighted part), drawing up a plan. In addition, it has been found that memorization of material improves if it is included in active activities. Therefore, by the way, it is better to read the material and retell it several times, rather than just read it several times without retelling it.

The quality of memorization also depends on the number of repetitions. It is advisable to repeat information at certain intervals - after 15-20 minutes, after 8-9 and 24 hours.

Equally important is the creation of a positive emotional background and an attitude (in the form of self-instructions) for long-term memorization.

So, images of the external world are stored and processed in memory, secondary images arise - representations that subsequently provide the opportunity to generalize the perceived information and highlight logical connections in it. Thinking is responsible for this - the highest form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects and phenomena.

4.5. Thinking is based on the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex.

Thinking is the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects.

Direct, sensory knowledge of objects and phenomena in sensations and perceptions is replaced in thinking by logical knowledge: observing some phenomena, we judge others that are connected with them in a certain way. Thus, thinking opens the way to obtaining new knowledge, revealing the hidden properties of things, including those generally inaccessible to the human senses. For example, X-rays were discovered by their effect on a photographic plate.

Physiological basis of thinking constitutes the interaction of the first and second signaling systems in the work of the cerebral cortex. The leading role belongs to the second signaling system - cortical connections, which provide a reflection of reality on the basis of words, concepts, categories and corresponding images.

All parts of the cerebral cortex take part in the thinking process. As a result of their interaction with the brain ends of the analyzers, complex temporary connections and relationships (associations) are formed. Then they are differentiated, clarified, consolidated and become a new physiological basis for more accurate knowledge about the external world. The implementation of these mental actions is ensured by systems of functionally unified neurons (neural codes) of the brain, which are responsible for performing specific mental operations.

Basicproperties of thinking:

abstraction, which consists in the fact that, when thinking about any phenomena, we highlight only those features that are important for solving the problem, abstracting from the unimportant;

generalization, which implies, as a result of identifying important, essential features, the concentration of thought on that general thing that characterizes entire classes of phenomena.

The process of thinking itself unfolds in a certain sequence with the help of such operations:

comparison - comparison of selected features of objects and phenomena in order to find similar and different properties;

analysis (from Greek - decomposition, dismemberment) - mental division of an object or phenomenon into parts, highlighting certain of its elements, properties, connections;

synthesis (from Greek - connection, composition) - mental reunification of a whole from parts, the connection of various sides, elements of objects or phenomena into a single whole;

abstraction (from Latin - distraction) - mental isolation of essential properties, signs of objects or phenomena while simultaneously abstracting from non-essential ones;

generalization is the mental association of objects or phenomena according to their common essential characteristics;

Concretization is a mental transition from the general to the individual, the use of identified patterns in specific examples.

Thinking operates with elementary (image, representation) and logical forms of thinking. The latter include:

concept - a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects or phenomena, expressed in a word or group of words;

judgment is a form of thinking containing an affirmation or denial of the connection between objects and phenomena;

inference is a form of thinking in which a new judgment is derived based on several judgments.

There are such types of thinking:

1. According to the method of transforming the material: visually effective, carried out during practical actions with specific objects; visual-figurative, involving the operation of images and ideas; verbal-logical (abstract), operating with logical forms of thinking.

2.By the type of problem being solved: theoretical - practical.

3. According to the degree of development: discursive, that is, based on logic and intuitive.

4. According to the degree of novelty: reproductive (in a previously known way) and productive.

5. By the nature of generalizations: empirical (everyday) and scientific (theoretical).

6. In relation to the real and internal world: realistic and autistic.

All types of human thinking are inextricably linked with speech - the process of formulating and transmitting thoughts through language. In speech, connections are established between the meanings of words, therefore it is the only possible form of verbal-logical thinking. Research has shown that not a single complex thought can be expressed without inner speech, the manifestation of which in the form of electrical discharges can be recorded with special devices. Similar electrical discharges are also recorded during non-speech types of thinking.

The development of thinking is possible, first of all, under the condition of awareness of the laws of mental activity. The development of such qualities of thinking as independence, depth of mind, criticality, breadth of mind, etc. increases the productivity of mental activity.

If thinking operates mainly with concepts, then imagination (a form of mental reflection, consisting in the creation of new images based on previously perceived ones) operates with ideas.

It is generally accepted that means of thinking images and verbal designations of objects and phenomena that are subject to mental analysis appear. The first of them can significantly increase the productivity of the thinking process (for example, chess players), but for most people speech is still its leading means.

Speech - the process of reflecting objective reality in the form of linguistic or other symbols used in thinking, and their subsequent audio or written reproduction. Consequently, speech, as a mental process, performs two main functions - designation (in thinking) and communication (when exchanging information with other people through the use of language). It is the property of only man.

Physiological basis of speech is the connection of the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex, on the one hand, with thought processes, and on the other, with the neuro-physiological activity of the sound apparatus.

A more detailed consideration of the physiological foundations of speech requires an understanding of the most complex system of conditioned reflexes. It is based on the second signaling system, the conditioned stimuli of which are words in their sound or figurative form. Being initially neutral stimuli, they become conditioned speech stimuli in the process of their repeated combination with primary signals, forming images of specific objects and phenomena in the mind. As a result, they acquire semantic meaning and become signals of direct stimuli with which they were previously combined.

In thinking, as a mental cognitive process, two type of speech: sign (figurative), using signs and images of objects and phenomena of the objective world, and verbal-logical, implementing logical reasoning in mental operations using words denoting certain objects and phenomena. At the same time, it is believed that the productivity of sign speech in thinking is many times greater than verbal-logical speech.

In communication, the types of speech are much more diverse. Here we distinguish external and internal speech, written and oral, dialogic and monologue, contextual and situational, etc.

The quality of speech as a means of thinking is usually judged by its main characteristics: content (the direction of the thoughts expressed in it) and consistency (the logic of the use in it of verbal and figurative designations of objects and phenomena of the objective and subjective world).

Speech, actively participating in the process of human thinking, simultaneously acts as an external exponent of the quality of functioning of mental cognitive processes as a whole. However, its characteristics, as well as the characteristics of other cognitive processes, are significantly influenced by a relatively independent group of mental processes related to the emotional-volitional sphere of human mental activity, formed on the basis of mental emotional-volitional processes.

4.6.At the heart of imagination lies the process of formation of new combinations from already established neural connections in the cerebral cortex. As a result, imagination makes it possible to foresee the final result of an activity, and also ensures the creation of a behavior program in cases where the problem situation is characterized by uncertainty.

As in the presentation process, physiological basis imagination is the connection between the neurons of the cerebral cortex. However, it is formed not on the basis of perceived material, but with the use of already meaningful experience and knowledge. As a result of this complex mental activity, new combinations of temporary connections formed in past experience, which form the basis of imaginary images, arise that did not previously have a place in the real process of perception.

The techniques of imagination are:

Agglutination (from Latin - to glue together) is a combination, the merging of individual elements or parts of various objects into a single image;

accentuation - increasing or decreasing individual features, parts of an object;

schematization - emphasizing the similarities of various objects and smoothing out their differences (as, for example, in patterns and ornaments);

typification - highlighting the essential, repeated in homogeneous images, creating generalized, typical images.

hyperbolization is an exaggeration or understatement of an object compared to the real one.

Depending on the degree of human activity, there are the following types of imagination:

passive, which can be intentional (dreams - fantasy images, deliberately evoked, but not intended to be realized) and unintentional (dreams, hallucinations, etc.);

active, divided into recreating (creating images from the words of other people, based on written and material documents) and creative (creating a new, original image).

A special type of imagination is dream as an image of the desired future. Depending on the degree of possibility of fulfillment, a dream can be real or unrealistic. An unrealistic dream locks a person in his inner world and does not give him the opportunity to realize himself as an individual. A real dream is a necessary condition for realizing a person’s creative potential.

Imagination and creativity, as the process of creating new, original products and ideas, are inextricably linked. According to the degree of novelty and originality distinguish between recreative and creative imagination.

Despite the unusualness and originality of the images of the imagination, creative imagination is carried out in accordance with certain patterns and techniques. On this basis, theory and methods for solving creative problems are being developed, as well as methods for intensifying the search for creative ideas, which primarily include:

the method of “brainstorming” (brainstorming), which consists in overcoming stereotypical forms of decision-making through ideas, without assessing them as true or false (such an assessment is made later, in the hope that among the ideas expressed there will be several containing successful solutions);

method of focal objects, which involves transferring the characteristics of randomly selected objects to the one being studied (focal) in order to obtain unusual combinations that can overcome psychological inertia (for example, if an “eagle” is taken as a random object, and a “pen” is taken as a focal object, a combination like “winged pen” is obtained) etc., developing which sometimes you can come to original ideas); method of control questions, which involves the use of leading questions like “What if we do the opposite?” etc.

Chapter 3. Psychology of cognitive processes

1. Sensations and perceptions

Let us consider the structure of cognitive processes with the help of which a person receives and comprehends information, displays the objective world, transforming it into his subjective image.

When describing the process of constructing an image of a perceived object, a distinction is made between the stimulus and activity paradigms (S.D. Smirnov).

So, between these two thresholds there is a zone of sensitivity in which the stimulation of receptors entails the transmission of a message, but it does not reach consciousness. These signals enter the brain and are processed by the lower centers of the brain (subconscious, subthreshold perception), without reaching the cerebral cortex and without being realized by the person, but this information, accumulating, can influence human behavior. The same effect of subconscious perception is possible if the exposure time or the interval between signals was less than 0.1 seconds, and the signals did not have time to be processed at the level of consciousness.

Intentional and unintentional perception

Depending on the purposeful nature of a person’s activity, perception is divided into intentional (voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary).

Unintentional (involuntary) perception is caused both by the characteristics of environmental objects (their brightness, proximity, unusualness), and by their correspondence to the interests of the individual. In unintentional perception there is no predetermined goal of the activity. There is also no volitional activity in it.

IN deliberate perception a person sets the goal of an activity, making certain volitional efforts for the better realization of the intention that has arisen, and arbitrarily selects objects of perception.

In the process of a person’s cognition of the surrounding reality, perception can turn into observation. Observation is the most developed form of intentional perception. Observation is understood as a purposeful, systematically carried out perception of objects in the knowledge of which a person is interested.

Observation is characterized by great activity of the individual. A person does not perceive everything that catches his eye, but isolates the most important or interesting things.

By differentiating objects of perception, the observer organizes perception in such a way that objects of perception do not escape from the field of his activity

The systematic nature of purposeful perception makes it possible to trace a phenomenon in development, to note its qualitative, quantitative, and periodic changes. Thanks to the inclusion of active thinking in the course of observation, the main thing is separated from the secondary, the important from the random. Thinking helps to clearly differentiate objects of perception. Thanks to observation, the connection between perception and thinking and speech is ensured. In observation, perception, thinking and speech are combined into a single process of mental activity.

The act of observation reveals the extreme stability of a person’s voluntary attention. Thanks to this, the observer can make observations over a long period of time and, if necessary, repeat them several times. If a person systematically practices observation and improves the culture of observation, then he develops such a personality trait as observation.

Observation is the ability to notice characteristic but subtle features of objects and phenomena. It is acquired in the process of systematically doing what you love and is therefore associated with the development of a person’s professional interests.

The relationship between observation and observation reflects the relationship between mental processes and personality traits. Observation, which has become a personality trait, rebuilds both the structure and content of all mental processes.

Perception disturbance

With sudden physical or emotional fatigue, sometimes there is an increase in susceptibility to ordinary external stimuli. Daylight suddenly blinds, the color of surrounding objects becomes unusually bright. The sounds are deafening, the slamming of a door sounds like a gunshot, the clinking of dishes becomes unbearable. Odors are perceived acutely, causing severe irritation. Tissues touching the body appear rough. Visions can be moving or motionless, with unchanged content (stable hallucinations) and constantly changing in the form of various events played out, as on stage or in a movie (scene-like hallucinations). Single images (single hallucinations), parts of objects, bodies (one eye, half a face, ear), crowds of people, flocks of animals, insects, fantastic creatures appear. The content of visual hallucinations has a very strong emotional impact: it can frighten, cause horror, or, on the contrary, interest, admiration, even admiration. It is impossible to convince a hallucinating person that the hallucinatory image does not exist: “How can you not see, there is a dog standing, red fur, here it is, here...”. It is assumed that hallucinations occur in the presence of a hypnotic paradoxical phase of brain function, in the presence of an inhibitory state in the cerebral cortex.

Highlight pseudohallucinations- when images are projected not into external space, but into internal space: “voices sound inside the head,” visions are perceived by the “mind's eye.” pseudohallucinations can be in any sensory sphere: tactile, gustatory, visual, kinesthetic, sound, but in any case they are not identified with real objects, although they are clear images, in the smallest detail, persistent and continuous. pseudohallucinations arise spontaneously, regardless of a person’s will and cannot be arbitrarily changed or expelled from consciousness; they have the nature of an “imposition.”

The combination of pseudohallucinations with a symptom of alienation, “made” (“made by someone”) is called Kandinsky syndrome: a person develops a feeling of influence from the outside. There are 3 components of this syndrome:

1. ideational - “preparedness, violence of thoughts”, an unpleasant feeling of “internal openness” arises;
2. sensory - “made sensations” (“they forcefully show pictures...”);
3. motor - “made movements” (“someone acts with their arms, legs, body, makes them walk strangely, do something...”).

Illusions, that is, erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena, should be distinguished from hallucinations. The obligatory presence of a genuine object, although perceived erroneously, is the main feature of illusions, usually divided into effective, verbal (verbal) and pareidolic.

Unlike cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, etc.), attention does not have its own special content; it appears as if within these processes and is inseparable from them. attention characterizes the dynamics of mental processes.

Physiologically, this is explained by the fact that under the influence of prolonged action of the same stimulus, excitation, according to the law of negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of ​​the cortex, which leads to a decrease in the stability of attention.

However, the lack of stimuli and information is an unfavorable factor. Studies have shown that when a person is isolated from irritants coming from the environment and from his own body (sensory deprivation, when a person is placed in a soundproof chamber, wearing light-proof glasses, placed in a warm bath to reduce skin sensitivity), then a normal physically healthy person will quickly begins to experience difficulties in controlling his thoughts, he loses orientation in space, in the structure of his own body, he begins to have hallucinations and nightmares. When examining people after such isolation, they observed disturbances in the perception of color, shape, size, space, time, and sometimes the constancy of perception was lost.

All this indicates that normal perception requires a certain influx of signals from the external environment. At the same time, an excessive influx of signals leads to a decrease in the accuracy of human perception and response to errors. These limitations on the possibility of simultaneous perception of several independent signals, information about which comes from the external and internal environment, are associated with the main characteristic of attention - its fixed volume. An important feature of attention span is that it is difficult to regulate during learning and training. But you can still develop attention with the help of psychological exercises, for example:

1. "Indian Games" to develop attention span: two or more competitors are shown many objects at once for a short time, after which each individual tells the judge what he saw, trying to list and describe in detail as many objects as possible. Thus, one magician achieved that, quickly passing by a display case, he could notice and describe up to 40 objects.
2. "Typewriter"- This classic theater exercise develops concentration skills. Each person is given 1-2 letters from the alphabet, the teacher names the word and the participants must “tap out” it on their typewriter. They name the word and make a clap, then the person whose letter the word begins with makes a clap, then the teacher's clap - the second letter, the student's clap, etc.
3. "Who's faster?" People are asked to cross out any frequently occurring letter, such as “o” or “e,” in a column of any text as quickly and accurately as possible. The success of the test is assessed by the time it takes to complete it and the number of errors made - missing letters: the lower the value of these indicators, the higher the success. At the same time, it is necessary to encourage success and stimulate interest.
   To train switching and distribution of attention, the task should be changed: it is proposed to cross out one letter with a vertical line and the other with a horizontal line, or, at a signal, alternate between crossing out one letter and crossing out another. Over time, the task can become more difficult. For example, cross out one letter, underline another, and circle the third.
   The purpose of such training is to develop habitual, automatic actions, subordinated to a specific, clearly understood goal. The time of tasks varies depending on age (younger schoolchildren - up to 15 minutes, teenagers - up to 30 minutes).
4. "Observation" Children are asked to describe in detail from memory the school yard, the path from home to school - something they have seen hundreds of times. Junior schoolchildren make such descriptions orally, and their classmates fill in the missing details. Teenagers can write down their descriptions and then compare them with each other and with reality. This game reveals the connections between attention and visual memory.
5. "Proofreading" The presenter writes several sentences on a piece of paper with omission and rearrangement of letters in some words. The student is allowed to read this text only once, immediately correcting mistakes with a colored pencil. Then he passes the sheet to the second student, who corrects the mistakes left with a pencil of a different color. It is possible to conduct competitions in pairs.
6. "Fingers" Participants sit comfortably in armchairs or on chairs, forming a circle. Interlace the fingers of your hands on your knees, leaving your thumbs free. On the command “Start”, slowly rotate the thumbs around one another at a constant speed and in one direction, making sure that they do not touch each other. Focus on this movement. At the “Stop” command, stop the exercise. Duration 5-15 minutes. Some participants experience unusual sensations: enlargement or alienation of the fingers, an apparent change in the direction of their movement. Some will feel very irritated or anxious. These difficulties are associated with the unusual nature of the object of concentration.

Cognition is a very voluminous and polysemantic term. Most often, gender is understood as the process of obtaining and constantly updating the knowledge necessary for a person.

In philosophy cognition is understood as a set of procedures and methods for a person to acquire knowledge about the world and himself. - This is primarily a mental activity, the result of which is awareness of the material world, but knowledge can also give rise to fantasies that are far from reality.

Cognition is a specific, unique human activity aimed at creating an ideal model of the environment. In it, man acts as an active principle, subject activities to master reality. His sensory and logical activity is aimed at object, acting in cognitive interaction as a more passive principle.

From the point of view of the modern theory of knowledge, ideal models created by a subject in the course of cognitive activity are never identical, identical to their object.

Cognition, thus, is defined as a process generated by various human needs of comprehending the relationships accessible to the subject between him and the object, the result of which is this or that information about reality.

In psychology is a term that refers to the human ability to think, remember, and anticipate. The generic nature of the term is emphasized here, as it is used to refer to all processes associated with the acquisition of knowledge. The concepts of “cognition” and “knowledge” always coexist with each other, since the latter denotes the goal and result of the entire process of cognition. Modern psychology especially emphasizes the active, creative nature of the cognitive process, its irreducibility only to a reflection of the objective world.

Cognitive mental processes

Cognitive processes

The process of human cognition is divided into a number of stages of changes in incoming information - from perception to practical action.

The identification of their individual types in cognitive processes is largely conditionally, however, it helps in the practical study of the psyche.

In modern psychology it is customary to distinguish two groups of cognitive processes:

• specific;
• nonspecific.

Specific cognitive processes

Specific or actually cognitive- these are sensory processes (sensations, perceptions) and rational processes (concepts, judgments, etc.). Based on these processes, which are carried out with the help of the senses and the brain, the subject’s knowledge about the world and about himself is formed.

Among the specific processes usually considered are:

— the process of primary information processing at the level of individual properties of objects and phenomena; they are the product of the five senses - sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste;

- the result of processing information at a higher level, in which the data of individual sense organs is summarized and on this basis a holistic image of an object, phenomenon, or person is created. The term “perception” (from Lat. perception- representation, perception);

- the highest level of reflection of reality, characteristic only of man, the result of which is a generalized knowledge of objective reality, identification of the most significant features of objects and phenomena. The main tools of thinking are: concepts, judgments and inferences.

Nonspecific cognitive processes

Nonspecific or universal are processes such as memory, attention, imagination, will. They are also called “cross-cutting”, since they provide not only cognitive, but also all other mental and behavioral processes. Universal processes provide not only cognitive activity, but also the objective and practical activity of each individual, giving it originality and uniqueness:

Allows a person to record the fact of interaction with the environment and save it in the form of experience, as well as use it in behavior;

Helps select the most important information, ensures the selection of effective action programs and maintains constant control over their implementation;

Imagination helps to predict events in the more or less distant future based on accumulated information;

Will- this is the ability to fulfill one’s desires, goals set for oneself, both cognitive and objective-practical.

Mental processes are one of the most complex, diverse in their manifestations and least studied in the human body. The table presented in this article clearly divides the phenomena occurring in our psyche into three main groups: by properties, states and processes. All this is a reflection of reality, which can be traced in dynamics, that is, each such phenomenon has its beginning, develops and ends with the resulting reaction. Mental processes (the table clearly demonstrates this) interact extremely closely with each other. Mental activity continuously flows from one process to another when a person is awake.

Mental conditions

Processes occurring in the human psyche can be caused by external influences that irritate the nervous system, and can also be born directly in the internal environment of the body, depending on the state in which it is at that moment. The table divides mental processes into three main groups: cognitive, emotional and volitional. Here their components are classified in detail: perception and sensations, memory and representation, imagination and thinking belong to cognitive processes, and active and passive experiences belong to emotional ones. The table reveals volitional mental processes as the ability to make decisions, execute and

Let's take a closer look at the column that represents the state of the human psyche. The table represents motivational, that is, cognitive mental processes most widely, up to the actualization of needs. The reasons are clear: they are the ones who can provide the correct help to form knowledge and regulate behavior. Various cognitive mental processes merge into a single stream of consciousness, a table of which is presented in the article, since a person is a very complex organism, and the mental component is the basis for any life activity. It is she who ensures adequacy in reflecting reality, controlling all types of human activities.

Activity level

The fact that the processes of the human psyche proceed unevenly, with different intensity and speed, is shown by the very first tables on general psychology. Mental processes depend entirely on the state of the individual and external influences on it. What is a mental state? Roughly speaking, this is the relative stability of the level of mental activity, which manifests itself in decreased or increased activity. A person can experience a wide variety of conditions. Anyone can remember that sometimes physical and mental work seemed easy and was productive, and at other times the same actions required a lot of work and still did not achieve the desired effect.

Depending on the state of the individual, the characteristics of mental processes also change; the table clearly shows this. The nature of the processes occurring in the psyche is reflexive; they arise and change depending on physiological factors, the environment, the progress of work, even on verbal influences (from praise and blame, the state of the individual clearly acquires new qualities). The comparison table breaks down the mental cognitive processes of an individual point by point. It contains the most studied factors of such changes. For example, the level of attention can fluctuate from concentration to distraction, characterizing the general mental state, and emotional moods especially clearly change the general background of all characteristics - from sadness or irritability to cheerfulness and enthusiasm. Especially a lot of research concerns the main creative state of the individual - inspiration.

Personality traits

Mental - stable formations, the highest regulators of activity, which determine the level of the state in the quality and quantity of its components, which is observed in behavior and activity typical for a particular individual. A comparative table of mental cognitive processes connects each gradually formed property of the psyche with the result of practical and reflective activity. The variety of such properties is quite difficult to classify, even in accordance with the basics of all already grouped mental processes.

However, the intellectual, that is, cognitive, volitional and emotional activities of the individual have been studied quite deeply and considered in many complex interactions of their synthesis. Thus, the table shows a variety of mental processes. The properties, functions and role of these components in human life will be considered by us within the framework of this material. Of the cognitive functions, for example, it is worth noting observation and a flexible mind; volitional functions include persistence and determination, and emotional functions include sensitivity and passion. The properties and functions of mental processes differ, but they all play an important role in our everyday life.

Synthesis

The properties of the human psyche do not exist separately; they act in synthesis, forming the most complex structural complexes. There is a classification of manifestations of the unconscious according to mental processes. A table of such states is presented below.

This includes the following processes that synthesize with each other:

• Life position: needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, personality activity and selectivity.
• Temperament is the natural properties of a person: balance, mobility, tone, other behavioral characteristics, everything that characterizes the dynamics of behavior.
• Abilities: a whole system of intellectual, volitional, emotional properties of a person that can determine creative possibilities.
• Character is a system of behavior and relationships.

Interconnected neuropsychic acts in their stable and purposeful totality have a certain scheme for transforming activity to obtain a certain result. These are the mental processes characteristic of each individual, which are of primary value for study. For example, memory as a mental process requires memorizing information; this is its need - conscious and unconscious. Here, the input to the process will be precisely this requirement as a property, and the output or final result will be the information remaining in memory.

Psychic phenomena

The most common mental processes were listed above, but let's look at these lists in more detail. They vary greatly among different authors. Common and noted by all are attention, emotions, memory, will, thinking, perception, speech. In the category of mental phenomena, they are accessible to any direct and unqualified observation.

Most often, what is interesting is not even the observed process itself, but its deviations from the norm, that is, its characteristics. Here, the usual table of features of mental processes usually helps students understand the classification. Children of all categories are studied especially carefully, but even their cognitive processes can be quite easily distinguished from emotional or volitional processes.

Personality Features

People are endowed with completely different capabilities: one is absent-minded, and the other is attentive, this one perfectly remembers faces, and the other only remembers melodies. In addition, behavior is characterized by any mental phenomenon and the degree of balance: some will be delighted by the surprise, some will be surprised, and some will be left indifferent. People treat each other differently: some love those around them, while others find humanity disgusting. There are people who are persistent, even stubborn in achieving their goals, and also those who do not care about anything - they always remain apathetic and lethargic.

Attitude to science

Russian psychology divides everything into three types: properties, states and processes. The differences between them are not so great and are temporary. The processes usually take place quickly, but the properties are more stable and long-lasting. Modern psychologists believe that through the interconnectedness of mental processes, the psyche itself is formed, which can be divided into components only very conditionally, since there is no theoretical justification for this study. Nevertheless, not only major phenomena of the work of the psyche have been quite widely identified and studied, but also basic mental processes, for which there is far from a single comparative table.

But since psychology has become a science, scientists are developing methods for its knowledge, where the main postulate is an integrative approach to the human psyche, and all classifications in the tables are of propaedeutic and pedagogical value. Similar processes occur in society. Just as in the psyche of an individual, they are extremely interconnected in society: children study, parents raise them, work, athletes train, alcoholics drink, the police catch criminals, and so on. No matter how parallel these processes may seem, sooner or later they all intersect with each other in some way.

Will and emotions

Throughout his life, a person reproduces his existing skills, knowledge, and abilities, trying to connect various forms of behavior with his existing emotional state. In this way, the actualization of connections between various mental processes is built, their transition from latent to active form is carried out. Among emotional states, the most striking is affect. This is a stormy, rapidly flowing emotion of enormous power, which looks like an explosion, therefore it is uncontrollable by consciousness and is often pathological.

But the process that concentrates consciousness on a real or ideal object is attention. But it is not emotional. A special ability regulates and self-determines its own activities. This is will. All mental processes can be subordinated to it. Its main properties and functions are the precise choice of goals and motives, the regulation of impulses for certain actions, even if there is a lack of motivation, the organization of those mental processes that can fit into the system of adequately performed activities, the mobilization of mental and physical capabilities if it is necessary to overcome obstacles on the way towards the set goal.

Cognition and Intelligence

The tools for adequately reflecting and projecting the world surrounding a person are representation and imagination. They are closely connected with nonspecific brain structures at the cortical level and make it possible to build the dynamic characteristics of maturing mental processes. These are speed and quantitative indicators of certain actions and their implementation. The state in which the individual’s psyche is located can be different, hence the high variability of performance results.

Speech is in the closest connection with thinking, approximately as closely as sensations and perceptions - one follows from the other. These cognitive processes of the psyche are characteristic of any activity, since it is they who ensure its effectiveness. With the help of basic cognitive processes, a person can set necessary goals in advance, make plans, fill upcoming activities with content, predict results and manipulate them as work progresses. The table presented in the article demonstrates mental cognitive processes and their characteristics as intellectual.

Conclusions

The psychological process is most simply explained by a person's ability to remember, think and anticipate. Most often this concept is associated with the acquisition of knowledge. Cognitive mental processes are always creative and active in nature, not so much reflecting the world around us as transforming it. There are two ways of cognition - specific and nonspecific. The first uses sensory and rational processes - these are sensations, perception and thinking, in the latter they share concept, judgment and inference.

Universal, or nonspecific, mental processes are memory, will, imagination, attention. They operate in an end-to-end manner, providing connections throughout the entire cognitive process, and it is on them that all behavioral processes that are in synthesis depend. This supports the cognitive activity and practical objective activity of the individual, who receives not only individuality, but also originality and uniqueness.

With the help of such cognitive mental processes as speech, sensation, thinking, memory, attention, a person perceives reality and carries out his life activities.

Features of mental cognitive processes

It is thanks to these processes that the brain responds to influences from the external and internal environment. Without cognitive phenomena, human activity would be in danger. So, without perception, sensations, you would not be able to feel the stimulus, which, perhaps, could well pose a threat to your life. Without imagination, the mental regulators located in every person would not be able to analyze the threat and foresee the result of its influence. And without memory, you would not remember your past experience, you would not know what the resulting irritation would lead to.

Types of mental cognitive processes

Let us consider in detail the above classification of processes:

1. Feelings are the simplest among all mental phenomena. They store in themselves all the ideas about irritating factors that you have ever encountered. In this case, the following types of sensations are distinguished:

• from the outside: taste, tactile, auditory, skin, visual, olfactory sensations, through which we perceive the world around us;
• internal: nausea, hunger, thirst, etc., arising as a result of signals from receptors of certain organs;
• motor sensations appear due to changes in the position of your body.

2. Perception reflects not only what you see, what surrounds you, but also complements all this with their properties, affecting the senses.

3. Attention is the concentrated focus of your consciousness on phenomena or objects of the real world. It is worth noting that it is difficult for every individual to simultaneously perceive information from many sources, but you will definitely hear your name, for example, spoken in the crowd during a stormy party. Scientists explain this by the fact that the main mechanisms of attention are always focused on phrases and words that have special meaning for a person.

4. Memory reflects everything that was previously perceived, accomplished, experienced by you. There is genetic and lifetime:

• hereditary memory includes instincts, all the information that characterizes your physiological structure. It is not particularly influenced by a person's living conditions;
• Lifetime stores what has accumulated since the moment of your birth. In addition, unlike the previous one, it is dependent on external influences.

5. Thinking also refers to higher mental cognitive processes. It helps to discover new knowledge for a person, promotes creative development and problem solving. It is in the process of the latter that it manifests itself most clearly.

6. Speech combines sound signals and symbols that facilitate the presentation of information, its processing, storage in memory and, if necessary, transmission.

Disturbance of cognitive mental processes

The individual may be subject to disturbances in mental cognitive processes. The reason for this is various diseases. Thus, with epilepsy, memory capacity decreases, problems with thinking appear (it is very difficult for the patient to solve basic problems). As a result of traumatic brain injuries, a decrease in mental performance has been observed. If there is a suspicion of such a mental disorder, you should urgently seek advice from a psychiatrist.