Biography

Democritus of Abdera is an ancient Greek philosopher, presumably a student of Leucippus, one of the founders of atomism and materialist philosophy.

Born in the city of Abdera in Thrace. During his life he traveled a lot, studying the philosophical views of various peoples (Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia, India, Ethiopia). I listened to the Pythagorean Philolaus in Athens and Socrates, was familiar with Anaxagoras.

They say that Democritus spent a lot of money, which he inherited, on these travels. However, embezzlement of inheritance in Abdera was prosecuted. At the trial, instead of defending himself, Democritus read excerpts from his work, “The Great World-Building,” and was acquitted: his fellow citizens decided that his father’s money had not been spent in vain.

The way of life of Democritus, however, seemed incomprehensible to the Abderites: he constantly left the city, hid in cemeteries, where, far from the bustle of the city, he indulged in reflection; sometimes Democritus burst into laughter for no apparent reason, human affairs seemed so funny to him against the backdrop of the great world order (hence his nickname “The Laughing Philosopher”). Fellow citizens considered Democritus insane, and even invited the famous physician Hippocrates to examine him. He actually met with the philosopher, but decided that Democritus absolutely healthy both physically and mentally, and besides this, he affirmed that Democritus was one of the smartest people with whom he had to communicate. Among the students of Democritus, Bion of Abdera is known.

According to Lucian, Democritus lived 104 years.

Philosophy of Democritus

In his philosophical views, he took a stand in opposition to the Eleatics regarding the conceivability of multitude and the conceivability of movement, but completely agreed with them that a truly existing being can neither arise nor disappear. The materialism of Democritus, which is characteristic of almost all scientists of that time, is contemplative and metaphysical. Democritus, according to Seneca, is “the most subtle of all ancient thinkers.”

Atomistic materialism

The main achievement of the philosophy of Democritus is considered to be his development of the teaching of Leucippus about the “atom” - an indivisible particle of matter that has true existence, does not collapse and does not arise (atomistic materialism). He described the world as a system of atoms in the void, rejecting the infinite divisibility of matter, postulating not only the infinity of the number of atoms in the Universe, but also the infinity of their forms (ideas, είδος - “appearance, appearance,” a materialistic category, as opposed to the idealistic ideas of Socrates). Atoms, according to this theory, move in empty space (the Great Emptiness, as Democritus said) chaotically, collide and, due to the correspondence of shapes, sizes, positions and orders, either stick together or fly apart. The resulting compounds hold together and thus produce complex bodies. Movement itself is a property naturally inherent in atoms. Bodies are combinations of atoms. The diversity of bodies is due both to the difference in the atoms composing them and to the difference in the order of assembly, just as different words are formed from the same letters. Atoms cannot touch, since everything that does not have emptiness inside itself is indivisible, that is, a single atom. Consequently, between two atoms there are always at least small gaps of emptiness, so that even in ordinary bodies there is emptiness. It also follows that when atoms approach very small distances, repulsive forces begin to act between them. At the same time, mutual attraction is possible between atoms according to the principle “like attracts like.”

The various qualities of bodies are entirely determined by the properties of atoms and their combinations and the interaction of atoms with our senses. According to Galena ,

“[Only] in general opinion there is color, in opinion there is sweetness, in opinion there is bitterness, in reality [there are only] atoms and emptiness.” This is what Democritus says, believing that all sensible qualities arise from the combination of atoms [existing only] for us who perceive them, but by nature there is nothing white, black, yellow, red, bitter or sweet. The point is that “in general opinion” [for him] means the same thing as “according to generally accepted opinion” and “for us,” not by the nature of the things themselves; he, in turn, designates the nature of the things themselves [by the expression] “in reality,” composing the term from the word “actual,” which means “true.” The whole meaning of [this] teaching itself should be like this. [Only] people recognize something as white, black, sweet, bitter and everything else of this kind, but in truth everything is “what” and “nothing.” And these are again his own expressions, namely, he called atoms “what”, and emptiness - “nothing”.

The principle of isonomy

The main methodological principle of the atomists was the principle of isonomy (literal translation from Greek: equality of all before the law), which is formulated as follows: if a particular phenomenon is possible and does not contradict the laws of nature, then it is necessary to assume that in infinite time and in infinite space it either has already taken place, or will someday occur: in infinity there is no boundary between possibility and existence. This principle is also called the principle of lack of sufficient reason: there is no reason for any body or phenomenon to exist in this form rather than in any other. It follows, in particular, that if a phenomenon can, in principle, occur in different forms, then all these types exist in reality. Democritus made several important conclusions from the principle of isonomy: 1) there are atoms of all shapes and sizes (including the size of the whole world); 2) all directions and all points in the Great Emptiness are equal; 3) atoms move in the Great Void in any direction at any speed. The last point is very important for the theory of Democritus. Essentially, it follows that movement in itself does not need to be explained; the reason must be sought only for a change in movement. Describing the views of atomists, their opponent Aristotle in Physics he writes:

... no one [of those who recognize the existence of emptiness, that is, atomists] will be able to say why [a body] set in motion will stop somewhere, for why would it rather stop here and not there? Consequently, it must either rest or move ad infinitum, unless something stronger interferes. Essentially, this is a clear statement of the principle of inertia - the basis of all modern physics. Galileo, who is often credited with the discovery of inertia, was quite clear that the roots of this principle go back to ancient atomism.

Cosmology

The Great Void is spatially infinite. In the initial chaos of atomic movements in the Great Void, a vortex spontaneously forms. The symmetry of the Great Emptiness turns out to be broken inside the vortex, a center and periphery arise there. Heavy bodies formed in a vortex tend to accumulate near the center of the vortex. The difference between light and heavy is not qualitative, but quantitative, and this alone constitutes significant progress. Democritus explains the separation of matter inside the vortex as follows: in their rush to the center of the vortex, heavier bodies displace lighter ones, and they remain closer to the periphery of the vortex. In the center of the world, the Earth is formed, consisting of the heaviest atoms. On the outer surface of the world, something like a protective film is formed, separating space from the surrounding Great Void. Since the structure of the world is determined by the tendency of atoms to the center of the vortex, the world of Democritus has a spherically symmetrical structure.

Democritus is a proponent of the concept of a plurality of worlds. As Hippolytus describes the views of the atomists,

The worlds are infinite in number and differ from each other in size. In some of them there is neither sun nor moon, in others the sun and moon are larger than ours, in others there are not one of them, but several. The distances between the worlds are not the same; In addition, in one place there are more worlds, in another there are fewer. Some worlds are expanding, others have reached full bloom, and others are already declining. In one place worlds arise, in another they decline. They are destroyed when they collide with each other. Some of the worlds are devoid of animals, plants and any kind of moisture. The multiplicity of worlds follows from the principle of isonomy: if a process of some kind can occur, then in infinite space somewhere someday it will certainly occur; what happens in a given place at a given point in time must also happen in other places at certain points in time. Thus, if in a given place in space a vortex-like movement of atoms arose, leading to the formation of our world, then a similar process should occur in other places, leading to the formation of other worlds. The resulting worlds are not necessarily the same: there is no reason why there should not exist worlds without any sun and moon, or with three suns and ten moons; only the earth is a necessary element of each world (probably simply by the definition of this concept: if there is no central earth, it is no longer a world, but simply a clump of matter). Moreover, there is also no reason why, somewhere in infinite space, exactly the same world as ours would not form. All worlds move in different directions, since all directions and all states of motion are equal. In this case, worlds can collide, collapsing. Similarly, all moments of time are equal: if the formation of the world occurs now, then somewhere it must occur both in the past and in the future; Currently, different worlds are at different stages of development. In the course of its movement, a world whose formation has not completed can accidentally penetrate into the confines of a fully formed world and find itself captured by it (this is how Democritus explained the origin of the heavenly bodies in our world).

Since the Earth is in the center of the world, all directions from the center are equal, and it has no reason to move in any direction (Anaximander held the same opinion about the reason for the immobility of the Earth). But there is also evidence that, according to Democritus, the Earth initially moved in space, and only subsequently stopped.

However, he was not a supporter of the theory of a spherical Earth. Democritus gave the following argument: if the Earth were a sphere, then the sun, setting and rising, would intersect the horizon in an arc of a circle, and not in a straight line, as in reality. Of course, this argument is untenable from a mathematical point of view: the angular diameters of the Sun and the horizon are very different, and this effect could only be noticed if they were almost the same (for this, obviously, one would have to move a very large distance from the Earth).

According to Democritus, the order of the luminaries is as follows: Moon, Venus, Sun, other planets, stars (as the distance from the Earth increases). Moreover, the further away the light is from us, the slower (relative to the stars) it moves. Following Empedocles and Anaxagoras, Democritus believed that centrifugal force prevents the fall of celestial bodies to Earth. Democritus had the brilliant guess that the Milky Way is a multitude of stars located at such a small distance from each other that their images merge into a single faint glow.

Ethics

Democritus develops the pan-Hellenic concept of measure, noting that measure is the correspondence of human behavior to his natural capabilities and abilities. Through the prism of such a measure, pleasure appears as an objective good, and not just a subjective sensory perception.

He considered the main principle of human existence to be in a state of blissful, serene state of mind (euthymia), devoid of passions and extremes. This is not just simple sensual pleasure, but a state of “peace, serenity and harmony.”

Democritus believed that all evil and misfortune happen to a person due to the lack of necessary knowledge. From this he concluded that the solution to problems lies in the acquisition of knowledge. The optimistic philosophy of Democritus did not allow the absoluteness of evil, deducing wisdom as a means of achieving happiness.

Contributions to other sciences

Democritus compiled one of the first ancient Greek calendars.

Democritus was the first to establish that the volume of a pyramid and a cone is equal, respectively, to one third of the volume of a prism and a cylinder under the same height and with the same base area.

Writings and doxography

The writings of ancient authors mention about 70 different works of Democritus, of which not a single one has survived to this day. Studies of the philosophy of Democritus rely on quotations and criticism of his ideas in the works of later philosophers such as Aristotle, Sextus, Cicero, Plato , Epicurus and others.

The most significant work of Democritus should be considered the “Great World Order,” a cosmological work that covered almost all areas of knowledge available at that time. In addition, based on the lists of Diogenes Laertius, Democritus is credited with the authorship of such works as “On the Mental Disposition of the Sage”, “On Virtue”, “On the Planets”, “On the Senses”, “On the Difference of Forms”, “On Tastes”, “On colors”, “About the mind”, “On logic or canons”, “Causes of celestial phenomena”, “Causes of aerial phenomena”, “Causes of terrestrial phenomena”, “Causes of fire and fiery phenomena”, “Causes of sounds”, “Causes of seeds, plants and fruits”, “Causes of living beings”, “On the contact of a circle and a ball”, “On geometry”, “On irrational lines and bodies”, “Numbers”, “Projections”, “Big Year”, “Description of the sky”, “Description of the earth”, “Description of the poles”, “Description of the rays”, “On rhythms and harmony”, “On poetry”, “On the beauty of poetry”, “On singing”, “Medical science”, “On diet”, “On painting”, “Agriculture”, “On the military system”, etc.

There is a legend that Plato ordered to buy up and destroy all the works of Democritus, his philosophical antagonist. The reliability of this legend is not too high. In addition, it is known that in the 1st century. n. e. Thrasyllus published the works of Democritus and Plato, dividing them into tetralogies.

Democritus (460-370 BC) is the founder of atomism as a philosophical worldview, which significantly influenced not only the development of philosophy, but also all of natural science, especially physics.

Key points: Nothing arises from non-existence and nothing is destroyed into non-existence. The Absolute is atoms and emptiness, being and non-being. Everything else is merely considered to exist.

Ontology:the doctrine of atoms."Ἄτομος" (atomos) means "indivisible", "not cut into parts." Atoms are invisible due to their smallness. There are countless of them. They are impenetrable, absolutely dense, homogeneous, devoid of any parts. Inside the atom everything is filled, there is no emptiness, therefore there is no movement. The peculiarity of this point of view is that the movement of matter seems possible only as the movement of its individual elements (atoms) and, therefore, due to the differentiation of matter into atoms and emptiness. Differentiation of matter is a necessary condition for movement, and movement itself is one of the properties of differentiated matter. The atom is the limit of this differentiation and, therefore, the limit of movement - indivisible simple being. Externally, atoms differ in shape, size, position, or order of bonding with other atoms. For example, in shape they can be, according to Democritus, spherical, pyramidal, hooked. Atoms are separated from each other by emptiness (non-existence) and are in constant motion in relation to each other (“rushing in emptiness”), colliding with each other, interlocking and repelling. From them all the diversity of things is formed. Everything is made of atoms. The number of their different combinations, different natural forms is infinite (“worlds are infinite and subject to creation and destruction”) (Diogenes Laertius). “Everything arises out of inevitability”, “the reason for every occurrence is a whirlwind”, i.e. vortex movement of atoms. According to Diogenes Laertius, “Democritus calls this whirlwind inevitable.” There is nothing without a reason. The case is evidence of our ignorance of the cause. Therefore, everything that exists exists due to necessity. The movement of atoms is their original property. Therefore, Democritus does not even raise the question of the reason for the movement of atoms.

Doctrine of knowledge: Knowledge Democritus understands how reflection things of the outside world. We see things because the outflows of things, their images (“appearances”), or “eidos,” enter us and are imprinted in the soul. The atoms themselves are not perceived sensually. Their comprehension is possible only with the help of the mind. Atoms are intelligible entities. Democritus understands the limitations of sensory knowledge and sees in it a lower kind of cognitive activity, which by its very nature is not capable of providing true knowledge, but only opinion. Sense knowledge is the source of general opinion and the cause of people's delusion when an object is judged on the basis of how it is perceived by the senses. Not all qualities discovered through the senses exist in the things themselves. For example, taste, color, smell, heat and cold. “Only in general opinion there is sweet, in opinion bitter, in opinion warm, in opinion cold, in opinion color; in reality there are only atoms and emptiness.” However, Democritus himself does not provide a criterion for distinguishing whether What in the things themselves refers to them objective essence, i.e. inherent in the things themselves and does not depend on the perceptive ability of the senses. In the theory of knowledge of Democritus one can find the premises of ancient skepticism: “we do not perceive what each thing really is and what properties are actually inherent in it” (Sextus Empiricus). Our sensory is limited and imperfect.

The doctrine of the soul. Equally interesting are Democritus’s materialistic arguments about the nature of the soul (“psyche”). Soul– a special kind of fire and warmth. The atoms of the soul have a spherical shape, very subtle, mobile and all-pervasive. Due to this, the soul is the principle that produces the movement of living beings. Life ceases with the cessation of breathing, i.e. when the environment surrounding the body displaces the atoms of the soul that are inside the body and give it movement. Having been driven out of the body, the atoms that constituted the soul no longer exist in any stable and coherent form. They flow into the general cosmic flow of atomic movement. Thus, the soul is destroyed, subject to death in the same way as the body. The soul is mortal, and every living creature has one life.

Democritus is rightfully considered one of the greatest philosophers of antiquity. Together with Leucippus, who created and developed the theory of atomism, he went down in history as the founder of modern materialism. His theory is closest to modern scientific thought than the ideas of any of the ancient philosophers.

Biography

The future philosopher was born in the Thracian city of Abdera around 460 BC. in a wealthy family, famous for its righteous way of life. After his death, the father of the family left Democritus and his two brothers, Herodotus and Damasus, a large fortune in the hope that his descendants would increase it.

However, Democritus had no desire to accumulate wealth and, taking 100 talents, he set off to travel to gain new knowledge.

His search for truth led him to the southern and eastern countries, where he spent 8 years adopting the knowledge of Egyptian priests and Persian Chaldeans and magicians.

Interest in Eastern philosophy was probably due to the fact that when Democritus was still a child, his father hosted the retreating Xerxes with his army. In gratitude for the warm welcome, he left several of his sages as teachers to the owner of the house.

Democritus also went to Athens, where he lived for a year and a half, listening to Socrates’ lectures and communicating with Anaxagoras.

Due to extreme need, he was forced to interrupt his wanderings and return to his native Abdera, where he was accused of embezzling property. At the trial, he gave a speech where he explained to his fellow citizens that during his travels he studied the culture and scientific achievements of other countries, which could be extremely useful. The trial ended successfully for the philosopher; he was acquitted and was even awarded a monetary reward.

He lived in Abdera until his death in 370 BC. e. at that time he was 90 years old. However, according to the testimony of Hipparchus, the great philosopher lived to be 109 years old and died calmly, without suffering from any illnesses. The city treasury covered the expenses for the funeral ceremonies, and many Abdera citizens came to the burial itself in order to pay their last respects to their great compatriot.

Philosophical ideas and views

1. Theory of Atoms

The main philosophical achievement of Democritus is, of course, the theory of atoms. According to it, everything that exists consists of the smallest indivisible particles - atoms. There is empty space between atoms, and the atoms themselves are indestructible and in constant motion.

Aristotle, quoting Democritus, gives atoms weight, but this is not entirely true.

If we quote Democritus close to context, he said that the movement of atoms is like specks of dust moving in a sunbeam without any wind. Colliding, clusters of atoms form vortices, however, unlike the opinion of Anaxagoras, they are driven not by some Reason (nous), but by mechanical reasons.

“When a knife cuts an apple, it does not cut the atoms, but the void between them. if the apple did not have this emptiness, it would be impossible to cut it.”

Each atom itself is internally unchanged, but sometimes when certain atoms collide with each other, they can create compounds.

There are an infinite number of atoms, but each is characterized by 3 parameters:

• Figure (Atoms differ in shape, such as D and T)
• Size (W and W)
• Rotation (This refers to the same atom, but occupying a slightly different position in space, approximately like the letters P and b)

Besides these three, there is a fourth characteristic called “order.” It determines the properties of compounds formed when atoms stick together

There are an infinite number of atomic shapes. But according to Democritus, both soul and fire consist of identical spherical atoms, differing, probably, in other characteristics.

From the vortices that result from the collision of clusters of atoms, bodies are created, and subsequently worlds. Every world must have a beginning and an end, and it can also be in danger of destruction when colliding with a world larger than itself.

2. Theory of the origin of life

In The Small World-Building, Democritus suggested that life arose due to spontaneous generation. He argued that “flies breed in rotten meat, and worms in mud.” By the same analogy, he suggested that the first life originated in some kind of primordial mucus.

Man was the result of a long selection among the fittest creatures, however, evolution should not end there. To survive, people were forced to act together. This led to the emergence of speech, and subsequently the formation of languages, communities and cities.

In the body of every living creature, Democritus believed, there is a certain amount of fire (probably referring to the spherical atoms of which the soul is composed). The soul containing fire gives the body heat and sets it in motion. The largest amount of fire is in the brain or chest.

3. Thinking and perception

Thought was presented to Democritus as a kind of movement capable of causing movement.

Democritus, unlike many of his compatriots, believed that thinking and perception are completely material physical processes.

There are two types of perception:

• Rational - perception of this type depends only on the things themselves and, in fact, are characteristics that are actually inherent in the perceived objects. These include parameters such as: heaviness, density, hardness, width, volume, etc.
• With the help of sensory perception, we give characteristics to objects, guided by our senses with which we perceive them. These include: color, taste, warmth, smell. These qualities are not really inherent in objects, but are just our idea of ​​them.

Worldview

Democritus, as an ardent supporter of determinism, did not believe in chance. The only thing that, in his opinion, happened by chance was the very moment of the creation of the world. The rest of the processes occur obeying mechanical laws.

His philosophy is completely materialistic, the soul, in his opinion, consists of atoms, and thinking is a physical process. Rejecting the teleological argument, which invariably leads to the assertion of the existence of some original Creator, he argued that the universe has no purpose, there are only atoms moving in the void, governed by mechanical laws.

He was an absolute atheist, rejected conventional religion and believed that people created gods, trying to explain the existing world order. He also opposed Anaxagorov’s concept of “Nus”, which represented a kind of universal mind that sets everything in motion.

Ethics

In life, the great philosopher adhered to the principles built by his own atomic theory. The atom, in the understanding of Democritus, is complete and self-sufficient. A person, by analogy with an atom, is only as happy as he is closed in on himself.

A similar view has found a response among modern existential psychotherapists, who in their therapy strive to awaken his own “I” in a person, making his life as conscious and independent as possible.

The central concept of his ethical doctrine is euthumia, which can be translated as “compassion.” By complacency, Democritus meant moderation in pleasures and leading a measured life.

A sage who has achieved euthumia is free from envy, is able to rejoice in what he has, works to the best of his ability and tries to act justly and according to the law.

He considered forcing morality with the help of force and laws not the best idea, because a person who came to an understanding of morality through verbal persuasion and internal attraction would be more moral.

Wisdom and a sense of proportion are the most important qualities for a true sage. Wisdom is the ability to think, speak, and act correctly.

A person’s mental health depends on correct thoughts, because correct thinking is designed to save a person from far-fetched anxieties and fears, such as the fear of death or the fear of God’s wrath, so widespread in antiquity.

Democritus considered the ability to speak well to be a manifestation of openness and truthfulness, and good deeds should be the practical embodiment of moral principles.

An ignorant person will always be unhappy because he holds wrong ideas about pleasure, happiness and purpose in life. This statement shows how highly he valued the role of knowledge in moral education.

Democritus considered it necessary to take into account, when making a verdict on the morality or correctness of an action, not only the action itself, but also the motive or desire of a person to perform this action

“The enemy is not the one who insults, but the one who does it intentionally”

Personal and social life

As far as we know, the great philosopher preferred education and science to his personal life. He treated sexual life with sharp disapproval, since he believed that during sexual intercourse a man is mastered by primitive animal instincts and at this time pleasure takes a dominant position over consciousness.

He also had a very low opinion of women and considered them stupid, talkative and useless creatures, suitable only for childbearing.

There were even rumors that at the age of 90 Democritus blinded himself so as not to look at women, but this version turned out to be erroneous, as it turned out that he became blind for natural reasons.

The philosopher also disliked childbirth itself, believing that caring for and raising children is not worth the effort that would have to be spent on it, and besides, it distracts from philosophizing and studying the sciences, which Democritus considered much more important. Of course, he left no offspring behind.

Nevertheless, he highly valued friendship, however, he preferred to spend most of his time walking around the cemetery in peace and quiet, thinking about the problems of the universe.

According to eyewitnesses, the philosopher could suddenly laugh during a conversation, as if being in his own thoughts, inaccessible to the interlocutor. Democritus himself, in response to a question about his causeless laughter, said that he laughs because he sees how stupid and funny simple everyday problems are compared to the greatness of the universe. The image of a laughing Democritus is often found in painting. He is often contrasted with Heraclitus, who was a very sad and compassionate person.

Another hobby of Democritus was dissecting dead animals and studying their organs. This seemed abnormal to his friends and one day they called Hippocrates to make sure of Democritus’s mental health.

Hippocrates consoled them, saying that everything was fine with the mental and physical health of the great scientist and noted that he had never met such an intelligent and erudite person before.

Criticism

Of course, not all of his contemporaries liked this worldview, and Plato, according to rumors, even wanted to burn the works of Democritus.

Some famous ancient philosophers condemned his too materialistic view of the world. Aristotle reproached Democritus and Leucippus for not explaining why the movement of atoms began in the first place, although they claim that all other processes in the world obey mechanical principles.

Regarding this issue, here the opinion of Democritus and Leucippus is more similar to the scientific approach, because if you start reasoning, then all causality must have a beginning. And no matter what served as the beginning, it is impossible to indicate the reasons for the initial event.

One can say that the reason for the existence of the world is a certain Creator, but then one will have to come up with a reason for him, and then for the Super-Creator, which, in the end, will lead thinking to a dead end.

But much more often he was condemned because of his atheism and reluctance to have children, although he devoted some part of his life to the study of embryology.

Afterword

Democritus is certainly one of the most important figures in ancient Western philosophy. According to Bertrand Russell, he was the last Greek philosopher free from anthropocentrism. He was a true researcher and never put the problem of man above the problem of the universe. Moreover, he laughed at everyday and everyday problems, realizing how insignificant they really were.

He developed a truly brilliant concept, which thousands of years later became the basis of modern science. In his style of thinking, he was closer to the Pre-Socratics, who studied the world with childish curiosity.

All subsequent Greek philosophers devoted too much time to the study of methods of knowledge (sophists). And even such great people as Plato, who exalted his “world of ideas” over the real world, and Aristotle, who put faith as a goal as the main concept of science.

The death of Democritus marks the end of the Pre-Socratic era and the beginning of a new philosophy, which, gradually developing, will nevertheless come to a decline in the Middle Ages. And only the philosophers of the Renaissance will be able to boast the same energy and enthusiasm for understanding the world as the Pre-Socratics.

Philosophy briefly and clearly: PHILOSOPHY OF DEMOCRITISM. All the basic and most important things in philosophy: in a short text: PHILOSOPHY OF DEMOCRITUS. Answers to basic questions, philosophical concepts, history of philosophy, trends, schools and philosophers.

PHILOSOPHY OF DEMOCRITUS

An encyclopedist scientist and the largest representative of the atomistic trend in philosophy was Democritus (c. 460-370 BC) from the city of Abdera, a Greek colony on the Thracian coast. Democritus wrote about 70 works, but not a single one has reached us in complete form.

The basis of Democritus’s philosophical reflections is an idea that, in its most general form, had already appeared in ancient Eastern culture and which, as historians believe, was adopted from his teacher Leucippus, but he developed it further into a holistic concept. Democritus believed that there were an infinite number of worlds; Some worlds arise, others perish. All of them consist of many atoms and emptiness, which is located between the worlds and atoms. The atoms themselves are indivisible and devoid of emptiness. Apart from the property of indivisibility, atoms are immutable and do not have any movement within themselves; they are eternal, are not destroyed and do not appear again. The number of atoms in the world is infinite. They differ from each other in 4 ways: shape; size; order; position.

Atoms come in many different shapes. From different atoms and their different numbers, different things and worlds are formed through coupling. If they were at rest, then it would be impossible to explain the diversity of things. They, as independent elements, are characterized by movement. While in motion, atoms collide with each other, changing the direction of movement; one type of movement is a vortex. The movement itself has no beginning and will have no end.

Democritus argued that every thing has its cause (as a result of the movement and collision of atoms). Knowledge of causes is the basis of human action. Cause, as Democritus believed, is necessary and, as a result, makes random events impossible. An accident - due to the ignorance of people. Having uncovered the cause, we discover that behind the accident lies necessity. Here is an example: an eagle dropped a turtle on the head of a bald man - this is because the eagle has the habit of throwing a turtle onto a rock or a shiny hard object in order to break the turtle (in the same way, it is necessary for a person to move in one direction or another).

The human soul, according to Democritus, also consists of atoms, only they are the smallest and spherical. Thanks to this composition, the soul is able to perceive things: particles flow from them, forming, as it were, its outer shell, reminiscent of the object as a whole. A person is able to understand them and penetrate into the depth of objects, which requires intelligence and thinking. Democritus distinguished between sensory and rational knowledge; He called the first knowledge “according to opinion”, the second - knowledge “according to truth”. Cognition “by opinion” is not the same: there are colors, smells, sounds, taste sensations, which do not exist outside the soul, they are the result of the influence of objects on the sense organs, but outside the sense organs they do not exist. The knowledge of these qualities, according to Democritus, is “obscure.” In any case, without sense organs, without knowledge “according to opinion,” knowledge “according to truth” is impossible.


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Plato's philosophy

The main part of Plato's philosophy, which gave the name to the whole direction of philosophy, is the doctrine of ideas (eidos), the existence of two worlds: the world of ideas (eidos) and the world of things, or forms. Ideas (eidos) are prototypes of things, their sources. Ideas (eidos) underlie the entire set of things formed from formless matter. Ideas are the source of everything, but matter itself cannot give rise to anything.

The world of ideas (eidos) exists outside of time and space. In this world there is a certain hierarchy, at the top of which stands the idea of ​​​​the Good, from which all others flow. Good is identical to absolute Beauty, but at the same time it is the Beginning of all beginnings and the Creator of the Universe. In the myth of the cave, the Good is depicted as the Sun, ideas are symbolized by those creatures and objects that pass in front of the cave, and the cave itself is an image of the material world with its illusions.

The idea (eidos) of any thing or being is the deepest, most intimate and essential thing in it. In man, the role of idea is performed by his immortal soul. Ideas (eidos) have the qualities of constancy, unity and purity, and things have the qualities of variability, multiplicity and distortion.

The human soul is represented by Plato in the form of a chariot with a rider and two horses, white and black. The driver symbolizes the rational principle in a person, and the horses: white - the noble, highest qualities of the soul, black - passions, desires and the instinctive principle. When a person is in another world, he (the charioteer) gets the opportunity to contemplate eternal truths together with the gods. When a person is born again into the material world, the knowledge of these truths remains in his soul as a memory. Therefore, according to Plato’s philosophy, the only way for a person to know is to remember, to find “glimmers” of ideas in the things of the sensory world. When a person manages to see traces of ideas - through beauty, love or just deeds - then, according to Plato, the wings of the soul, once lost by it, begin to grow again.

Hence the importance of Plato’s teaching about Beauty, about the need to look for it in nature, people, art or beautifully constructed laws, because when the soul gradually rises from the contemplation of physical beauty to the beauty of the sciences and arts, then to the beauty of morals and customs, it the best way for the soul to climb the “golden ladder” to the world of ideas.

The second force, no less transformative of a person and capable of raising him to the world of the gods, is Love. In general, the philosopher himself resembles Eros: he also strives to achieve good, he is neither wise nor ignorant, but is a mediator between one and the other,

he does not possess beauty and goodness and that is why he strives for them.

Both philosophy and love make it possible to give birth to something beautiful: from the creation of beautiful things to beautiful laws and fair ideas.

Plato teaches that we can all come out of the “cave” into the light of ideas, since the ability to see the light of the spiritual Sun (that is, to contemplate truth and think) is in everyone, but, unfortunately, we are looking in the wrong direction.

In the Republic, Plato also gives us a teaching about the main parts of the human soul, each of which has its own virtues: the rational part of the soul has wisdom as a virtue, the concupiscible principle (the passionate principle of the soul) has moderation and temperance, and the violent spirit (which can be ally of both the first and the second) - courage and the ability to obey reason. Taken together, these virtues constitute justice.

Plato draws parallels between parts of the soul and types of people in the state and calls justice in the state when each person is in his place and does what he is most capable of.

In the Republic, Plato devotes a special place to guards (warriors) and their education, which should combine two parts: musical and gymnastic. Gymnastic education allows one to subordinate passions to reason and develop the quality of will. And the musical allows you to soften the furious spirit and subordinate it to the laws of rhythm and harmony.

Philosophy of Democritus

Atomistic materialism

The main achievement of the philosophy of Democritus is considered to be his development of the doctrine of Leucippus about the “atom” - an indivisible particle of matter that has true existence, neither destroyed nor created. He described the world as a system of atoms in the void, rejecting the infinite divisibility of matter, postulating not only the infinity of the number of atoms in the Universe, but also the infinity of their forms. Atoms, according to this theory, move chaotically in empty space, collide and, due to the correspondence of shapes, sizes, positions and orders, either stick together or fly apart. The resulting compounds hold together and thus produce complex bodies. Movement itself is a property naturally inherent in atoms. Bodies are combinations of atoms. The diversity of bodies is due both to the difference in the atoms composing them and to the difference in the order of assembly, just as different words are formed from the same letters. Atoms cannot touch, since everything that does not have emptiness inside itself is indivisible, that is, a single atom. Consequently, between two atoms there are always at least small gaps of emptiness, so that even in ordinary bodies there is emptiness. It also follows that when atoms approach very small distances, repulsive forces begin to act between them. At the same time, mutual attraction is possible between atoms according to the principle “like attracts like.”

The principle of isonomy

The main methodological principle of the atomists was the principle of isonomy (literal translation from Greek: equality of all before the law), which is formulated as follows: if a particular phenomenon is possible and does not contradict the laws of nature, then it is necessary to assume that in infinite time and in infinite space it either has already taken place, or will someday occur: in infinity there is no boundary between possibility and existence. It follows, in particular, that if a phenomenon can, in principle, occur in different forms, then all these types exist in reality. Democritus made several important conclusions from the principle of isonomy: 1) there are atoms of all shapes and sizes (including the size of the whole world); 2) all directions and all points in the Great Emptiness are equal; 3) atoms move in the Great Void in any direction at any speed. The last point is very important for the theory of Democritus. Essentially, it follows that movement in itself does not need to be explained; the reason must be sought only for a change in movement.

Cosmology

The Great Emptiness (space) is spatially infinite. In the initial chaos of atomic movements in the Great Void, a vortex spontaneously forms. The symmetry of the Great Emptiness turns out to be broken inside the vortex, a center and periphery arise there. Heavy bodies formed in a vortex tend to accumulate near the center of the vortex. The difference between light and heavy is not qualitative, but quantitative, and this alone constitutes significant progress. Democritus explains the separation of matter inside the vortex as follows: in their rush to the center of the vortex, heavier bodies displace lighter ones, and they remain closer to the periphery of the vortex. In the center of the world, the Earth is formed, consisting of the heaviest atoms. On the outer surface of the world, something like a protective film is formed, separating space from the surrounding Great Void. Since the structure of the world is determined by the tendency of atoms to the center of the vortex, the world of Democritus has a spherically symmetrical structure.

Democritus was a proponent of the concept of a plurality of worlds,

The worlds are infinite in number and differ from each other in size. In some of them there is neither sun nor moon, in others the sun and moon are larger than ours, and thirdly there are not one of them, but several. The distances between the worlds are not the same; In addition, in one place there are more worlds, in another there are fewer. Some worlds are expanding, others have reached full bloom, and others are already declining. In one place worlds arise, in another they decline. They are destroyed when they collide with each other. Some of the worlds are devoid of animals, plants and any kind of moisture.

The multiplicity of worlds follows from the principle of isonomy: if a process of some kind can occur, then in infinite space somewhere someday it will certainly occur; what happens in a given place at a given point in time must also happen in other places at certain points in time. All worlds move in different directions, since all directions and all states of motion are equal. In this case, worlds can collide, collapsing. Similarly, all moments of time are equal: if the formation of the world occurs now, then somewhere it must occur both in the past and in the future; Currently, different worlds are at different stages of development. In the course of its movement, a world whose formation has not completed can accidentally penetrate into the confines of a fully formed world and find itself captured by it (this is how Democritus explained the origin of the heavenly bodies in our world).

However, he was not a supporter of the theory of a spherical Earth. According to Democritus, the order of the luminaries is as follows: Moon, Venus, Sun, other planets, stars (as the distance from the Earth increases). Moreover, the further away the light is from us, the slower (relative to the stars) it moves.

Ethics

In his theory, Democritus develops the pan-Hellenic concept of measure, noting that measure is the correspondence of human behavior to his natural capabilities and abilities. Through the prism of such a measure, pleasure appears as an objective good, and not just a subjective sensory perception.

Democritus considered the main principle of human existence to be in a state of blissful, serene state of mind, devoid of passions and extremes. This is not just simple sensual pleasure, but a state of “peace, serenity and harmony.”

Democritus believed that all evil and misfortune happen to a person due to the lack of necessary knowledge. From this he concluded that the solution to problems lies in the acquisition of knowledge. The optimistic philosophy of Democritus did not allow the absoluteness of evil, deducing wisdom as a means of achieving happiness.

Religion

Based on his materialistic worldview, Democritus denied the existence of gods and the role of everything supernatural in the emergence of the world. According to Sextus, he was of the opinion that “we came to the idea of ​​gods from extraordinary phenomena occurring in the world.”

Philosophy of Aristotle.

The doctrine of matter.

Therefore, Aristotle replaces the word “idea” with the more general term “form”. Matter belongs to form as much as form belongs to matter. According to Aristotle, form cannot exist without matter belonging to it. Only together do they form the real existence of a thing, substance, and therefore the latter, in the proper sense of the word, is a single object consisting of matter and form. Of course, there remains a difference between them: matter is only a universal and indefinite substratum; form, on the contrary, is realized for us in a variety of ways.

The goals that dominate the world produce movement and change in matter, from which, in turn, the figures of things arise. Therefore, our cognition of things and the activity taking place in them follow opposite paths: cognition of things is directed from the external figure to the movement that produces it, and from this latter to the goal immanent in it; activity begins with a goal, which is then realized through movement in the figure of a thing.

The concept of the immanent nature of the goal.

In Aristotelian philosophy, the goal is given the same importance as in Plato - the idea. The idea, as the prototype of each individual concept, breaks up into an indefinite set of separate individual ideas. Goal, on the contrary, is a universal concept from which all individual types of goals naturally follow, and since it represents an immanent principle, these types of goals can be directly known from experience and relationships. In accordance with these relationships, all phenomena, in turn, form a consistent system of goals, which begins with the most general and basic and ends with the most individual phenomena and
within which, in addition, a transition is given from the less perfect to the more perfect. Thus, the concept of immanent purpose in its double gradation from the universal to the individual and from imperfect to perfect must be brought to the thought of development, the basic thought of Aristotelian philosophy.

Space development. Eternity of peace.

From the first indicated gradation of goals from the universal to the individual, cosmic development follows: it begins with the eternal and uniform movement of the heavenly vault, and ends with the particular earthly processes of movement. With this doctrine of the eternity of the world, Aristotle made the first attempt to solve the problem of the emergence of the world order by simply eliminating it. However, in his explanation of individual earthly processes, he follows the explanation of the world on the dualism of spiritual and bodily principles. He introduces four qualitatively different elements of Empedocles into physics. When explaining the phenomena of motion, he prefers the theory that bodies fall down because their natural place is in the center of the Earth. Aristotle contrasts these “natural” movements with the movements of thrown bodies as “forced”, “random”.

Organic development.

The second sequential series of goals from imperfect to perfect manifests itself in organic development. It rests on a system of mental forces, which, as higher ones, acting according to goals, are erected on the forces of lifeless nature. The lowest of these mental powers is the ability to nourish. This ability in the animal kingdom is joined by the abilities of sensation and movement, which are closely related to each other, since all spatial movements of animals occur on the basis of sensations, which, according to Aristotle, first have their place in individual sense organs, and then in their combination - in

heart, as in the organ of general sensation. Finally, in man, to these two lower abilities, a thinking mind is added, which splits into two jointly acting parts: a passive mind, which receives sensations and forms ideas from them, and an active mind, which distinguishes the essential and permanent from these ideas.

The doctrine of immortality.

The human soul combines all the lower spiritual forces. However, since it develops concepts from sensory representations, the mental faculty, the active mind, must itself possess the essential properties of concepts. Concepts are forms of things, conceivable independently of their matter. And since concepts are pure forms, then the active mind itself must be a pure form, devoid of matter. Active mind: it is pure form and therefore immortal. Aristotle rejects the pre-existence of the soul: and active reason for him is a product of development, God himself. Not the whole soul also takes part in the future life, only the active thinking spirit is immortal as a form without matter. In this sense, Aristotle says of it that it relates to other parts of the soul in the same way as these latter relate to the living body.

Ethics.

For Aristotle, in the ethical field, the dominant virtues are knowledge, dianoetic virtues: wisdom, prudence and common sense. Only they have an unconditional value, because they do not depend on private everyday circumstances and allow one to achieve the highest goal of human aspiration, bliss. Aristotle considers the most blissful life to be one in which, instead of the external blessings of life, wisdom becomes an object of pleasure. Most people should give up such a life, since the natural state of people is social life. In reality, practical or ethical virtues occupy a dominant position. These virtues rest on natural properties, only strengthened by education and habit, which is why Aristotle calls them “ethical.”

Policy.

State forms develop in a sequential series depending on the actual state and needs of human society. At the earliest stage of culture it is required that the leader be the most capable individual of all, and therefore the appropriate form of government here is the monarchy. At a further stage of development, many noble, outstanding men, equal to each other, achieve power: the monarchy thus becomes an aristocracy, the rule of many nobles. Finally, with the further development of culture, the aristocracy passes into popular rule, into democracy. None of these forms is absolutely good, suitable for all times and respects. It is precisely because of its relative importance that each of these forms becomes a distorted form of government. Thus, a distorted form of government by one - tyranny - arises when not the best, but the strongest individual in a democratic state seizes power; the distorted form of government of many, oligarchy, appears when power in the state is seized not by the noblest people, but by people who have gained great influence through demagogic machinations; finally, a distorted form of popular government, the rule of the mob (ochlocracy), arises when not the real people, but the uneducated masses gain influence on state affairs. Due to the fact that democracy can easily degenerate into ochlocracy or return to tyranny or oligarchy. Aristotle considers the best form of government for a high level of culture not democracy, but a form that occupies a middle position between aristocracy and democracy: this is civil government, politics, in which the reins of government are held in the hands of a wealthy, educated middle class.