Otitis

Sounds and letters and their relationships, alphabet graphics. Phonetic units

Although graphics were originally created to reinforce speech in writing, there is no direct (one-to-one) correspondence between letters and sounds. Several types of relationships between letters and sounds are possible.

1. One letter can represent only one sound. For example, the letter th represents only the sound “yot”, the letter u – only the sound [u].

2. One letter can represent different sounds appearing in different positions. For example, the letter o in the word policeman [гъръдаго;)] denotes 3 different sounds - unstressed vowels [ъ], [а] and a stressed vowel; the letter b in the word fish denotes a voiced sound [b], and in the form R. p. plural. h. fish - dull sound [n]: [ryp]. The letter e is often used in printed texts not only in its basic sound meaning, but also replaces the letter e, i.e., in such use it denotes the stressed sound [o] (brought, ice, led), and after a vowel or dividing letter ъ and b - combination (reception, rise, curls).

3. One letter can represent a combination of two sounds. For example, iotated letters, as mentioned above, often denote a combination of a consonant sound [j] and a vowel sound: I sing.

4. A letter may not denote a single sound, that is, it may not have a sound meaning. This applies not only to the silent letters ъ and ь (entrance, notebook), but also, for example, to the so-called unpronounceable consonants: feeling [chustb], heart [s"ertz], sun [sonts].

5. The combination of two letters in a word can mean one sound. For example, in the word count, the first two consonants indicate one long soft consonant sound: [w"itat"]. The combination of a consonant letter with a soft sign denotes one consonant sound: day [d "en"], mouse [mouse].

6. Different letters can represent the same sound. Thus, the letters t and d can denote the same sound [t]: that [that], year [goth].

It allows you to fairly accurately represent in writing the relationship between the sounds of Russian speech and is a good basis for Russian spelling.

33. Transcribe the text, breaking it down into phonetic phrases and speech bars. Divide the highlighted words into syllables, characterize each syllable. What are the names of the letters in the highlighted words (you need to give the individual name of each letter and indicate whether the letter is a vowel, consonant or voiceless, if the vowel is iotated or not) and what is their sound meaning?

The curly shavings smell of tar, the white frame smells like a beehive. The strong-chested carpenter pulls the stakes, is slow and stingy with words (N. Klyuev).

34. Find all the consonants in the words. Indicate their individual names. Determine the sound meaning of each consonant letter.

Bark, pike, friend, train, wool, workshop, world, mushroom, Christmas tree, cast iron, raincoat, heart, score; him (R. and V. p.).

35. Name all the vowels in the highlighted words. Indicate whether each vowel is iotized or non-iotated. Determine its sound meaning.

Listen!

After all, if the stars light up -

Does that mean anyone needs this?

And, straining

in blizzards of midday dust,

Rushes to God

I'm afraid I'm late

kisses his sinewy hand,

there must be a star! -

swears -

will not endure this starless torment!

Speech sounds- the smallest sound units that we hear and pronounce.

Letters- conventional graphic signs that express speech sounds in writing.

Vowel sounds under stress are pronounced distinctly and clearly, but in unstressed words it is unclear, therefore, in unstressed syllables, vowels and sounds may not coincide: tovar - t[A]var.

Yotized letters e, e, yu, i are not sounds. These iotized letters stand for:

one sound after a soft consonant: [e] ([m’el]); [o] ([l’ot]); [u] ([l’uk]); [a] ([m’ach’]);
two sounds:

The sound and spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants coincide in the strong position:

before vowels: beard;
before voiced consonants: resin.

In a weak position, paired voiced and voiceless consonants are deafened or voiced.

Voiced and voiceless consonants can be deafened and voiced.

Stun happens:

at the end of the word: forehead [lop];
before voiceless consonants: boat [tray].

Voicing observed before voiced consonants: threshing [malad'ba].

Remember:

b And ъ are not sounds;
doubled consonants are pronounced as one long sound (cash [k a S a]);
the combination ts gives the sound [ts] (like [n r a v’ and ts a]);
the letter combination сч gives the sound [ш'] (count [ш' и м ат']).
In Russian, in some combinations of consonants ( stn, zdn, stl, lnts, rdc) a sound is dropped out; such dropped sounds are called unpronounceable consonants.

Distinguish:

shine - sparkle
inert (looks) - bone (broth)
participate - feel
dishes (yas - there are) - obvious (reality)
march (down the street) - patronize (someone)
peer - peer
skillful (skillful) - artificial
staircase - but: ladder

Test

1. In what row is the sound [C] pronounced in all words?

a) image, eye, mattress
b) health, mowing, track
c) massive, selfish, do
d) dump, take out, thrush

2. In what row is the sound [T] pronounced in all words?

a) vegetable garden, warehouse, ford
b) local, democracy, tone
c) dangerous, alarming, traveling
d) touching, tennis, passage

3. Indicate in which row unpronounceable consonants occur in all words.

a) stairs, obvious, flattering
b) bone (broth), late, holiday
c) viands, flash, dumb
d) skillful, passionate, honor

4. Indicate in which row the voicing occurs in all words.

a) marriage, run away, do
b) deal, shave, move out
c) here, jug, clever
d) rich, savings bank, stitch together

5. Indicate in which row the deafening occurs in all words.

a) a lot of wood, ugly, timid
b) threshold, sweet, landscape
c) shore, mongrel, x-ray
d) flag, shavings, saucer

6. Indicate in which row e, e, yu, i represent one sound.

a) hatch, cabin, pit
b) bright, singing, filming
c) key, bream, song
d) sorrel, play, concierge

7. In which series do all words have a stressed vowel [O]?

a) Christmas tree, eat, forge
b) white-hot, removable, carried away
c) survive, peppery, pouring
d) prim, illuminated, eccentric

8. In what series does the sound [C] occur in all words?

a) heron, get carried away, lean against
b) short, cylinder, heart
c) get angry, complain, mat
d) whole, consultation, quote

9. Indicate words that have more sounds than letters.

a) enthusiastic
b) calm down
c) travel
d) gorging

10. Indicate words that have more letters than sounds.

a) nine hundred
b) premiere
c) inappropriate
d) smile

Keys to tests

Thus, there are 6 vowel sounds in the Russian language, 36 consonants, a total of 42 units in the sound system. As is known, there are 10 vowels in the Russian language, 21 consonants, in total (including b and b) there are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet . The relationships between letters and sounds are determined by a number of different factors and rules, of which the most complex - orthoepic - are given above. As a kind of consolidation of this information, this section provides “sound-letter” relationships based on the material of Russian vowels (this is where errors are most often found in the phonetic analysis of a word) (see Tables 5, 6).

Table 5

Stressed vowels

Table 6

Unstressed vowels

Sound	Letter	Examples	Notes
[A]	A	herself@
ABOUT	Houses@
[And]	AND	fox@
E	forests@
A	watch@
I	rows@
E	electrician	Variable; in this position it is possible [s]
[s]	Y	hole@
AND	live@
E	yellow@t, deka@n
E	floor	Variable; in this position it is possible [and]
[y]	U	hand@
Yu	love

Accent

With regard to stress, there are only two difficulties that should be kept in mind when performing phonetic analysis:

1) the possibility of fluctuating stress in a word – otherwise And otherwise, cottage cheese And cottage cheese, simultaneously And simultaneously; in this case, one should either give two options for analysis, or at least indicate the existence of a second method of correlating the letter and sound representation of a word;

2) the possibility of the appearance of a second (additional, side) stress in a word – se$nokosi@lka, small-scale, mining etc.; such stress usually appears in multi-root words; it is especially noticeable in cases where the vowels [o] and [e], which are normally incapable of appearing in an unstressed position in the Russian language, are in the position of potential secondary stress; it must also be taken into account when establishing the relationship between letters and sounds in a given word, i.e. when performing phonetic analysis.

Hyphenation

Dividing a word into syllables during phonetic analysis can also be difficult in some cases. This does not apply to the number of syllables in a word, but is related to the drawing of the syllable boundary: stick or stick, look or look, build, build or post-swarm? Without going into the intricacies of various theories of syllable division and the experimental search for answers to all these questions, we propose in all cases (in accordance with the most modern and experimentally confirmed theory) to draw a syllable boundary after the vowel: stick, look, build. The only consonant that can “close” a syllable in Russian is [th]: understand, let's talk.

Parsing samples

Taking into account all the above information phonetic analysis plan words can be represented as follows:

1) determine the number of syllables in a word and the place of stress; To do this, it is enough to rewrite the word broken down by syllables and put emphasis on it;

2) establish relationships between letters and sounds;

3) give a description of vowels (stressed-unstressed) and consonants (hard-soft, voiced-voiceless; indicating their pairing or unpairing in both cases);

1) the paired-unpaired feature must be noted twice for each consonant - in relation to the sign of both hardness-softness and voiced-voicelessness;

2) in the case of a paired sign, it is not necessary to indicate the corresponding paired consonant; this information is certainly useful, but unnecessary in a situation of time shortage;

3) do not forget to mark the stress of the vowel in the corresponding position in the transcription.

Analysis samples.

1. FIVETHM: vpya-te-ro@m– 3 syllables

V– [f] – agree, tv. (par), ch. (boys)

n– [p’] – agree, soft. (par.), ch. (male)

I– [and] – ch. (b/d.)

e– [and] – ch. (b/d.)

r– [p] – agree, tv. (male), sound (unpaired) (sonant)

O– [o@] – ch. (ud.)

m – [m] – acc., tv. (male), sound (unpaired) (sonant)

2. FRESHNESS: fresh@-hard – 2 syllables

With– [s] – acc., tv. (par), ch. (boys)

V– [v’] – agree, soft. (male), sound (guy).

e– [e@] – ch. (ud.)

and– [f] – agree, tv. (unpaired), sound (boys)

e– [s] – ch. (b/d.)

With– [s’] – agree, soft. (par), ch. (boys)

T– [t’] – agree, soft. (par.), ch. (male)

b – [-]

3. REPENTANCE: repentance– 5 syllables

p –[p] – agree, tv. (par.), ch. (male)

O -[a] – Ch. (b/d.)

To -[k] – acc., tv. (par.), ch. (male)

A -[a] – Ch. (b/d.)

I -[th] – agree, soft. (unpaired), sound (unpaired) (sonant)

[a@] – ch. (ud.)

n –[n’] – agree, soft. (male), sound (unpaired) (sonant)

And -[i] – ch. (b/d.)

e -[i] – ch. (b/d.)

MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS OF A WORD

Morphemic analysis of a word (analysis of it by composition), just like phonetic analysis, requires students to know certain, fundamental, theoretical provisions of morphemics and an inventory of morphemic level units of the language. However, within the framework of this manual it is not possible to present in detail all these scientific foundations, therefore we proceed from the assumption that applicants have the necessary amount of knowledge and skills and will limit ourselves to only some comments and an indication of the main difficulties that may be encountered in this type of word analysis. For convenience, we will give them in the form of a specific list.

1. Performing a morphemic analysis of a word involves graphically highlighting it basics And graduation (inflections), and within the framework of the stem - all its constituent morphemes: root and various affixes, by which we mean consoles (prefixes) And suffixes, including interfixes And postfixes. The designations of word parts and types of morphemes are quite traditional:

Warp

ÿ - inflection,

- root,

| - prefix,

^ - suffix.

2. Isolation of one or another morpheme in a word is carried out on the basis of opposition: Beautiful, because There is beautiful, beautiful; kras-ißv-y, because kras-a; etc.

3. Interfix First of all, they call (1) connecting vowels – O - And - e - in complex (multi-root) words: ice- O-move, dirty- e- hospital. When parsing a word, it can be designated as a suffix: business O ß -pro-iz-vod-st^v-O. Some other morphemes also belong to interfixes:

2) the final vowel of related international components that are not used outside additions of the same structure: micro -O- processor, ge- O-log, no- O -Nazism, arche- O-logy;

3) the final vowel of the stems of indeclinable words ( for the sake of -O-cutting, meter- O-bridge, kin -O-mechanic, coffee- e-cooking) and truncated stems ( tel- e-transmission, engine -O-bol, stereo- O-vision); 4) -A- And - I - in some words: seven- I-share, time -I-conveyance, air A-nose, meg- A- ton;

5) -y - after components two) And floor-: double- at-member, sex -y-circle;

6) -And- in some formations: dose- And-meter, calor -And-meter, Uzbek- And-camp, half- And-mer, min- And-basketball, mill- And-gram, tra- And-comedy;

7) -I- in words with the first root seb-: seb- I-love;

8) -And- And - ÿ - , coinciding with the endings of the imperative mood of 2 l. singular, after some verb stems: disrupt -And-head, vert- And-tail, roll- And-field, take a walk-ÿ -city;

9) –i-, -uh-, -ex-, -o-, –a-, -e- after the bases of numerals: heel-and-wrestler, forty-a-thousander, forty-o-leg, one-o-dum, centenary, two-year anniversary, three-e-th anniversary, three-e-leg;

10) –O - - ÿ - in proper names with supporting components – city, -lake, -city: Nov-ÿ -city, Bel- O-lake, Kalinin-ÿ- hail;

11) -ÿ - in many other complex words: prime ministerÿ -minister, sword-ÿ -fish, ampere-ÿ -meter, march-ÿ -parade, yacht-ÿ -club etc..

4. Postfix is a suffix located after all morphemes, including inflection, and is included in the stem. These include:

1) reflexive suffixes (particles) – Xia And - sya: for-interest-l^-a- s^b ;

2) indefinite suffixes (particles) – then, or, -something: to-mu- or ;

3) other particles written with a hyphen - - anyway, -ka, -s: s-kazh-iß-kßa, sorryl-ußy-te-sß.

5. Formative suffixes of the infinitive (indefinite form of the verb) (- t, -you, -whose, and also sometimes identified as independent - there is, ‑sti) and past tense (- l-) are not included in the stem of the verb, since they do not form new words, like all other suffixes, but only new forms of the same word: del-a^- t^b, del-a^-l^-a.

6. For the same reason, formative suffixes of participles and gerunds are not included in the stem of the verb. The latter, however, are such independent word forms in the Russian language that in many cases they have their own parsing schemes, independent of the verb (cf. word-formation and morphological types of their analysis). So in this case, in the forms of participles and gerunds, two bases should be distinguished: the base of this form itself (including all formative suffixes) and the base of the original verb, which does not include them: interest [th]-yu^sch-iii- s^ya, chit-a^- [th]- yu ^sch-yy, pro-chit-a^ -V ^ .

7. In the school tradition, it is customary to call infinitive suffixes verbal endings and designate them accordingly when analyzing words according to their composition. Apparently, this can be explained precisely by the fact that these morphemes are not included in the stem of the verb and thereby become closer to the endings. However, the simple argument that ending by definition is changeable part of a word, while infinitive suffixes are found in immutable (indefinite) form of the verb, forces us to disagree with this tradition and still insist that - t, ‑you And - whose(and also - there is And - sti) are suffixes, not endings. During the exam, however, it is difficult to require all applicants to know this difference between school and scientific approaches, so this information is only desirable, but not mandatory.

8. You should also remember about the possibility of the existence of “zero” morphemes, primarily endings: chit-a^-l^-ÿ. This is especially important in the case when such a “zero” ending is not at the end, but in the middle of the word: once-bezh-a^-l^-ÿ- s^ya . The “zero” ending is found only in a series of other, “non-zero”, materially expressed endings of the same word: wall-A, wall-s, wall-ÿ; by-l^-a, by-l^-i, by-l^-ÿ; gor-i^ch-A, city-i^h-And, gor-i^ch-ÿ ; etc. The complete absence of an ending in a word is not “zero”; this is how all immutable words or forms of words are structured: immutable nouns ( coat, puree, dendi, euroro ) and adjectives( hacks, beige, Bordeaux ),adverbs( quickly, on-tih-on^k-u^, suddenly ), state category words ( it's a pity, no way (you can't ), it's time ), gerunds ( raz-del-a^-vsh^i-s^b, pr(i)-id-i^, del-a^- [th]-I ^ ), interjections ( thank you, away, ax! ), comparative degree forms ( um-n^-e^e, best, in a different way ), auxiliary parts of speech – prepositions ( For, before ), unions ( What, Although ), particles ( only, only ).

It is also possible to isolate the “zero” formative suffix of the past tense: ros- ^-ÿ - against the background of such forms as ros-l^-a, ros-l^-i and under. In any case, the “zero” morpheme can only be a member of some paradigmatic series.

The “zero” morpheme is recognized only significant absence.

9. Taking into account all of the above, the “zero” ending should be emphasized in possessive adjectives like lis-i^y-ÿ , since in all other forms of such words it is this part that is modified: Lis -[th]-I, Lis -[th]-their, Lis -[th]-to him and under. In the possessive suffix - ißy- in this case, there is a phonetic alternation of [and] with a “zero sound”: [and//#]. So adjectives blue And fox, outwardly very similar, have not only different lexico-grammatical characteristics (the first is qualitative, the second is possessive), but also a different morphemic structure: lis-i^y-ÿ And sin-th. In part, it is precisely this feature (the presence of specific suffixes that are not characteristic of other categories of this class of words; to this, you can also add suffixes - ißn V pap-i^n-ÿ or - oßv V ots-o^v-ÿ ) was one of the reasons for separating possessive adjectives into a special group, whereas in terms of meaning (‘characteristic through the relation of belonging’) they clearly gravitate towards relative ones (‘characteristic through various relations’).

The ordinal number also has the same morphemic structure. tret-i^y-ÿ (cf.: rub -[th]-I, rub -[th]-e,rub -[th]-his, rub -[th]-to him and so on).

10. In a number of Russian words one can observe a peculiar superposition of morphemes – full or partial: colon(n)-n^ th, Odes(s)-s^k-th, Min(sk)-s^k-th, ras-(s)sor-i^-t^b, taks(i)-is^t-ÿ , vla(st)-st^v-ov^a-th, pallt(o)-o^v th etc. Superposition can occur at different morpheme junctions (prefix-root or root-suffix), up to the complete “absorption” of one morpheme by another, cf. you-(н)-н^у-t^b. When analyzing such a word morphemicly, graphic symbols are also superimposed on each other, which should not “scare” the applicant. Knowledge of this feature of Russian word formation will allow you to avoid unnecessary mistakes in this type of word parsing.

11. Some difficulties in morphemic analysis can be presented by those cases when two (rarely more) variants of the morphemic division of a word are possible at once. This happens, for example, if a word has changed its morphemic structure over time - processes such as simplification, morpheme decomposition etc. In other words, when there is a clear difference in the morphemic structure of a word when looking at it from a modern or historical point of view. For example, modern dictionaries consider words Human And bear as non-derivatives: person-ÿ , bear-ÿ. While even a slight “excursion” into history reveals two roots in these words: man-o^-vek -ÿ , honey-ÿ. The word also appears non-derivative in dictionaries clouds-O, while historically the root stands out here - black, which has many options: o-blach-n^-th, moisture-t^b, volok-o^m, o-boloch-k^-A, on-voloch-k^-A etc. There are quite a lot of such cases in the language - just compare the recommendations of various word-formation dictionaries.

Another reason for this state of affairs may be the difference in the initial theoretical principles from which the word is divided according to its composition. Yes, in words dress, put on, undress you can isolate the root - de‑- on the formal basis that there are non-prefixed (albeit somewhat outdated) formations children, get away, get away, and the root can also be combined with a number of different prefixes (you can add more words to those listed above lift up, thread through, pry up, put off and a number of others). But the word-formation dictionary of the Russian language (for example, A.N. Tikhonov, including its version for school) does not highlight such a root, taking into account the change in the meaning of the word introduced by all these prefixes (i.e. on a semantic basis).

It is difficult to demand from an ordinary schoolchild knowledge of all these intricacies - both the history of the formation of a particular word, and the variety of scientific interpretations. Here the applicant can only be advised to try to see and note the possibility of the second option for dividing the word. If you didn’t see it, it’s not scary, it won’t affect the assessment; saw and noted - great, you managed to rise above the average (school) level. In this manual, all cases of such double (variable) division of a word are noted in brackets (see above the word it is forbidden).

The second version of analysis (not only in this type of analysis, but in all others) makes sense only when you are sure that you are not mistaken. Otherwise, refrain from making unnecessary mistakes.

If you're not sure, don't overtake!

12. The most “dangerous” in the morphemic analysis of a word is the so-called “hidden” [th]: the situation when it is not indicated in the word by a separate letter, but is “hidden” in an “iotated” vowel (see about them above). Sometimes such [th] appears in a word as an independent morpheme: del-a^- [th]-et, del-a^- [th]- yu ^sch-yy, del-a^- [th]-i^ (usually in verb forms), and sometimes as part of a morpheme: ht-en^i [th]-e, in a way [th]-e(I see [th]-e), zna-ni^ [th]-e(usually in suffixes of abstract nouns). The presence of such a “hidden” [th] can, as a rule, be checked by some other form of this word, where [th] is indicated by the corresponding letter Y, cf.: del-a^-y^-ÿ, ht-en^y-ÿ, in a way-ÿ (I understand-ÿ ), know-ÿ , or a related word with the same feature: By -n i-ti^y-n^ th (I understand-ti^y-n^ th) (apparatus), zi-ti^y-n^-th (literature).

If at the junction of morphemes in a word there are two vowels and the second of them is “iotated” - look for “hidden” [th]! Wed: chit-A-Et, chit-A-Z, chit-A-Yusch-y, ch-enI-E.

“Hidden” [th], so necessary in the morphemic structure of a word, may, nevertheless, not be pronounced, i.e., be absent in the phonetic representation (transcription) of a given word (see about this above).

Parsing samples

Above, in the course of presenting the material, a fairly large number of illustrations have already been given, so here we will limit ourselves to just a few more, without any comments:

pro-s(n)-n^y-l^-ÿ- s^ya;

pre-stavl-en^i [th]-e;

times-beg-a^ -[th]-yußsch-ee- s^ya;

man-o^-vech-i^y-ÿ (human-ÿ );

g-jump;

dv-A;

tret-i^y-ÿ;

on-per-kos-ya^k;

woman-s^k-y;

store-ÿ;

goal-yu;

first of all.

During the entrance exam, you should not add any additional information to the recording of words broken down into morphemes, any arguments in favor of the proposed solution - for example, a list of words with the same root or words with the same prefixes or suffixes, an indication of the presence within the morpheme of alternations (including historical ones, i.e., indicated in writing) or comments about one or another variant of the division of the word. This could certainly be a useful exercise in a study situation, but it certainly won't be enough time to prepare for an answer on an exam. It is quite sufficient to concisely and correctly formulate the morphemic analysis of a word according to the samples proposed above, which does not, however, exclude the need to be prepared to answer any question from the examiner regarding the morphemic division or certain components of the word.

WORD-FORMATION ANALYSIS

Derivational analysis of a word is a natural continuation of the morphemic one: having established the morphemic structure of a word, it is logical to ask the question of how exactly this word was formed in the language. Often students even combine both of these types of analysis: having written out a word from the text broken down into morphemes and graphically indicating all its parts (morphemic analysis), they immediately put an arrow showing the direction of the word-formation process and note the progress of the creation of this word (word-formation analysis):

teacher – uch-i^-te^l-ni^ts-a teacher + -no way-.

Such recording really saves time significantly and is often completely worth it. However, there is also a great danger of making a mistake if the written word is not in its initial, but in some other text form. But it’s better to consider all the difficulties and “dangers” of word-formation analysis in order, presenting them again in the form of a list.

1. Do not confuse word formation and morphology (see above)! Start word-formation analysis with initial form words.

Formative analysis words (establishing a procedure for the formation of a specific word form from some initial one) is a completely possible and independent task, however, performing this type of analysis is not included in the program of the entrance exam in the Russian language. This is exactly what we're talking about word-formation analysis, i.e., about the unfolding of a chain of steps that led to the formation of a given (derived) word from some initial (producing) word, using certain word-forming affixes (formants) or other methods. Consequently, in all cases (for the only exception to this rule, see below), word-formation analysis should begin with the initial (original) form of the word. All other types of word analysis (phonetic, morphemic, morphological) can, and sometimes should, be performed on the material of the text word form. This is some specificity of word-formation analysis.

2. The only exception to the above rule is associated with the forms of participles and gerunds (this is not the first time these forms require some special attention!): in this case, we are dealing specifically with a formative process, showing the transition from the form of a participle or gerund to the original verb form:

rereading – re-read -[th]- yu ^sch-th F reread+ -[th]- + - yu^sch-;

having experienced– is-pyt-a^-v^ F experience + -in^.

In all such cases, the formative essence of the process must be indicated somehow - for example, with the letter F above the arrow. Ideally, the actual methods of word formation should also be designated (see below), however, in a situation of time shortage, one can limit oneself to only a graphic designation of the word-formation formant (affix). And only in the case when the formation of a word is not associated with the use of certain morphemes, it is necessary to indicate (above the arrow or in brackets) a specific method of word formation.

3. Methods of word formation that an applicant needs to know are traditional and for the most part do not require special comments, since they do not cause difficulties in the exam:

prefixation : readpro-+read;
suffixation : tabletable + -i^k-;
suffix-prefix method (here it is important that the prefix and suffix are simultaneously attached to the generating stem; the addition of only one of them does not form a new word): run away- + run + -s^ya; take a nap- + doze + -n^y- ‑ -A^-;
compounding (addition of basics): major general + major; light blue light + -o^- + blue; locomotive+ -o^- + carry ‑ -i^-;
abbreviation : SPbSU St. Petersburg State University; city health department city health department; head of departmenthead of department;
stem truncation : earlyearly ‑ -n^-; viewing watch ‑ -e^-; explosion explode - -aß-; milkmaid milkmaid - -kß-;
zero suffixation (suffixless method; a new word is formed without any new affixes, while the stem remains without truncation): greengreen; fifth five; rotten rotten;
transposition of parts of speech (non-morphological method): dining room(noun) dining room(adj.); in winter(adv.) in winter(T.p. noun).

Various combinations all these methods, as can be seen from some examples. At the same time, it is also clear that only the last two methods of word formation, in which no formal indicators are involved, require an indispensable verbal designation. In other cases, we can limit ourselves to the graphic designation of the components of the word involved in word formation:

reinsurer reinsurance + -o^v- + -sh^ik- ‑ -ov^a- ‑ -s^ya;

quietly in quiet(non-morphol.).

4. When performing word-formation analysis, do not forget to indicate the formants themselves, “attaching” or “cutting off” them using the appropriate signs – (+) or (-):

thrush milky + -i^ts-;

run run ‑ -A^- + g/f([k//f]).

5. As can be seen from the above examples, the formation of a new word often involves alternation of sounds. They do not represent any independent method of word formation, but must, nevertheless, be noted in the word-formation chain.

6. The above examples illustrate another difficulty in word-formation analysis that awaits a poorly prepared applicant: a derived (secondary) word does not necessarily have to be more complex in structure (longer) than the corresponding generating (primary). In case of difficulty when choosing a productive basis, you can be guided by this fairly simple consideration: the primary one is often the word that denotes something more specific ('object', 'feature', 'action'), the secondary one is the one that has a more complex meaning: verbal noun ('action + objectivity': move to walk ‑ -and^-; tell a story ‑ -yv^a- or tell‑ -a^-), a noun with the meaning of quality (‘attribute + objectivity’: blue blue; distant distance ‑ -n^-), another abstract noun ( joy rejoice ‑ -ov^a- ‑ -s^ya + os^t; pain‑ -e^-) etc.

The derived word is not always more complex than the producing word. What comes first is usually what is simpler (more specific) in meaning.

7. When performing a word-formation analysis of a word, one should remember about the “hidden” [th]: it often takes part in the formation of a new word along with other word-formation formants or is part of one or another affix. In any case, it must be noted in the entry:

singing F sing+ -[th]- + - yu^sch- + o/e ([a//e]);

luckluck + -en^i[th]-.

8. When determining how a word is formed, one must take into account the possibility double motivation, i.e., the existence of two different ways of creating a given word, from which it is objectively impossible to choose one:

not far near + -o^-;

far + Not-.

rejoice about- + rejoice;

please + -s^ya.

Do not try to find one single correct answer to this or that question - often there is more than one objectively existing in the language. It is important to see this ambiguity, the variability of linguistic solutions.

The last remark can be applied not only to word-formation, but equally to all other types of linguistic analysis.

Parsing samples

As in the previous section, many illustrations for performing word-formation analysis were given during the presentation of the material, so here we will limit ourselves to just a few additional examples:

foreigner other + -o^- + country + -e^ts-;

immortality demon- + death + -And^[th]-;

pedestrian pedestrian+ -n^-;

pandemonium with- + crowd + -O^- + create ‑ -and^- + -en^i[th]-;

creature create ‑ -and^- +o/a;

heartless demon- + cordial;

contribute to- + promote;

in the morning in the morning(non-morphol.).

15 B Russian SUBJECT OF PHONETICS. BASIC PHONETIC UNITS. RELATIONSHIP OF LETTER AND SOUND.

PHONETICS- a branch of the science of language that studies the sound side of language. The subject of phonetics is the material (sound) side of language.

Phonetics task – study of methods of formation (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech stream.

Types of phonetics depending on study methods.

General phonetics Based on the material of various languages, he examines theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, syllable structure, and the relationship of the sound system of a language to its grammatical system.

Descriptive phonetics explores the sound structure of a particular language in synchronous plan, i.e. at the present stage of language development.

Comparative phonetics explains phenomena in the field of sound structure, referring to the material of related languages.

Historical phonetics traces the formation of phonetic phenomena over a more or less long period of time, studies changes in the phonetic system that occurred at a certain stage of their development, i.e. studies phonetics in diachronic plan.

Experimental phonetics is part of general phonetics, studies the sound side of language using instrumental methods.

Fonetics of modern Russian language– this is descriptive phonetics, since phonetic phenomena are considered at a certain stage of language development, at a given point in time.

Phonetic units of language

Phrase – the largest phonetic unit, a complete utterance in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause.

Even if the phrase coincides with the sentence, then the same phenomenon is still considered from different points of view. In phonetics, attention is paid to intonation, pauses, etc.

Intonation – a set of means of organizing sound speech, which are manifested in successive changes in pitch, speech rhythm (the ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and deceleration in the flow of speech), sound strength (speech intensity), intra-phrase pauses, general timbre of utterance.

Syntagma – combining two or more phonetic words from a phrase.

For example: See you tomorrow I In the evening. See you I tomorrow evening. In these sentences, syntagms are separated by a pause. It should be noted that the term “syntagma” is understood differently by scientists. Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in particular, distinguishes syntagma from speech tact as an intonationally formed semantic-syntactic unit of speech, isolated from the composition of the sentence

Speech tact – part of a phrase united by one stress, limited by pauses and characterized by incompleteness intonation (with the exception of the last one). For example: In the hour of trial / let us bow to our fatherland / in Russian / at our feet. (D. Kedrin).

Phonetic word - part of a speech beat (if the phrase is divided into beats) or a phrase united by one stress. A phonetic word can coincide with a word in the lexical and grammatical understanding of this term. A phrase has as many phonetic words as there are stresses in it, i.e. Most often, significant words are highlighted in separate bars. Since some words are not stressed, there are often fewer phonetic words than lexical ones. As a rule, auxiliary parts of speech are unstressed, but significant words can also be unstressed: . Words that do not have stress and are adjacent to other words are called clitics. Depending on the place they occupy in relation to the word with stress, proclitics and enclitics are distinguished. Proclitics They call unstressed words that come in front of the stressed word to which they are adjacent: , enclitics - unstressed words that come after the stressed word to which they are adjacent:,. Proclitics and enclitics are usually function words, but an enclitic can also be a significant word when a preposition or particle takes on the stress: By´ water[by the way].

Syllable - part of a beat or phonetic word, consisting of one or more sounds, a connection of the least sonorous sound with the most sonorous, which is syllabic (see section “Syllable division. Types of syllables”).

Sound - the smallest unit of speech produced in one articulation. We can also define sound as the smallest phonetic unit distinguished during the sequential division of speech.

Letter-sound relationship

Several types of relationships between letters and sounds are possible.

1. One letter can represent only one sound. For example, the letter th represents only the sound “yot”, the letter u – only the sound [u].

2. One letter can represent different sounds appearing in different positions. For example, the letter o in the word policeman [gyardavo:j] denotes 3 different sounds - unstressed vowels [ъ], [а] and a stressed vowel; the letter b in the word fish denotes a voiced sound [b], and in the form R. p. plural. h. fish - dull sound [n]: [ryp]. The letter e is often used in printed texts not only in its basic sound meaning, but also replaces the letter e, i.e., in such use it denotes the stressed sound [o] (brought, ice, led), and after a vowel or dividing letter ъ and b - combination (reception, rise, curls).

3. One letter can represent a combination of two sounds. For example, iotated letters, as mentioned above, often denote a combination of a consonant sound [j] and a vowel sound: I sing [pajy].

4. A letter may not represent a single sound, i.e., have no sound meaning. This applies not only to the silent letters ъ and ь (entrance, notebook), but also, for example, to the so-called unpronounceable consonants: feeling [chust'], heart [s'erts], sun [sonts].

5. The combination of two letters in a word can represent one sound. For example, in the word count, the first two consonants indicate one long soft consonant sound: [sh`itat`]. The combination of a consonant letter with a soft sign denotes one consonant sound: day [d`en`], mouse [mouse].

6. Different letters can represent the same sound. Thus, the letters t and d can denote the same sound [t]: that [that], year [goth].

Despite the peculiarities of the relationship between letters and sounds, modern Russian graphics are convenient. It allows you to fairly accurately represent in writing the relationship between the sounds of Russian speech and is a good basis for Russian spelling.

1. One letter can represent only one sound. For example, the letter th represents only the sound “yot”, the letter u – only the sound [u].

2. One letter can represent different sounds appearing in different positions. For example, the letter o in the word policeman [gyardavo:j] denotes 3 different sounds - unstressed vowels [ъ], [а] and a stressed vowel; the letter b in the word fish denotes a voiced sound [b], and in the form R. p. plural. h. fish - dull sound [n]: [ryp]. The letter e is often used in printed texts not only in its basic sound meaning, but also replaces the letter e, i.e., in such use it denotes the stressed sound [o] (brought, ice, led), and after a vowel or dividing letter ъ and b - combination (reception, rise, curls).

3. One letter can represent a combination of two sounds. For example, iotated letters, as mentioned above, often denote a combination of a consonant sound [j] and a vowel sound: I sing [pajy].

5. The combination of two letters in a word can mean one sound. For example, in the word count, the first two consonants indicate one long soft consonant sound: [sh`itat`]. The combination of a consonant letter with a soft sign denotes one consonant sound: day [d`en`], mouse [mouse].

6. Different letters can represent the same sound. Thus, the letters t and d can denote the same sound [t]: that [that], year [goth].

Despite the peculiarities of the relationship between letters and sounds, modern Russian graphics are convenient for everyday practice, which does not require precise recording of all the features of the sound structure of our speech. It allows you to fairly accurately represent in writing the relationship between the sounds of Russian speech and is a good basis for Russian spelling.

At the clinic.

Clinic or outpatient clinic(from ancient Greek πόλι - many and other Greek κλινική - healing) - a multidisciplinary or specialized medical and preventive institution for providing outpatient medical care to patients at receptions and at home.

On the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan they are distributed on a territorial basis, and are the basic level of medical care for the population.

Clinics may have different statuses:

· Basic- serves sick military personnel of the naval base.

· Departmental- serves employees of ministries and departments. Not included in the system of institutions of the Ministry of Health.

· Garrison- serves sick military personnel from a certain garrison.

· Geriatric- serves elderly and senile patients.

· Urban- serves patients on a territorial (precinct) basis. It can either be part of a united hospital or be an independent institution.

· City children's- serves children under 15 years of age. It can either be part of a united hospital or be an independent institution.

· Resort- serves patients during their treatment at the resort.

· District central- is created in a rural administrative region in the absence of a central district hospital and performs the functions of the district health department.

· Dental- serves the adult population, specializing in the treatment of dental diseases. There is also Dental nursery clinic serving children under 18 years of age.

· Physiotherapeutic- provides treatment of patients with physiotherapeutic methods.

Grammar topic: Consonants.

Lexical topic: My working day

Lecture plan.

1 Classification of consonant sounds of the Russian language, composition of consonant sounds.

2. Workday schedule

Consonants- speech sounds that are combined in a syllable with vowels and/or syllabic consonants and, in contrast, do not form the apex of the syllable. Acoustically, consonants have relatively less total energy than vowels and may not have a clear formant structure.

Consonants are also sounds, when pronounced, the vocal tract narrows, so that the air flow is completely or partially blocked and, overcoming an obstacle (see the place and method of formation of consonants), changes its direction. In Russian, these are noisy consonants (plosives, fricatives and affricates), a group of sonorants (smooth and lateral), a group of sonorant consonants (quavering and nasal), as well as the semivowel (or semiconsonant) y.

Consonants are also often understood as letters that convey such sounds. Sometimes, to avoid confusion, the term “consonants” is used.

The consonant system of a particular language is called “consonantism”.

In Russian, consonant sounds are represented by the letters B, V, G, D, Zh, Z, Y, K, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, F, X, Ts, Ch, Sh, Shch. They contrasted with the vowels A, E, E, I, O, U, Y, E, Yu, Ya.

For the articulatory description of consonants, the following criteria are used:

· Division into voiced and voiceless consonants;

· By the method of formation of consonants;

· According to the place of formation of consonants.

For example, /d/, according to these criteria, is a voiced alveolar plosive.

According to acoustic-auditory criteria, consonants differ from vowels in degree of sonority (perceptibility, that is, sound range).

Vowels have higher sonority than consonants. Vowels occupy a certain position in the structure of a syllable, in general - at the beginning and at the end of a syllable, that is, consonants usually do not form a syllable. The exception is sonorants: approximant (that is, vowels in the position of consonants, such as /ju"la/ spinning top, phonetically, as well as nasal and lateral (German. Matten))

My working day

I would like to describe my working day. All these days are alike.

On weekdays I usually get up at seven. I do gymnastics. Then I wash my face and brush my teeth. At half past seven I have breakfast. I love a light breakfast. After breakfast I go to school.

My college is near my home. The journey to college takes 10 minutes. Classes start at 8:30 and end around 15:00. Three pairs a day is the usual schedule. Twice a week I stay at college after class to play basketball.

When I come home, I have lunch. Then I rest a little. Sometimes I read or talk to my friends on the phone.

After that I start doing my homework. Twice a week I take extra classes in an anatomy science club to improve my knowledge.

As a rule, I finish doing my homework around 9 o'clock. But one day a week is not so busy. It's Thursday. On Thursday I usually help my mother. Sometimes I shop or pick up clothes from the dry cleaner.

I have dinner at 7 o'clock. Then I continue to study. At 10 o'clock I go to bed.

Grammar topic: Spelling consonants in writing.

Lexical topic: Difficulties of the chosen path.

Lecture plan.

1 Peculiarities of spelling consonants in writing.

2.The difficult path of a medical worker

Spelling of consonants(at the root, in prefixes and suffixes that do not change their spelling) you should check the spelling of the consonant by its strong position, first of all, by its position before the vowel.

· 1.15.1. Voiced - voiceless consonants

· 1. To check the spelling of paired voiced and voiceless consonants at the end and in the middle of a word, you need to select a related word or change the word so that this consonant is followed by a vowel.

· Prud – prd y, moloT ba – moloT it, ath cue - yh ok, okT - (No) prueT A.

· Exception: matchmakerd bah(Although matchmakerT at).

· 2. It should be remembered that in derivative words g, d alternates with and (bootsG and – sapoand ki, harnessG at - straightand ka), A X alternates with w (paX at - sleepw ka, kazaX and – kazaw ka).

· 3. Shock -hedgehog (A) written in verbal nouns.

· Cramming - bisonhedgehog A.

· 4. If it is impossible to find a test word, then the spelling of the consonant must be remembered (as a rule, these are borrowed words).

· CosmonaV t, fiWith harmony, riTo sha, ziG zag, inTo hall, EV phrate

· There are also Russian words with an unverifiable consonant.

· VeT rank, atT cha, byT chew,h here,h health orh gi,With nice, wowV to work.

· This rule applies to the spelling of consonants in the root, in prefixes and suffixes that do not change their spelling, although the spelling of various morphemes (parts of a word) has its own specifics