Auditory thresholds, frequency range of sound perception

Vibrations of the eardrum caused by sounds of different pitches, durations and volumes are perceived differently. Oscillations up to 1000 Hz are transmitted without attenuation. At frequencies above 1000 Hz, the inertia of the sound-conducting apparatus of the middle ear becomes noticeable.

The auditory ossicles amplify sound vibrations transmitted to the inner ear by about 60 times. They soften the force of high sound pressures. As soon as the pressure of the sound wave goes beyond 110-120 dB, the pressure of the stapes on the round window of the inner ear changes.

Threshold stimulus for the muscles of the auditory ossicles - a sound with a force of 40 dB.

The human ear perceives sound vibrations with a frequency from 16 to 20,000 Hz. It has the greatest excitability in the range of 1000-4000 Hz and below 16 Hz are considered ultra- and infrasonic. The reason that a person does not hear sounds with a frequency of more than 20,000 Hz is in the morphological characteristics of the organ of hearing, as well as in the possibilities of generating nerve impulses by the receptive cells of the organ of Corti.

Vestibular sensory system. Vestibular receptors and perception mechanism

Receptors of the vestibular system belong to mechanoreceptors. Those of them that are located in the semicircular canals are excited mainly by rotation of the body. The vestibules located in the sacs primarily perceive accelerations during linear movements.

The semicircular canals are located in three planes in each ear, which provides the ability to perceive different movements. The semicircular canals have bony and membranous walls. Inside the membranous canals there is a liquid - endolymph. One of the ends of each canal is widened and contains special cells, the hairs of which form tassels hanging into the canal cavity. When the body rotates, these tassels move, which causes stimulation of this part of the vestibular apparatus.

Excitation from the sensory cells of the vestibular apparatus is transmitted to the nuclei of the vestibular nerve, which is part of the 8th pair of cranial nerves.

Vestibular reflexes, vestibular stability

When the vestibular sensory system is irritated, various motor and autonomic reflexes arise. Motor reflexes are manifested in changes in muscle tone, which ensures the maintenance of normal body posture. Rotation of the body causes a change in the tone of the external muscles of the eye, which is accompanied by their special movements - nysgam. Irritation of vestibular receptors causes a number of autonomic and somatic reactions. There is an increase or slowdown in cardiac activity, changes in breathing, increased intestinal peristalsis, and pallor. Excitation of the nuclei of the vestibular nerve extends to the centers of vomiting, sweating, as well as to the nuclei of the oculomotor nerves. As a result, autonomic disorders appear: nausea, vomiting, increased sweating.

Level of functional stability of the vestibular sensory system measured by the magnitude of motor and autonomic reactions that occur when it is irritated. The less pronounced these reflexes are, the higher the functional stability. With low stability, even several quick turns of the body around a vertical axis (for example, during a dance) cause discomfort, dizziness, loss of balance, and paleness.

Significant irritation of the vestibular apparatus occurs when motion sickness occurs on a ship or on an airplane (sea and air sickness).

KHARKIV STATE ACADEMY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

TESTON THE TOPIC "AUDITORY AND VESTIBULAR SENSORY SYSTEMS"

Completed

student s/o 42 gr

Krasnikova Yu.O.

KHARKIV 2010

Target: study the functions of the auditory and vestibular systems and their significance for sports activities.

Security questions

1. Biological significance and functions of sensory systems

2. Auditory sensory system. Receptors, mechanism of perception and transmission of sound information

3. Auditory thresholds, frequency range of sound perception

4. Vestibular sensory system. Vestibular receptors and perception mechanism

5. Vestibular reflexes, vestibular stability

6. The importance of the auditory and vestibular sensory systems for sports activities

Literature used

sensory sound vestibular sports

1. Biological significance and functions of sensory systems

Sensory (sensitive) or afferent (carrying) systems perceive and analyze stimuli entering the brain from the external environment and from various organs and tissues of the body. Along with the analysis of irritations, sensory systems also produce their synthesis, which ensures the occurrence of appropriate reactions.

The primary analysis of stimuli occurs in receptors and intermediate nerve centers. Higher analysis is carried out in the cerebral cortex.

Receptors function as energy transformers. They transform the different types of energy acting on them into nerve impulses that spread along the sensory nerves to the centers and cause excitation in them.

All receptors are adapted to the perception of strictly defined stimuli. Excitation of the receptor is characterized by the same processes as the excitation of all other tissues. The electrical potential generated in the receptor is transmitted along the nerve fiber to nerve cells located near the receptor or in different parts of the brain.

Signals from receptors in the brain play an important role in regulating all body functions. Information from receptors creates so-called feedback from the brain to various organs. At the same time, the brain is notified of reactions that occur in the body under the influence of efferent nerve impulses. Violation of feedback leads to disruption of control of the activities of individual systems and the organism as a whole.

2. Auditory sensory system. Receptors, mechanism of perception and transmission of sound information

Auditory sensory system perceives sound vibrations in the air. Its receptors belong to the mechanoreceptors (receptors excited by the action of mechanical energy). They are located in the cochlea of ​​the inner ear and have a very complex structure. For the perception and transformation of sounds, special formations are used - the outer, middle and inner ears.

Ear structure diagram

1-external auditory canal; 2-tympanic membrane; 3-middle ear cavity; 4,5,6-ossicles of the middle ear (hammer, incus, stirrup); 7 semicircular canals; 8-vestibule; 9-Eustachian tube

Sound waves entering the external auditory canal cause vibrations in the eardrum that separates the outer ear from the middle ear. These vibrations are transmitted through the ossicular system (hammer, incus and stapes) located in the middle ear cavity. The stapes is adjacent to the oval window, closed by a membrane. The membrane perceives the vibrations of the bones and transmits them to the edolimph, the fluid that fills the internal passages of the cochlea. The auditory receptor, called the organ of Corti, after the scientist who first described it, is located on the main membrane of the cochlear stream. It consists of epithelial cells equipped with hairs. When the endolymph oscillates, these hairs strike the integumentary membrane. As a result, mechanical energy is transformed into a nerve impulse, which is transmitted to the nerve cells of the spiral ganglion and further, through a number of neurons, to the temporal region of the cerebral cortex, where higher analysis of perceived sounds occurs.

Scheme of the otolith device

Otoliths; 2-sensitive cells; 3-support cells; 4-vestibular nerve; 5- gelatinous mass; 6-hairs of supporting cells; 7-membranous wall; 8-otolith membrane

3. Auditory thresholds, frequency range of sound perception

Vibrations of the eardrum caused by sounds of different pitches, durations and volumes are perceived differently. Oscillations up to 1000 Hz are transmitted without attenuation. At a frequency of more than 1000 Hz, the inertia of the sound-conducting apparatus of the middle ear becomes noticeable.

The auditory ossicles amplify sound vibrations transmitted to the inner ear by about 60 times. They soften the force of high sound pressures. As soon as the pressure of the sound wave goes beyond 110-120 dB, the pressure of the stapes on the round window of the inner ear changes.

Threshold stimulus for the muscles of the auditory ossicles - a sound with a force of 40 dB.

The human ear perceives sound vibrations with a frequency from 16 to 20,000 Hz. It has the greatest excitability in the range of 1000-4000 Hz and below 16 Hz are considered ultra- and infrasonic. The reason that a person cannot hear sounds with a frequency of more than 20,000 Hz is the morphological characteristics of the organ of hearing, as well as the ability to generate nerve impulses by the receptive cells of the organ of Corti.

4. Vestibular sensory system. Vestibular receptors and perception mechanism

The semicircular canals are located in three planes in each ear, which provides the ability to perceive different movements. The semicircular canals have bony and membranous walls. Inside the membranous canals there is a liquid - endolymph. One of the ends of each canal is widened, it contains special cells, the hairs of which form brushes hanging into the cavity of the canal. When the body rotates, these tassels move, which causes stimulation of this part of the vestibular apparatus.

Excitation from the sensory cells of the vestibular apparatus is transmitted to the nuclei of the vestibular nerve, which is part of the 8th pair of cranial nerves.

5. Vestibular reflexes, vestibular stability

When the vestibular sensory system is irritated, various motor and autonomic reflexes arise. Motor reflexes are manifested in changes in muscle tone, which ensures the maintenance of normal body posture. Rotation of the body causes a change in the tone of the external muscles of the eye, which is accompanied by their special movements - nysgam. Irritation of vestibular receptors causes a number of autonomic and somatic reactions. There is an increase or slowdown in cardiac activity, changes in breathing, increased intestinal peristalsis, and pallor. Excitation of the nuclei of the vestibular nerve extends to the centers of vomiting, sweating, as well as to the nuclei of the oculomotor nerves. As a result, autonomic disorders appear: nausea, vomiting, increased sweating.

Level of functional stability of the vestibular sensory system measured by the magnitude of motor and autonomic reactions that occur when it is irritated. The less pronounced these reflexes are, the higher the functional stability. With low stability, even several quick turns of the body around a vertical axis (for example, during a dance) cause discomfort, dizziness, loss of balance, and paleness.

Significant irritation of the vestibular apparatus occurs when motion sickness occurs on a ship or on an airplane (sea and air sickness).

6. The importance of the auditory and vestibular sensory systems for sports activities

Auditory sensory system is of particular importance for the assimilation of musical rhythm and tempo, in the assessment of time intervals. Performing movements to music allows you to improve your sense of rhythm based on the interaction of proprioceptive and auditory signals, quickly form and bring motor skills to automatism, and increases the emotionality and entertainment of movements.

Vestibular control muscle activity depends on the functional state of the athlete. For example, with overtraining, the tolerance of rotational tests worsens. Pronounced autonomic reactions to a rotational test with a high level of training are observed much less frequently than in poorly trained athletes.

Physical exercises, especially those characterized by unsupported body movements and rotational movements (in gymnastics, acrobatics, figure skating, etc.), increase the excitability and functional stability of the vestibular sensory system. Increasing its excitability ensures the exact position of the body and its changes in space. Improving the functional stability of the vestibular sensory system is manifested in a decrease in reactions that occur when it is irritated.

Literature used

1. Fomin N.A. Human physiology: Proc. manual for students of the Faculty. physical education ped. Inst. - M.: Education, 1982. - 320 p., ill.

Human physiology: Textbook for technical. physical cult. F50/Ed. V.V. Vasilyeva. - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1984.-319 pp., ill.

Neurons of the vestibular nuclei provide control and management of various motor reactions. Vestibulospinal influences change the impulse of neurons at segmental levels of the spinal cord. This is how the skeletal muscle tone is dynamically redistributed and the reflex reactions necessary to maintain balance are activated. The vestibulo-vegetative reactions involve the cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract and other internal organs. With strong and prolonged stress on the vestibular apparatus, motion sickness occurs (for example, motion sickness). Vestibulo-oculomotor reflexes (ocular nystagmus) consist of a slow rhythmic movement of the eyes in the opposite direction to rotation, followed by a jump back. The occurrence and characteristics of rotational ocular nystagmus are important indicators of the state of the vestibular system and are widely used experimentally and clinically.

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Fundamentals of psychophysiology: Textbook / Ed. ed. Yu.I. Alexandrov

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ERPs are isolated using special methods from EEG. The frequency range of the SSP includes a band from 0 Hz to 3 kHz and is limited, on the one hand, by the ultra-slow electrical activity of the brain.

Standard methods for obtaining a reproducible BSC configuration
Methodological requirements for EEG recording (installation of electrodes, choice of lead system, amplifier bandwidths, methods for eliminating artifacts) are described in Chapter 2. Note that

Averaging
The basis for isolating ERPs from the EEG signal is the following assumptions: a) in a situation of multiple repetitions of an event, the recorded EEG signal (SUMi (t)) is the sum

Filtration
The random, “noise” component of a single ERP implementation (“raw” EEG) can be eliminated through smoothing. ALGEBRAIC FILTERS

Description of BSC
As a result of the accumulation of EEG segments associated with certain events, their averaging, digital filtering or other procedures, an ERP curve is obtained, which is described as

Features of the SSP method
In recent decades, methods for recording brain activity have been developed that have significant research capabilities (see also Chapter 2). However, even when developing new m

Visual evoked potentials
Visual evoked potentials (VEP, visual evoked potentials - VEP) [Chagas, 1975; Rutman, 1979; Maksimova, 1982; Rockstroh et al., 1982] are recorded in the situation of visual presentation

Auditory evoked potentials
Auditory evoked potentials (AEP) [Chagas, 1975; Rutman, 1979; Rockstroh et al., 1982; Hughes, 1985] are recorded in a situation where rumors are presented

Somatosensory evoked potentials
Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs; somatosensory evoked potentials, SEP) [Chagas, 1975; Rutman, 1979; Rockstroh et al., 1982] are recorded in a fur situation

Potentials associated with the execution of movements
Potentials associated with the execution of movements (PSVP, movement-related potentials - MRP, movement-related brain potentials - MRBP; in Russian-language literature using

Conditional negative wave
Conditional negative wave (CNV, contingent negative variation - CNV, or expectation wave, expectancy wave - E-wave). In a situation where two stimuli are presented, the first

Principles for organizing the phenomenology of BSC
The list of known types of BSC is constantly growing, and there is no reason to consider it close to completion. Let us give as examples the most famous phenomena

The problem of the functional meaning of ssp
Within the framework of correlative psychophysiology (see [Shvyrkov, 1995] and Chapter 14), it is assumed that ERP oscillations (components) reflect specific functions of brain structures that implement

Psychological correlates
The search for psychological correlates of ERP showed that: 1) the same ERP is associated with many psychological processes (functions) and 2) the same mental functions

The search for brain sources of ERP showed the following: 1) any fluctuation of ERP recorded from the surface of the head is a reflection of the activity of many cortical and subcortical

SSP as a reflection of the dynamics of individual experience
ERPs represent the total electrical potential of various components of brain tissue, the contribution of which is made by neurons (soma, dendrites and axons), glial cells, cell membranes

Flexible Configuration Potential
A comparison of ERPs accompanying the behavior of subjects in various experimental situations shows that the implementation and change of a behavioral act corresponds to the potential of a universal

Prospects for using SSP
The effectiveness of using ERP as a method of psychophysiological research is determined by solving the main problem: what is the ratio of ERP parameters, brain activity, physical function?

Nervous system properties concept
The problem of individual psychological differences between people has always been considered in Russian psychology as one of the fundamental ones. Greatest contribution to development

General properties of the nervous system and holistic formal-dynamic characteristics of individuality
To experimentally test the developed ideas about the properties of the nervous system and their psychological manifestations, V.D. Nebylitsyn conducted a study of the physiological foundations of intelligence

Integral individuality and its structure
The approach that was developed by B. S. Merlin formed the basis for the development of the original school for studying the nature of temperament. The starting points on which this approach was based

Individual behavioral characteristics of animals
An important trend that emerged in the development of the problem of the nature of individual psychological differences after B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsyn and was based on the behavioral model

Integration of knowledge about personality
At the end of the 80s. with the aim of forming a new strategy for studying the nature of individual psychological differences between people. M. Rusalov developed a survey-type methodology for ots

Cross-cultural studies of personality
In recent years, differential psychophysiology has begun to use cross-cultural research methodology. Cross-cultural differential psychophysiological research

Psychophysiology of professional activity
On the borders of natural sciences and psychology, a number of special scientific disciplines and directions have been formed, including labor psychology, engineering psychology and ergonomics, the object of which is

Theoretical foundations for the use of psychophysiology to solve practical problems in occupational psychology
Understanding the need and prospects for studying psychophysiological processes in professional activities is facilitated by ideas that consider the mental and physiological

Methodological support for the psychophysiological aspect of applied research
In applied research, the complex nature of psychophysiological research is ensured by the use of a polyeffector method, including frequency registration

Psychophysiology of professional selection and professional suitability
The use of psychophysiological methods in occupational psychology was caused by the need to develop objective and quantitative criteria for psychophysiological selection, which is both

Psychophysiological components of performance
A person’s ability to perform specific activities within given time limits and efficiency parameters determines the content of performance as the main component

Psychophysiological determinants of human adaptation to extreme operating conditions
Currently, the main directions in the study of adaptation have become the determination of the stages of formation of the psychophysiological adaptation system, the criteria for its formation, the identification

Psychophysiological functional states (PFS)
The relevance of studying PPS is determined by their contribution to ensuring the efficiency and reliability of a person, as well as the increase in the number of professions and changes in working conditions

Biofeedback (boss)
Interest in studies of biofeedback (BFB) for the purpose of voluntary control of FS based on objective information about the dynamics of psychophysiological displays

Psychophysiological analysis of the content of professional activity
Psychophysiological analysis of professional activity involves “considering it as a complex, multidimensional and multi-level, dynamic and developing phenomenon” [Lomov,

Comparative psychophysiology
Comparative psychophysiology is a science aimed at establishing patterns and identifying differences in the structural and functional organization of the brain, behavior and psyche in animals.

Emergence of the psychic
The most accepted point of view at present is that the psyche is an attribute of living systems, and inanimate nature, including complex devices created by people, is not about the psyche.

Evolution of species
Modern data on the evolution of animals indicate the divergence of evolutionary lines and the development of parallel lines (Fig. 19.2 A), including among mammals (Fig. 19.2 B), and among

Evolutionary transformations of the brain
The structure of the brain varies among animals of different species. And although, as follows from Fig. 19.3, related species, for example among crustaceans or mammals, have common structural features

Comparative method in systems psychophysiology
Systemic psychophysiology, the foundations of which were laid by the works of V.B. Shvyrkov and his colleagues, is based on the recognition of: 1) a single psychophysiological reality in which psychological

Motor reactions of the eyes to irritation of the vestibular apparatus (oculocephalic reflex, vestibulo-ocular reflex) are mediated by pathways running through the brain stem from the vestibular nuclei of the medulla oblongata to the nuclei of the abducens and oculomotor nerves. Normally, rotation of the head causes endolymph to move in the semicircular canals in the direction opposite to rotation. In this case, in one labyrinth a flow of endolymph occurs towards the ampulla of the horizontal semicircular canal, and in the other labyrinth - in the direction from the ampulla of the canal, while the irritation of the receptors of one channel increases, and the irritation of the opposite one decreases, i.e. an imbalance of impulses arriving to the vestibular nuclei occurs. When the vestibular nuclei on one side are stimulated, information is immediately transmitted to the contralateral nucleus of the abducens nerve in the pons, from where impulses through the medial longitudinal fasciculus reach the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve in the midbrain on the side of the irritated vestibular apparatus. This ensures synchronous contraction of the lateral rectus muscle of the eye opposite to the irritated labyrinth and the medial rectus muscle of the eye of the same name, which ultimately leads to a slow friendly deviation of the eyes in the direction opposite to the direction of head rotation. This reflex allows you to stabilize the position of the eyes and fix your gaze on a stationary object, despite the rotation of the head. In a healthy, awake person, it can be voluntarily suppressed due to the influence of the cerebral cortex on the brainstem structures. in a patient who is in clear consciousness, the integrity of the structures responsible for this reflex is determined as follows. They ask the patient to fix their gaze on a centrally located object and quickly (two cycles per second) turn the patient’s head in one direction or the other. If the vestibulo-ocular reflex is preserved, then the movements of the eyeballs are smooth, they are proportional to the speed of head movements and are directed in the opposite direction. To assess this reflex in a comatose patient, the doll eye test is used. It allows you to determine the safety of stem functions. The doctor fixes the patient’s head with his hands and turns it left and right, then tilts it back and lowers it forward; The patient's eyelids should be raised (the test is absolutely contraindicated if a cervical spine injury is suspected).

The test is considered positive if the eyeballs involuntarily deviate in the direction opposite to the rotation (the "doll's eyes" phenomenon). In case of intoxication and dysmetabolic disorders with bilateral damage to the cerebral cortex, the "doll's eyes" test is positive (the patient's eyeballs move in the direction opposite to the direction of head rotation). With lesions of the brain stem, the oculocephalic reflex is absent, that is, the test is negative (when turning, the eyeballs move simultaneously with the head as if they were frozen in place). This test is also negative in case of poisoning with certain drugs (for example, in case of an overdose of phenytoin, tricyclic antidepressants, barbiturates, sometimes muscle relaxants, diazepam), however, the normal size of the pupils and their reaction to light are preserved.

Caloric tests are also based on reflex mechanisms. Stimulation of the semicircular canals with cold water, which is poured into the outer ear, is accompanied by a slow, friendly deviation of the eyeballs towards the irritated labyrinth. A cold caloric test is carried out as follows. First, you need to make sure that the eardrums in both ears are intact. Using a small syringe and a short thin soft plastic tube, 0.2-1 ml of ice water is carefully injected into the external auditory canal. In a healthy, awake person, nystagmus will appear, the slow component of which (slow deviation of the eyeballs) is directed towards the irritated ear, and the fast component - in the opposite direction (nystagmus, traditionally determined by the fast component, is directed in the opposite direction). After a few minutes, repeat the procedure on the opposite side. This test can serve as an express method for identifying peripheral vestibular hypofunction.

In a comatose patient with the brain stem intact, this test causes a tonic coordinated deviation of the eyeballs towards the cooled labyrinth, but there are no rapid eye movements in the opposite direction (that is, nystagmus itself is not observed). If the structures of the brain stem are damaged in a patient in a coma, the described test does not cause any movements of the eyeballs at all (there is no tonic deviation of the eyeballs).

Vestibular ataxia

Vestibular ataxia is detected using the Romberg test and examining the patient's gait (the patient is asked to walk in a straight line with his eyes open and then with his eyes closed). With unilateral peripheral vestibular pathology, instability is observed when standing and walking in a straight line with a deviation towards the affected labyrinth. Vestibular ataxia is characterized by changes in the severity of ataxia with sudden changes in head position and gaze turns. A pointing test is also carried out: the subject is asked to raise his hand above his head and then lower it, trying to get his index finger into the doctor’s index finger. The doctor's finger can move in different directions.

First, the patient performs the test with his eyes open, then he is asked to perform the test with his eyes closed. A patient with vestibular ataxia misses both hands toward the slow component of nystagmus.

The organ of human balance is the vestibular apparatus. Along with the motor and visual systems, the apparatus plays a major role in orienting a person in space. All key internal organs and the cardiovascular system are involved in vestibular reflexes.

Features of reactions

Vestibular reflexes have their own characteristic features. Medical experts note:

1. High functional sensitivity of vestibular reflexes.
2. Dynamic reactions.

Thanks to this, if there is a connection between a particular anomaly and the vestibular apparatus, a specialist can determine in what phase the disease is located.

The exceptional functional sensitivity of the vestibular analyzer is noted.

Against this background, completely different reactions occur in the acute, chronic and subacute stages of the disease.

Vivid symptoms that cause severe suffering to the patient are often associated with the subacute and acute phases of the pathological condition. In the case of slow progression of the anomaly, disturbances on the vestibular background are subjectively absent, but objectively appear quite delicately. This is due to the fact that compensation for vestibular anomalies is very pronounced. It may also be due to deep muscle-joint sensation and vision.

An equally important feature of vestibular reflexes should be considered their diversity and ambiguity. The degree of damage to the central nervous system and vestibular apparatus can be determined based on changes in these reactions.

Importance of the study

The issue of studying vestibular reflexes continues to remain relevant, which is due to the frequent occurrence of abnormal conditions developing against this background. Thus, vestibular pathologies are diagnosed in patients suffering from hearing impairment.

The study of vestibular reflexes is also of great social importance, since many people suffer from dizziness. Against this background, their performance decreases and their contacts suffer.

Knowledge about these violations allows the specialist to obtain information regarding:

• neoplasms in the brain;
• inflammatory pathologies in the brain;
• trauma to the brain;
• stages of stem disorders.

Objectivity

Vestibular reflexes are quite objective. The study is possible when the patient is awake or unconscious. When a person is in a coma, he exhibits characteristic reactions to the eye muscles. Most often, a tonic “leakage” of the visual organs towards nystagmus (slow phase) is observed.

Violations on the vestibular background are observed with various anomalies of the central nervous system.

This is explained by various anatomical connections and the high functional sensitivity of the current analyzer.

Qualities

Vestibular reflexes have the following qualities:

1. Objectivity.
2. High level of information content.
3. The ability to examine a person while he is awake or in a comatose state.

All this allows you to obtain objective information necessary for a correct diagnosis. Compared to the study of other cranial nerves, the information content of the vestibular analyzer is very high.

Undesirable sign

Similar to the “doll’s eye” phenomenon, the oculovestibular reflex is observed in the presence of exogenous and endogenous intoxications.

The oculovestibular reflex is not a very good prognostic symptom. In the case of a toxic or metabolic lesion, the oculovestibular reflex is inhibited to a slightly lesser extent than other functions of the brain stem.

If the dysfunction of the brain stem is sufficiently acute, then a number of relevant reflexes rapidly fade away. Reflexes also close at this level of the central nervous system.

The study of this group of reactions in patients suffering from depressed consciousness makes it possible to determine the stage of deformation of the trunk structures, as well as the location of the abnormal process.

Basic mechanisms of the vestibulo-ocular reflex

Speaking about the basic mechanisms of the vestibulo-ocular reflex, it is important to take the ocular reflex from the external semicircular canal as the main example.

The endolymph current flows to the left due to angular acceleration to the right. The displacement of the cupula of the right horizontal canal occurs ampulopetally. Against this background, the parv ampullary nerve is activated.

This signal is transmitted to the right medial vestibular nucleus. From the right vestibular nucleus, the signal is sent to the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve on the right and the nucleus of the abducens nerve on the left side.

Thanks to the main impulse from the right ampullary nerve, the agonist muscles are stimulated.

Active inhibition of antagonist muscles also occurs. Against this background, the external rectus (left) and internal rectus (right) eye muscles contract. Thus the eye is diverted to the left.

Conclusion

Nystagmus has a slow component that is directed rotatory and upward. At the same time, an inhibitory reaction begins in the left ampullary nerve. Pulses come in streams. The target is the nuclei of the oculomotor and abducens nerves of the right side.

In this way, the lower rectus muscle of the right organ of vision and the superior oblique muscle of the right organ of vision of a person are activated and contracted. Against this background, the eyes quickly move in the completely opposite direction.