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Human anatomy name is capable of phagocytosis. Cells capable of phagocytosis include

Phagocytosis (Phago - devour and cytos - cell) is a process in which special cells of the blood and body tissues (phagocytes) capture and digest pathogens of infectious diseases and dead cells.

It is carried out by two types of cells: granular leukocytes (granulocytes) circulating in the blood and tissue macrophages. The discovery of phagocytosis belongs to I.I. Mechnikov, who identified this process by conducting experiments with starfish and daphnia, introducing foreign bodies into their bodies. For example, when Mechnikov placed a fungal spore into the body of daphnia, he noticed that it was attacked by special mobile cells. When he introduced too many spores, the cells did not have time to digest them all, and the animal died. Mechnikov called cells that protect the body from bacteria, viruses, fungal spores, etc. phagocytes.

Phagocytosis, the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles by unicellular organisms or special cells (phagocytes) of multicellular animal organisms. The phenomenon of F. was discovered by I.I. Mechnikov, who traced its evolution and clarified the role of this process in the protective reactions of the body of higher animals and humans, mainly during inflammation and immunity. F. plays an important role in wound healing. The ability to capture and digest particles underlies the nutrition of primitive organisms. In the process of evolution, this ability gradually transferred to individual specialized cells, first digestive, and then to special connective tissue cells. In humans and mammals, active phagocytes are neutrophils (microphages, or special leukocytes) of the blood and cells of the reticuloendothelial system, capable of turning into active macrophages. Neutrophils phagocytose small particles (bacteria, etc.), macrophages are able to absorb larger particles (dead cells, their nuclei or fragments, etc.). Macrophages are also capable of accumulating negatively charged particles of dyes and colloidal substances. The absorption of small colloidal particles is called ultraphagocytosis, or colloidopexy.

Neutrophils and monocytes have the greatest ability for phagocytosis.

1. Neutrophils are the first to penetrate the site of inflammation and phagocytose microbes. In addition, lysosomal enzymes of decaying neutrophils soften the surrounding tissues and form a purulent focus.

2. Monocytes, migrating into tissues, transform there into macrophages and phagocytose everything that is in the source of inflammation: microbes, destroyed leukocytes, damaged cells and tissues of the body, etc. In addition, they enhance the synthesis of enzymes that promote the formation of fibrous tissue at the site of inflammation, and thereby promote wound healing.

The phagocyte picks up individual signals (chemotaxis) and migrates in their direction (chemokinesis). The mobility of leukocytes manifests itself in the presence of special substances (chemoattractants). Chemoattractants interact with specific neutrophil receptors. As a result of the interaction of myosin actin, pseudopodia are extended and the phagocyte moves. Moving in this way, the leukocyte penetrates the capillary wall, exits into the tissue and comes into contact with the phagocytosed object. As soon as the ligand interacts with the receptor, the conformation of the latter (this receptor) occurs and the signal is transmitted to the enzyme associated with the receptor into a single complex. Due to this, the phagocytosed object is absorbed and merges with the lysosome. In this case, the phagocytosed object either dies ( completed phagocytosis), or continues to live and develop in the phagocyte ( incomplete phagocytosis).

The last stage of phagocytosis is the destruction of the ligand. At the moment of contact with the phagocytosed object, membrane enzymes (oxidases) are activated, oxidative processes inside the phagolysosomes sharply increase, resulting in the death of bacteria.

Function of neutrophils. Neutrophils remain in the blood for only a few hours (in transit from the bone marrow to tissues), and their inherent functions are performed outside the vascular bed (exit from the vascular bed occurs as a result of chemotaxis) and only after activation of neutrophils. The main function is phagocytosis of tissue debris and destruction of opsonized microorganisms (opsonization is the attachment of antibodies or complement proteins to the bacterial cell wall, which allows recognition of this bacterium and phagocytosis). Phagocytosis occurs in several stages. After preliminary specific recognition of the material to be phagocytosed, invagination of the neutrophil membrane around the particle occurs and the formation of a phagosome. Next, as a result of the fusion of the phagosome with lysosomes, a phagolysosome is formed, after which the bacteria are destroyed and the captured material is destroyed. For this, the following enter the phagolysosome: lysozyme, cathepsin, elastase, lactoferrin, defensins, cationic proteins; myeloperoxidase; superoxide O 2 – and hydroxyl radical OH – formed (along with H 2 O 2) during a respiratory explosion. Respiratory burst: neutrophils sharply increase oxygen uptake within the first seconds after stimulation and quickly consume a significant amount of it. This phenomenon is known as respiratory (oxygen) explosion. In this case, H 2 O 2, superoxide O 2 – and hydroxyl radical OH –, which are toxic to microorganisms, are formed. After a single outbreak of activity, the neutrophil dies. Such neutrophils constitute the main component of pus (“pus” cells).

Function of basophils. Activated basophils leave the bloodstream and participate in allergic reactions in tissues. Basophils have highly sensitive surface receptors for IgE fragments, which are synthesized by plasma cells when antigens enter the body. After interaction with immunoglobulin, basophils degranulate. The release of histamine and other vasoactive factors during degranulation and the oxidation of arachidonic acid cause the development of an immediate allergic reaction (such reactions are characteristic of allergic rhinitis, some forms of bronchial asthma, anaphylactic shock).

Macrophage is a differentiated form of monocytes - a large (about 20 microns), mobile cell of the mononuclear phagocyte system. Macrophages - professional phagocytes, they are found in all tissues and organs, they are a mobile population of cells. The lifespan of macrophages is months. Macrophages are divided into resident and mobile. Resident macrophages are present in tissues normally, in the absence of inflammation. Macrophages capture denatured proteins and aged red blood cells from the blood (fixed macrophages of the liver, spleen, bone marrow). Macrophages phagocytose cell debris and tissue matrix. Nonspecific phagocytosis characteristic of alveolar macrophages that capture dust particles of various natures, soot, etc. Specific phagocytosis occurs when macrophages interact with an opsonized bacterium.

In addition to phagocytosis, the macrophage performs an extremely important function: it is an antigen-presenting cell. Antigen-presenting cells, in addition to macrophages, include dendritic cells of the lymph nodes and spleen, Langerhans cells of the epidermis, M cells in the lymphatic follicles of the digestive tract, and dendritic epithelial cells of the thymus gland. These cells capture, process (process) and present Ag on their surface to helper T lymphocytes, which leads to stimulation of lymphocytes and the launch of immune reactions. IL1 from macrophages activates T lymphocytes and, to a lesser extent, B lymphocytes.

Phagocytosis

In 1882-1883 the famous Russian zoologist I.I. Mechnikov conducted his research in Italy, on the shores of the Strait of Messina. The scientist was interested in whether individual cells of multicellular organisms retained the ability to capture and digest food, as single-celled organisms, such as amoebas, do. After all, as a rule, in multicellular organisms, food is digested in the digestive canal and the cells absorb ready-made nutrient solutions. Mechnikov observed larvae of starfish. They are transparent and their contents are clearly visible. These larvae do not have circulating blood, but have cells wandering throughout the larva. They captured particles of red carmine dye introduced into the larva. But if these cells absorb paint, then maybe they capture any foreign particles? Indeed, rose thorns inserted into the larva turned out to be surrounded by cells stained with carmine.

The cells were able to capture and digest any foreign particles, including pathogenic microbes. Mechnikov called the wandering cells phagocytes (from the Greek words phages - eater and kytos - container, here - cell). And the process of capturing and digesting different particles by them is phagocytosis. Later, Mechnikov observed phagocytosis in crustaceans, frogs, turtles, lizards, as well as in mammals - guinea pigs, rabbits, rats and humans.

Phagocytes are special cells. They need digestion of captured particles not for nutrition, like amoebas and other single-celled organisms, but to protect the body. In starfish larvae, phagocytes wander throughout the body, and in higher animals and humans they circulate in the vessels. This is one of the types of white blood cells, or leukocytes, - neutrophils. It is they, attracted by the toxic substances of microbes, who move to the site of infection (see Taxis). Having emerged from the vessels, such leukocytes have outgrowths - pseudopods, or pseudopodia, with the help of which they move in the same way as amoeba and wandering cells of starfish larvae. Mechnikov called such leukocytes capable of phagocytosis microphages.

However, not only constantly moving leukocytes, but also some sedentary cells can become phagocytes (now they are all united into a single system of phagocytic mononuclear cells). Some of them rush to dangerous areas, for example, to the site of inflammation, while others remain in their usual places. Both are united by the ability to phagocytose. These tissue cells (histocytes, monocytes, reticular and endothelial cells) are almost twice as large as microphages - their diameter is 12–20 µm. Therefore, Mechnikov called them macrophages. There are especially many of them in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow and in the walls of blood vessels.

Microphages and wandering macrophages themselves actively attack “enemies,” and stationary macrophages wait for the “enemy” to swim past them in the blood or lymph flow. Phagocytes “hunt” for microbes in the body. It happens that in an unequal struggle with them they find themselves defeated. Pus is an accumulation of dead phagocytes. Other phagocytes will approach it and begin to eliminate it, as they do with all sorts of foreign particles.

Phagocytes cleanse tissues of constantly dying cells and participate in various changes in the body. For example, when a tadpole transforms into a frog, when, along with other changes, the tail gradually disappears, entire hordes of phagocytes destroy the tissues of the tadpole’s tail.

How do particles get inside the phagocyte? It turns out that with the help of pseudopodia, which grab them, like an excavator bucket. Gradually, the pseudopodia lengthen and then close over the foreign body. Sometimes it seems to be pressed into the phagocyte.

Mechnikov assumed that phagocytes should contain special substances that digest microbes and other particles captured by them. Indeed, such particles - lysosomes - were discovered 70 years after the discovery of phagocytosis. They contain enzymes that can break down large organic molecules.

It has now been found that, in addition to phagocytosis, antibodies primarily participate in the neutralization of foreign substances (see Antigen and Antibody). But for the process of their production to begin, the participation of macrophages is necessary. They capture foreign proteins (antigens), cut them into pieces, and expose pieces of them (called antigenic determinants) on their surface. Here those lymphocytes that are capable of producing antibodies (immunoglobulin proteins) that bind these determinants come into contact with them. After this, such lymphocytes multiply and release many antibodies into the blood, which inactivate (bind) foreign proteins - antigens (see Immunity). These issues are dealt with by the science of immunology, one of the founders of which was I. I. Mechnikov.

phagocytosis ability

Russian-English dictionary of biological terms. - Novosibirsk: Institute of Clinical Immunology. V.I. Seledtsov. 1993-1999.

See what “the ability to phagocytosis” is in other dictionaries:

Immunity - I Immunity (lat. immunitas liberation, getting rid of something) the body’s immunity to various infectious agents (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, helminths) and their metabolic products, as well as to tissues and substances... ... Medical Encyclopedia

Hematopoiesis - I Hematopoiesis (synonymous with hematopoiesis) is a process consisting of a series of cellular differentiations, as a result of which mature blood cells are formed. In the adult body, there are ancestral hematopoietic, or stem, cells. Supposedly... ... Medical Encyclopedia

Primary immunodeficiencies are hereditary or acquired in utero immunodeficiency conditions. They usually appear either immediately after birth or during the first two years of life (congenital immunodeficiencies). However, less pronounced genetic defects... ... Wikipedia

INFECTION - INFECTION. Contents: History. 633 Characteristics of infections. 634 Sources I. . 635 Methods of transmission I. 636 Congenital I. 640 Various degrees of virulence of microbes.... ... Big medical encyclopedia

MACROPHAGES - (from the Greek makros: large and phago eat), vulture. megalophages, macrophagocytes, large phagocytes. The term M. was proposed by Mechnikov, who divided all cells capable of phagocytosis into small phagocytes, microphages (see), and large phagocytes, macrophages. Under... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

TUMORS - TUMORS. Contents: I. Distribution of O. in the animal world. . .44 6 II. Statistics 0. 44 7 III. Structural and functional characteristic. 449 IV. Pathogenesis and etiology. 469 V. Classification and nomenclature. 478 VI.… …Big Medical Encyclopedia

LEUCOCYTES - (from the Greek leukos white and kytos cell), white or colorless bodies, one of the types of blood cells along with erythrocytes and platelets. The term “leukocyte” is used in two meanings: 1) to designate all... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

Monocyte - (from the Greek μονος “one” and κύτος “receptacle”, “cell”) a large mature mononuclear leukocyte of the group of agranulocytes, diameter ... Wikipedia

A CELL is an elementary unit of living things. The cell is delimited from other cells or from the external environment by a special membrane and has a nucleus or its equivalent, in which the bulk of the chemical information that controls heredity is concentrated. Studying... ... Collier's Encyclopedia

Antigen presentation - Antigen presentation. Top: foreign antigen (1) captures and absorbs the antigen presenting cell (2), which cleaves it and partially displays it on its surface in complex with MHC II molecules (... Wikipedia

Endothelium - (from Endo. and Greek thele nipple) specialized cells of animals and humans, lining the inner surface of blood and lymphatic vessels, as well as the cavities of the heart. E. is formed from mesenchyme (See Mesenchyme). Presented... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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Phagocytosis

One of the most important functions of leukocytes released from the vessels into the site of inflammation is phagocytosis, during which leukocytes recognize, absorb and destroy microorganisms that have entered the body, various foreign particles, as well as their own non-viable cells and tissues.

Not all leukocytes released into the site of inflammation are capable of phagocytosis. This ability is characteristic of neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages and eosinophils, which are considered so-called professional, or obligate (obligatory) phagocytes.

There are several stages in the process of phagocytosis:

1) the stage of adhesion (or attachment) of the phagocyte to the object,

2) the stage of absorption of the object and

3) the stage of intracellular destruction of the absorbed object. The adhesion of phagocytes to an object in some cases is due to

the existence on the membrane of phagocytes of receptors for molecules that make up the microbial wall (for example, for the carbohydrate zymosan), or for molecules that appear on the surface of their own dying cells. However, in most cases, the adhesion of phagocytes to microorganisms that have entered the body is carried out with the participation of so-called opsonins - serum factors that enter the site of inflammation as part of the inflammatory exudate. Opsonins bind to the surface of the microorganism's cell, after which the phagocyte membrane easily adheres to it. The main opsonins are immunoglobulins and the C3 complement fragment. Some plasma proteins (for example, C-reactive protein) and lysozyme also have opsonin properties.

The phenomenon of opsonization can be explained by the fact that opsonin molecules have at least two regions, one of which binds to the surface of the attacked particle, and the other to the membrane of the phagocyte, thus connecting both surfaces to each other. Class B immunoglobulins, for example, bind with their Pab fragments to microbial surface antigens, while the Pc fragments of these antibodies bind to the surface membrane of phagocytes, on which there are receptors for the Pc fragments! Danion, “taking away” an electron from the reduced pyridine nucleotide NADPH:

202 + NADPH -> 202- + NADP + + H + .

The NADPH reserves consumed during the “respiratory burst” begin to be immediately replenished by increased oxidation of glucose through the hexose monophosphate shunt.

Most of the superoxide anions 02_ formed during the reduction of 02 undergo dismutation to H2O2:

Some of the H2O2 molecules react in the presence of iron or copper with the superoxide anion to form the extremely active hydroxyl radical OH:

Cytoplasmic NADP oxidase is activated at the site of contact between the phagocyte and the microbe, and the formation of superoxide anions occurs on the outside of the leukocyte membrane, outside the internal environment of the cell. The process continues after the completion of the formation of the phagosome, as a result of which a high concentration of bactericidal radicals is created inside it. Radicals penetrating into the cytoplasm of the phagocyte are neutralized by the enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase.

The system for the formation of bactericidal oxygen metabolites operates in all professional phagocytes. In neutrophils, another powerful bactericidal system operates together with it - the myeloleroxidase system (a similar leroxidase system is also present in eosinophils, but it is not found in monocytes and macrophages).

myeloperoxidase C1- + H202 *OS1

Hypochlorite has a pronounced bactericidal effect on its own. In addition, it can react with ammonium or amines to form germicidal chloramines.

The oxygen-independent bactericidal mechanism is associated with degranulation - the entry into the phagosome of bactericidal substances contained in the intracellular granules of phagocytes.

When the formation of the phagosome is completed, granules of the cytoplasm of phagocytes come close to it. The granule membrane fuses with the phagosome membrane, and the contents of the granules flow into the phagosome. It is believed that the stimulus for degranulation is an increase in cytosolic Ca2+, the concentration of which increases especially strongly near the phagosome, where organelles accumulating calcium are located.

The cytoplasmic granules of all obligate phagocytes contain a large amount of biologically active substances that are capable of killing and digesting microorganisms and other objects absorbed by phagocytes. Neutrophils, for example, have 3 types of granules:

Secondary (specific) granules.

The most easily mobilized secretory vesicles facilitate the exit of neutrophils from the vessels and their migration in tissues. Absorbed particles of azurophilic substances and specific granules are destroyed and destroyed. In addition to the already mentioned myeloperoxidase, azurophilic granules contain low molecular weight bactericidal peptides defensins, a weak bactericidal substance lysozyme, and many destructive enzymes that act independently of oxygen; in specific granules there is lysozyme and proteins that stop the proliferation of microorganisms, in particular, lactoferrin, which binds iron necessary for the life of microorganisms.

On the inner membrane of specific and azurophilic granules there is a proton pump, which transfers hydrogen ions from the cytoplasm of the phagocyte into the phagosome. As a result, the pH of the environment in the phagosome decreases to 4-5, which causes the death of many microorganisms inside the phagosome. After the microorganisms die, they are destroyed inside the phagosome by acidic hydrolases of azurophilic granules.

Forming peroxynitrite, which breaks down into cytotoxic free radicals OH* and NO."

Not all living microorganisms die inside phagocytes. Some, for example, pathogens of tuberculosis persist, while being “fenced off” by the membrane and cytoplasm of phagocytes from antimicrobial drugs.

Phagocytes activated by chemoattractants are capable of releasing the contents of their granules not only into the phagosome, but also into the extracellular space. This occurs during the so-called incomplete phagocytosis - in cases where, for one reason or another, the phagocyte cannot absorb the attacked object, for example, if the size of the latter significantly exceeds the size of the phagocyte itself or if the object of phagocytosis is antigen-antibody complexes located on the flat surface of the vascular endothelium. At the same time, the contents of the granules and the active oxygen metabolites produced by phagocytes affect both the object of attack and the tissues of the host body.

Damage to host tissues by toxic products of phagocytes becomes possible not only as a result of incomplete phagocytosis, but also after the death of leukocytes or due to destruction of the phagosome membrane by the absorbed particles themselves, for example, silicon particles or uric acid crystals.

Phagocytosis is the body's defender

Phagocytosis is the body's defense mechanism that ingests particulate matter. In the process of destroying harmful substances, waste, toxins, and decomposition waste are removed. Active cells are able to detect foreign tissue inclusions. They begin to quickly attack the aggressor, splitting it into simple particles.

The essence of the phenomenon

Phagocytosis is a defense against pathogens. Domestic scientist Mechnikov I.I. conducted experiments to study the phenomenon. He introduced foreign inclusions into the bodies of starfish and daphnia and recorded the results of his observations.

The stages of phagocytosis were recorded through microscopic examination of marine life. Fungal spores were used as the causative agent. Having placed them in starfish tissue, the scientist noticed the movement of active cells. The moving particles attacked again and again until they completely covered the foreign body.

However, after exceeding the amount of harmful components, the animal was unable to resist and died. The protective cells are given the name phagocytes, consisting of two Greek words: devour and cell.

Active particles of the defense mechanism

The action of leukocytes and macrophages is distinguished as a result of phagocytosis. These are not the only cells guarding the health of the body; in animals, the active particles are oocytes, placental “guardians”.

The phenomenon of phagocytosis is carried out by two protective cells:

Neutrophils - created in the bone marrow. They belong to granulocytic blood particles, the structure of which is distinguished by its granularity.
Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that come from the bone marrow. Young phagocytes have great mobility and construct the main protective barrier.

Selective protection

Phagocytosis is an active defense of the body, in which only pathogenic cells are destroyed, useful particles pass the barrier without complications. Quantitative assessment through laboratory blood tests is used to analyze the state of human health. An increased concentration of leukocytes indicates an ongoing inflammatory process.

Phagocytosis is a protective barrier against a huge number of pathogens:

bacteria;
viruses;
blood clots;
tumor cells;
fungal spores;
toxins and slag inclusions.

White blood cell counts change periodically; correct conclusions are drawn after several general blood tests. So, in pregnant women the amount is slightly higher, and this is a normal state of the body.

Low rates of phagocytosis are observed in long-term chronic diseases:

tuberculosis;
pyelonephritis;
respiratory tract infections;
rheumatism;
atopic dermatitis.

The activity of phagocytes changes under the influence of certain substances:

Avitaminoses, the use of antibiotics, and corticosteroids inhibit the defense mechanism. Phagocytosis assists the immune system. Forced activation occurs in three ways:

Classic - carried out according to the antigen-antibody principle. Activators are immunoglobulins IgG, IgM.
Alternative - polysaccharides, viral particles, tumor cells are used.
Lectin - a group of proteins that pass through the liver.

Particle destruction sequence

To understand the process of the defense mechanism, the stages of phagocytosis are defined:

Chemotaxis is the period of penetration of a foreign particle into the human body. It is characterized by abundant release of a chemical reagent that serves as a signal for activity for macrophages, neutrophils, and monocytes. Human immunity directly depends on the activity of protective cells. All awakened cells attack the area where the foreign body has been introduced.
Adhesion - recognition of a foreign body due to receptors by phagocytes.
Preparatory process of protective cells for attack.
Absorption - the particles gradually cover the foreign substance with their membrane.
The formation of a phagosome is the completion of the surrounding of a foreign body by a membrane.
Creation of a phagolysosome - digestive enzymes are released into the capsule.
Killing - killing harmful particles.
Removal of particle decomposition residues.

The stages of phagocytosis are considered by medicine to understand the internal processes of the development of any disease. The doctor must understand the basics of the phenomenon to diagnose inflammation.

Phagocytosis ability

in English.

in mathematics and Russian

from school 162 of the Kirov district of St. Petersburg.

Establish a correspondence between the type of cell and its ability to phagocytosis.

The feeding of ciliates occurs as follows. On one side of the body of the shoe there is a funnel-shaped depression leading into the mouth and tubular pharynx. With the help of cilia lining the funnel, food particles (bacteria, unicellular algae, detritus) are driven into the mouth and then into the pharynx. From the pharynx, food penetrates into the cytoplasm by phagocytosis. The resulting digestive vacuole is picked up by a circular current of the cytoplasm. Within 1-1.5 hours, food is digested, absorbed into the cytoplasm, and undigested residues are removed through a hole in the pellicle - powder - out.

Phagocytosis is the active capture and absorption of foreign living objects (bacteria, cell fragments) and solid particles by unicellular organisms or cells of multicellular animals. Plants and fungi are not capable of this, because their cells have rigid cell walls. Chlorella and Chlamydomonas are plants that feed autotrophically, mucor is a fungus that absorbs dissolved substances.

According to your explanation, fungi are not capable of phagocytosis. But the assignment says that mucor is capable of phagocytosis, and mucor is a fungus.

Where in the assignment does it say that mucor is capable of phagocytosis? It has a rigid cell wall. It cannot change shape to capture particulates. Mucor feeds by suction.

The ciliate cell is covered with a pellicle and has a cellular mouth. How is it capable of phagocytosis?

Did I understand correctly, the cellular mouth of ciliates is the area intended for phagocytosis?

The entry of water into a plant cell occurs in the process

Osmosis is the diffusion of a substance, usually a solvent, through a semi-permeable membrane that separates a solution and a pure solvent or two solutions of different concentrations.

Plant cells cannot undergo phagocytosis and pinocytosis due to the cell wall.

Phagocytosis is the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles.

Active transport - the transfer of a substance across a cellular or intracellular membrane or through a layer of cells, flowing against a concentration gradient from an area of low concentration to an area of high

Phagocytosis is the absorption of solid food particles by the cell. An example of phagocytosis is the capture of bacteria and viruses by leukocytes.

The amoeba's digestive vacuole is formed as a result of

Phagocytosis, the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles by unicellular organisms or special cells (phagocytes) of multicellular animal organisms.

In an amoeba, several pseudopods can simultaneously form, and then they surround food - bacteria, algae, and other protozoa (phagocytosis).

Digestive juice is secreted from the cytoplasm surrounding the prey. A bubble is formed - a digestive vacuole.

Is pinocytosis not characteristic of amoeba?

A digestive vacuole is a membrane vesicle with a particle inside - i.e. phagocytosis

The entry of nutrients through phagocytosis occurs in cells

Phagocytosis is the capture of solid food particles by a cell. Characteristic of animal cells, they do not have cell walls, the membrane is plastic and capable of capturing particles.

The ability of the plasma membrane to surround a solid food particle and move it into the cell underlies the process

The ability of the plasma membrane to surround liquid droplets and move it into the cell underlies the process

Phagocytosis is the capture of a solid particle, diffusion is the directed process of transfer of molecules of a substance in solution along a concentration gradient across a membrane, osmosis is the selective permeability of water molecules through a membrane until the concentration is equalized on both sides of the membrane. Pinocytosis is the capture of a liquid particle.

As a result of what process are lipids oxidized?

Phagocytosis is the uptake of solid particles by the cell. During the process of photosynthesis and chemosynthesis, organic substances are formed. The oxidation of organic substances occurs in the energy process.

Find errors in the given text, correct them and explain your corrections.

1) In 1883, I.P. Pavlov reported the phenomenon of phagocytosis, which he discovered, which underlies cellular immunity.

2) Immunity is the body’s immunity to infections and foreign substances - antibodies.

3) Immunity can be specific and nonspecific.

4) Specific immunity is the body’s reaction to the action of unknown foreign agents.

5) Nonspecific immunity provides the body with protection only from antigens known to the body.

1) 1 - the phenomenon of phagocytosis was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov;

2) 2 - foreign substances are not antibodies, but antigens;

3) 4 - specific immunity is developed in response to the penetration of a known, specific antigen;

4) 5 - nonspecific immunity can occur in response to the penetration of any antigen.

There should be 3 answer options, not 4.

Read the explanations carefully before assignments.

“Find three errors in the given text. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which they are made, correct them. "Then you are right.

If “Find errors in the given text, correct them and explain your corrections” (without indicating a number), then there may be several errors in one sentence, or more than three errors.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of human blood cells and their type.

A) transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

B) provide the body with immunity

B) determine blood type

D) form pseudopods

D) capable of phagocytosis

E) 1 µl contains 5 million cells

Leukocytes are capable of amoeboid movement; with the help of pseudopods they capture bacteria, i.e., they are capable of phagocytosis and provide immune protection. The remaining signs are characteristic of erythrocytes.

Do red blood cells provide the body's immunity?

No. Immunity is a function of leukocytes. This is stated in the answer.

Phagocytosis is the process in which specially designed blood cells and body tissues (leukocytes = phagocytes) capture and digest solid particles.

The process of a cell absorbing fluid is

Phagocytosis is the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles by unicellular organisms or special cells (phagocytes) of multicellular animal organisms.

Cytokinesis is the division of the body of a eukaryotic cell. Cytokinesis usually occurs after a cell has undergone nuclear division (karyokinesis) through mitosis or meiosis.

Pinocytosis is the capture of fluid with the substances contained in it by the cell surface.

Autolysis is the self-digestion of tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of blood cells and their type.

A) participate in the formation of fibrin

B) provide the process of phagocytosis

D) transport carbon dioxide

D) play an important role in immune reactions

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Red blood cells, red biconcave anucleate blood cells containing hemoglobin; carry oxygen from the respiratory organs to the tissues and participate in the transfer of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. Causes the red color of blood.

Leukocytes (colorless cells, shapeless with a nucleus) are very diverse in size and function; participate in the protective function of the blood.

Platelets and their corresponding blood platelets in mammals and humans ensure blood clotting.

Red blood cells: contain hemoglobin and transport carbon dioxide. Leukocytes: provide the process of phagocytosis, play an important role in immune reactions. Platelets: participate in the formation of fibrin.

The destruction of bacteria, viruses and foreign substances that have entered the human body by capturing them by leukocytes is a process

Phagocytosis is a process in which specially designed blood cells and body tissues (phagocytes) capture and digest solid particles.

The inflammatory process when pathogenic bacteria enter the human skin is accompanied by

1) an increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood

2) blood clotting

3) dilation of blood vessels

4) active phagocytosis

5) formation of oxyhemoglobin

6) increased blood pressure

The inflammatory process when pathogenic bacteria enter the human skin is accompanied by an increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood, dilation of blood vessels (redness of the site of inflammation), active phagocytosis (leukocytes destroy bacteria by devouring).

Signs characteristic of mushrooms -

1) the presence of chitin in the cell wall

2) storage of glycogen in cells

3) absorption of food by phagocytosis

4) ability for chemosynthesis

5) heterotrophic nutrition

6) limited growth

Characteristics of fungi: chitin in the cell wall, storage of glycogen in cells, heterotrophic nutrition. They are not capable of phagocytosis, because they have a cell wall; chemosynthesis is a characteristic of bacteria; limited growth is a characteristic of animals.

mushrooms are able to absorb nutrients throughout the entire surface of the body, does this not apply to phagocytosis?

Phagocytosis is the active capture and absorption of microscopic foreign living objects (bacteria, cell fragments) and solid particles by single-celled organisms or specialized cells (phagocytes) of humans and animals.

Microbiology: dictionary of terms, Firsov N.N. - M: Bustard, 2006.

Aren't mushrooms classified as heterotrophs?

They do, therefore option 5 is the correct answer

I believe that 125 and 6 are correct, since mushrooms have limited growth.

No, mushrooms grow throughout their lives, this is similar to plants.

Glycogen storage is a characteristic feature of animal cells.

This is a sign of the similarity between Fungi and Animals.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of human blood cells and their type.

TYPE OF BLOOD CELLS

A) life expectancy - three to four months

B) move to places where bacteria accumulate

B) participate in phagocytosis and antibody production

D) nuclear-free, have the shape of a biconcave disk

D) participate in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Leukocytes: move to places where bacteria accumulate, participate in phagocytosis and antibody production. Red blood cells: life expectancy - three to four months, anucleate, have the shape of a biconcave disk, are involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

red blood cells live for days, and lymphocytes (20-40% of all leukocytes) can live for a very long time, because have immune memory. According to the explanation, it turns out that red blood cells live longer, but why?

because 20-40% of lymphocytes from the total number of leukocytes, this is not 100% of erythrocytes

Establish a correspondence between life processes and the animals in which these processes occur.

A) movement occurs with the help of pseudopods (flowing)

B) food capture by phagocytosis

B) release occurs through one contractile vacuole

D) exchange of nuclei during the sexual process

D) release occurs through two contractile vacuoles with channels

E) movement occurs with the help of cilia

1) common amoeba

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Common amoeba: movement occurs with the help of pseudopods (by flow); food capture by phagocytosis; release occurs through one contractile vacuole. Slipper ciliates: exchange of nuclei during the sexual process; release occurs through two contractile vacuoles with channels; movement occurs with the help of cilia.

Why in the same catalog 29 in task 8 (16141) ciliates are capable of phagocytosis and amoeba too, but here only amoeba. How to understand?

Ciliates are capable of phagocytosis:

Nutrition occurs as follows. On one side of the body of the shoe there is a funnel-shaped depression leading into the mouth and tubular pharynx. With the help of cilia lining the funnel, food particles (bacteria, unicellular algae, detritus) are driven into the mouth and then into the pharynx. From the pharynx, food penetrates into the cytoplasm by phagocytosis.

But ciliates do not capture food by phagocytosis, like amoebas.

Which of the following functions does the plasma membrane of a cell perform? Write down the numbers in ascending order as your answer.

1) participates in lipid synthesis

2) carries out active transport of substances

3) participates in the process of phagocytosis

4) participates in the process of pinocytosis

5) is the site of synthesis of membrane proteins

6) coordinates the process of cell division

Plasma membrane of the cell: carries out active transport of substances, participates in the process of phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Under the numbers 1 - functions of smooth EPS; 5 - ribosomes; 6 - cores.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of an organism and the organism to which this characteristic belongs.

A) a parasitic organism

B) capable of phagocytosis

C) forms spores outside the body

D) under unfavorable conditions forms a cyst

D) the hereditary apparatus is contained in the ring chromosome

E) energy is stored in mitochondria in the form of ATP

1) Anthrax bacillus

2) Common amoeba

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Anthrax bacillus: parasitic organism; forms spores outside the body; the hereditary apparatus is contained in the ring chromosome. Amoeba vulgaris: capable of phagocytosis; under unfavorable conditions forms a cyst; energy is stored in mitochondria in the form of ATP.

Isn't it the Anthrax bacillus that forms a cyst?

no, bacteria form spores under unfavorable conditions

The essence of the phenomenon

Active particles of the defense mechanism

The phenomenon of phagocytosis is carried out by two protective cells:

Neutrophils - created in the bone marrow. They belong to granulocytic blood particles, the structure of which is distinguished by its granularity.
Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that come from the bone marrow. Young phagocytes have great mobility and construct the main protective barrier.

Selective protection

Phagocytosis is a protective barrier against a huge number of pathogens:

bacteria;
viruses;
blood clots;
tumor cells;
fungal spores;
toxins and slag inclusions.

Low rates of phagocytosis are observed in long-term chronic diseases:

tuberculosis;
pyelonephritis;
respiratory tract infections;
rheumatism;
atopic dermatitis.

The activity of phagocytes changes under the influence of certain substances:

cholesterol;
calcium salts;
antibodies;
histamine.

Avitaminoses, the use of antibiotics, and corticosteroids inhibit the defense mechanism. Phagocytosis assists the immune system. Forced activation occurs in three ways:

Classic - carried out according to the antigen-antibody principle. Activators are immunoglobulins IgG, IgM.
Alternative - polysaccharides, viral particles, tumor cells are used.
Lectin - applies to a group of proteins that pass through the liver.

Particle destruction sequence

To understand the process of the defense mechanism, the stages of phagocytosis are defined:

Chemotaxis is the period of penetration of a foreign particle into the human body. It is characterized by abundant release of a chemical reagent that serves as a signal for activity for macrophages, neutrophils, and monocytes. Human immunity directly depends on the activity of protective cells. All awakened cells attack the area where the foreign body has been introduced.
Adhesion is the recognition of a foreign body due to receptors by phagocytes.
Preparatory process of protective cells for attack.
Absorption - particles gradually cover the foreign substance with their membrane.
The formation of a phagosome is the completion of the surrounding of a foreign body by a membrane.
Creation of a phagolysosome - digestive enzymes are released into the capsule.
Killing - killing harmful particles.
Removal of particle decomposition residues.

In 1882-1883 The famous Russian zoologist I.I. Mechnikov conducted his research in Italy, on the shores of the Strait of Messina. The scientist was interested in whether individual cells of multicellular organisms retained the ability to capture and digest food, as single-celled organisms, such as amoebas, do. After all, as a rule, in multicellular organisms, food is digested in the digestive canal and the cells absorb ready-made nutrient solutions.

Mechnikov observed larvae of starfish. They are transparent and their contents are clearly visible. These larvae do not have circulating blood, but have cells wandering throughout the larva. They captured particles of red carmine dye introduced into the larva. But if these cells absorb paint, then maybe they capture any foreign particles? Indeed, rose thorns inserted into the larva turned out to be surrounded by cells stained with carmine.

The cells were able to capture and digest any foreign particles, including pathogenic microbes. Mechnikov called wandering cells phagocytes (from the Greek words phagos - eater and kytos - container, here - cell). And the process of capturing and digesting different particles by them is phagocytosis. Later, Mechnikov observed phagocytosis in crustaceans, frogs, turtles, lizards, as well as in mammals - guinea pigs, rabbits, rats and humans.

This is how the particle is captured by the phagocyte.

However, not only constantly moving leukocytes, but also some sedentary cells can become phagocytes (now they are all united into a single system of phagocytic mononuclear cells). Some of them rush to dangerous areas, for example, to the site of inflammation, while others remain in their usual places. Both are united by the ability to phagocytose. These tissue cells (histocytes, monocytes, reticular and endothelial cells) are almost twice as large as microphages - their diameter is 12-20 microns. Therefore, Mechnikov called them macrophages. There are especially many of them in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow and in the walls of blood vessels.

Mechnikov assumed that phagocytes should contain special substances that digest microbes and other particles captured by them. Indeed, such particles - lysosdma - were discovered 70 years after the discovery of phagocytosis. They contain enzymes that can break down large organic molecules.

It has now been found that, in addition to phagocytosis, antibodies primarily participate in the neutralization of foreign substances (see Antigen and Antibody). But for the process of their production to begin, the participation of macrophages is necessary. They capture foreign proteins (antigens), cut them into pieces and expose their pieces (the so-called antigenic determinants) on their surface. Here those lymphocytes that are capable of producing antibodies (immunoglobulin proteins) that bind these determinants come into contact with them. After this, such lymphocytes multiply and release many antibodies into the blood, which inactivate (bind) foreign proteins - antigens (see Immunity). These issues are dealt with by the science of immunology, one of the founders of which was I. I. Mechnikov.

For various reasons.

Some cells can use various methods, such as ion pumps or osmosis, to move macromolecules as well as chemicals across the plasma membrane and cytoplasm. But large particles, such as , are too large to use small channels for transport across the cell membrane. To absorb larger particles, cells use a process called . There are several different types of endocytosis, one of which is called phagocytosis.

What is phagocytosis?

Phagocytosis is a process in which a cell binds to a desired particle on the surface, and then envelops and immerses it inside. The process of phagocytosis often occurs when a cell attempts to destroy something, such as a virus or an infected cell, and is often used by cells of the immune system.

Phagocytosis will not occur unless the cell is in physical contact with the particle it wants to engulf. Cell surface receptors used for phagocytosis depend on. These are the most common ones:

Opsonin receptors: are used to bind bacteria or other particles that have been coated with immunoglobulin G (or IgG) antibodies by the immune system. The immune system coats potential threats in antibodies so that other cells know to destroy them. Also, the immune system can use a group of complex proteins to tag bacteria called the complement system. The complement system is another way the immune system destroys threats to the body.
Scavenger receptors: bind to molecules produced by bacteria. Most bacteria and cells produce a matrix of proteins surrounding themselves (called an "extracellular matrix"). The matrix is an ideal way for the immune system to identify foreign species in the body, since human cells do not produce the same protein matrix.
Toll-like receptors: receptors, named after a similar receptor in fruit flies, encoded by the Toll gene, that bind to specific molecules produced by bacteria. Toll-like receptors are a key part of the innate immune system because, when associated with a bacterial pathogen, they recognize specific bacteria and activate an immune response. There are many different types of Toll-like receptors produced by the body, all of which bind different molecules.
Antibodies: some immune cells produce antibodies that bind to specific antigens. This is a process similar to how similar receptors recognize and identify what type of bacteria is infecting the host. Antigens are molecules that act as a pathogenic "calling card" because they help the immune system understand what threat it is dealing with.

How does phagocytosis occur?

To carry out the process of phagocytosis, cells must perform several sequential actions. Keep in mind that different cell types perform phagocytosis differently.

The virus and the cell must come into contact with each other. Sometimes an immune cell accidentally picks up a virus in the bloodstream. In other cases, cells move through a process called chemotaxis. Chemotaxis means the movement of a microorganism or cell in response to a chemical stimulus. Many immune system cells move in response to cytokines, small proteins used specifically to transmit signals within the cell. Cytokines signal cells to move to a specific area of the body where a particle (in our case, a virus) is detected. This is typical for infections in a specific area (for example, a skin wound infected with bacteria).
The virus binds to receptors on the cell surface. Remember that different cell types express different receptors. Some receptors are general, meaning that they can identify a spontaneous molecule versus a potential threat, while others are very specific, such as similar receptors or antibodies. The macrophage does not initiate phagocytosis without successful binding of cell surface receptors.
Viruses may also have virus-specific surface receptors on the macrophage. Viruses must gain access to the cytoplasm or host cell to replicate and cause infection, so they use their surface receptors to interact with cells of the immune system and use the immune response to enter the cell. Sometimes, when a virus and a host cell interact, the host cell can successfully destroy the virus and stop the infection from spreading. In other cases, the host cell ingests the virus, which begins to replicate. Once this happens, the infected cell is identified and destroyed by other cells of the immune system to stop viral replication and spread of infection.

The macrophage begins to spin around the virus, absorbing it into its pocket. Instead of moving a large element across the plasma membrane, which could damage it, phagocytosis uses invagination to trap the particle inside, enveloping it around it. Invagination is the action of folding inward to form a cavity or pouch. The cell traps the virus inside, creating a pocket without damaging the plasma membrane. Remember that cells are quite flexible and fluid.

The captured virus is completely enclosed in a vesicular structure called a "phagosome" within the cytoplasm. The lips of the pocket, formed as a result of intussusception, are pulled together to close the gap. This action creates a phagosome, where the plasma membrane moves around the particle, placing it safely inside the cell.

The phagosomes fuse with, becoming a "phagolysosome". Lysosomes are also vesicular structures similar to phagosomes that process waste within the cell. To better understand the functions of the lysosome, the prefix "Lyses" means division or dissolution. Without fusion with the lysosome, the phagosome is unable to do anything with the contents inside.
The phagolysosome lowers the pH to destroy its contents. A lysosome or phagolysosome is capable of destroying the substance inside itself, sharply reducing the pH of the internal environment. The decrease in pH makes the environment in the phagolysosome very acidic. This is an effective way to kill or neutralize whatever is inside the phagolysosome to prevent the cell from becoming infected. Some viruses actually use the reduced pH to escape the phagolysosome and begin replicating inside the cell. For example, influenza uses a decrease in pH to activate a conformational change that allows it to escape into the cytoplasm.
After the contents have been neutralized, the phagolysosome forms a residual body that contains waste from the phagolysosome. The residual body is eventually eliminated from the cell.

Phagocytosis and the immune system

Phagocytosis is an important component of the immune system. Several types of immune system cells perform phagocytosis, such as neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, and B lymphocytes. The action of phagocytizing pathogenic or foreign particles allows immune system cells to know what they are fighting. Knowing the enemy, immune system cells can specifically target similar particles circulating in the body.

Another function of phagocytosis in the immune system is the engulfment and destruction of pathogens (such as viruses or bacteria) and infected cells. By destroying infected cells, the immune system limits the rate at which the infection spreads and multiplies. We mentioned earlier that the phagolysosome creates an acidic environment to destroy or neutralize its contents. Immune system cells that perform phagocytosis may also use other mechanisms to kill pathogens within the phagolisome, such as:

Oxygen radicals: highly reactive molecules that react with proteins, lipids and other biological molecules. During physiological stress, the amount of oxygen radicals in the cell can increase dramatically, causing oxidative stress, which can destroy.
Nitric oxide: a reactive substance similar to oxygen radicals that reacts with superoxide to create additional molecules that damage various types of biological molecules.
Antimicrobial proteins: proteins that specifically damage or kill bacteria. Examples of antimicrobial proteins include proteases, which kill various bacteria by destroying essential proteins, and lysozyme, which attacks gram-positive bacteria.
Antimicrobial peptides: are similar to antimicrobial proteins in that they also attack and kill bacteria. Some antimicrobial peptides, such as defensins, attack bacterial cell membranes.
Binding proteins: are important players in the innate immune system because they compete with proteins or ions that might otherwise be beneficial to bacteria or viral replication. Lactoferrin is a binding protein found in mucous membranes and binds iron ions necessary for bacterial growth.

Immune status, phagocytosis (phagocytic index, phagocytic index, phagocytosis completion index), blood

Preparation for the study: No special preparation is required; blood is taken from a vein in the morning, on an empty stomach, into tubes with EDTA.

Nonspecific cellular defense of the body is carried out by leukocytes, which are capable of phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is the process of recognition, capture and absorption of various foreign structures (destroyed cells, bacteria, antigen-antibody complexes, etc.). Cells that carry out phagocytosis (neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages) are called by the general term phagocytes. Phagocytes actively move and contain a large number of granules with various biologically active substances. Phagocytic activity of leukocytes

A leukocyte suspension is obtained from the blood in a certain way, which is mixed with the exact amount of leukocytes (1 billion microbes in 1 ml). After 30 and 120 minutes, smears are prepared from this mixture and stained according to Romanovsky-Giemsa. About 200 cells are examined under a microscope and the number of phagocytes that have absorbed the bacteria, the intensity of their capture and destruction are determined.1. The phagocytic index is the percentage of phagocytes that have absorbed bacteria after 30 and 120 minutes to the total number of cells examined.2. Phagocytic index - the average number of bacteria present in a phagocyte after 30 and 120 minutes (mathematically divide the total number of bacteria absorbed by phagocytes by the phagocytic index)

3. Phagocytosis completion index - calculated by dividing the number of killed bacteria in phagocytes by the total number of absorbed bacteria and multiplying by 100.

Information regarding the reference values of indicators, as well as the composition of the indicators included in the analysis, may differ slightly depending on the laboratory!

Normal indicators of phagocytic activity: 1. Phagocytic index: after 30 minutes - 94.2±1.5, after 120 minutes - 92.0±2.52. Phagocytic indicator: after 30 minutes - 11.3±1.0, after 120 minutes - 9.8±1.0

1. Severe, long-term infections2. Manifestations of any immunodeficiency

3. Somatic diseases - liver cirrhosis, glomerulonephritis - with manifestations of immunodeficiency

1. In bacterial inflammatory processes (norm)2. Increased content of leukocytes in the blood (leukocytosis)3. Allergic reactions, autoallergic diseases A decrease in phagocytosis activity indicators indicates various disorders in the system of nonspecific cellular immunity. This may be due to reduced production of phagocytes, their rapid decay, impaired mobility, disruption of the process of absorption of foreign material, disruption of the processes of its destruction, etc. All this indicates a decrease in the body’s resistance to infection. Most often, phagocytic activity decreases when: 1. Against the background of severe infections, intoxications, ionizing radiation (secondary immunodeficiency)2. Systemic autoimmune connective tissue diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis)3. Primary immunodeficiencies (Chediac-Higashi syndrome, chronic granulomatous disease)4. Chronic active hepatitis, liver cirrhosis

5. Some forms of glomerulonephritis

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is the absorption by a cell of large particles visible under a microscope (for example, microorganisms, large viruses, damaged cell bodies, etc.). The process of phagocytosis can be divided into two phases. In the first phase, particles bind to the surface of the membrane. In the second phase, the actual absorption of the particle and its further destruction occur. There are two main groups of phagocyte cells - mononuclear and polynuclear. Polynuclear neutrophils make up

the first line of defense against the penetration of various bacteria, fungi and protozoa into the body. They destroy damaged and dead cells, participate in the process of removing old red blood cells and cleaning the wound surface.

The study of phagocytosis indicators is important in the complex analysis and diagnosis of immunodeficiency conditions: often recurrent purulent-inflammatory processes, long-term non-healing wounds, and a tendency to postoperative complications. The study of the phagocytosis system helps in the diagnosis of secondary immunodeficiency conditions caused by drug therapy. The most informative for assessing the activity of phagocytosis is the phagocytic number, the number of active phagocytes and the phagocytosis completion index.

Phagocytic activity of neutrophils

Parameters characterizing the state of phagocytosis.

■ Phagocytic number: norm - 5-10 microbial particles. Phagocytic number is the average number of microbes absorbed by one blood neutrophil. Characterizes the absorption capacity of neutrophils.

■ Phagocytic capacity of blood: norm - 12.5-25x109 per 1 liter of blood. Phagocytic capacity of blood is the number of microbes that neutrophils can absorb in 1 liter of blood.

■ Phagocytic index: normal 65-95%. Phagocytic indicator - the relative number of neutrophils (expressed as a percentage) participating in phagocytosis.

■ Number of active phagocytes: norm - 1.6-5.0x109 in 1 liter of blood. The number of active phagocytes is the absolute number of phagocytic neutrophils in 1 liter of blood.

■ Phagocytosis completion index: the norm is more than 1. The phagocytosis completion index reflects the digestive ability of phagocytes.

The phagocytic activity of neutrophils usually increases at the beginning of the development of the inflammatory process. Its decrease leads to the chronicization of the inflammatory process and the maintenance of the autoimmune process, since this disrupts the function of destruction and removal of immune complexes from the body.

Diseases and conditions in which the phagocytic activity of neutrophils changes are presented in the table.

Table Diseases and conditions in which the phagocytic activity of neutrophils changes

Spontaneous test with NST

Normally, in adults, the number of NBT-positive neutrophils is up to 10%.

A spontaneous test with NBT (nitro blue tetrazolium) allows you to assess the state of the oxygen-dependent mechanism of bactericidal activity of blood phagocytes (granulocytes) in vitro. It characterizes the state and degree of activation of the intracellular NADP-H oxidase antibacterial system. The principle of the method is based on the reduction of the soluble dye NCT absorbed by the phagocyte into insoluble diformazan under the influence of superoxide anion (intended for intracellular destruction of the infectious agent after its absorption), formed in the NADPH-H oxidase reaction. Indicators of the NBT test increase in the initial period of acute bacterial infections, while during the subacute and chronic course of the infectious process they decrease. Sanitation of the body from the pathogen is accompanied by normalization of the indicator. A sharp decrease indicates decompensation of anti-infective defense and is considered a prognostically unfavorable sign.

The NBT test plays an important role in the diagnosis of chronic granulomatous diseases, which are characterized by the presence of defects in the NADP-H oxidase complex. Patients with chronic granulomatous diseases are characterized by the presence of recurrent infections (pneumonia, lymphadenitis, abscesses of the lungs, liver, skin) caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella spp., Candida albicans, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Aspergillus spp., Pseudomonas cepacia, Mycobacterium spp. and Pneumocystis carinii.

Neutrophils in patients with chronic granulomatous diseases have normal phagocytic function, but due to a defect in the NADPH-oxidase complex they are not able to destroy microorganisms. Hereditary defects of the NADP-H oxidase complex in most cases are linked to chromosome X, less often they are autosomal recessive.

Spontaneous test with NST

A decrease in the spontaneous test with NBT is typical for chronic inflammatory process, congenital defects of the phagocytic system, secondary and primary immunodeficiencies, HIV infection, malignant neoplasms, severe burns, injuries, stress, malnutrition, treatment with cytostatics and immunosuppressants, exposure to ionizing radiation.

An increase in the spontaneous test with NBT is noted in case of antigenic irritation due to bacterial inflammation (prodromal period, period of acute manifestation of infection with normal phagocytosis activity), chronic granulomatosis, leukocytosis, increased antibody-dependent cytotoxicity of phagocytes, autoallergic diseases, allergies.

Activated test with NCT

Normally, in adults, the number of NBT-positive neutrophils is 40-80%.

The activated test with NBT allows one to assess the functional reserve of the oxygen-dependent mechanism of bactericidal phagocytes. The test is used to identify the reserve capabilities of intracellular phagocyte systems. With preserved intracellular antibacterial activity in phagocytes, a sharp increase in the number of formazan-positive neutrophils occurs after their stimulation with latex. A decrease in the activated NCT test of neutrophils below 40% and monocytes below 87% indicates a lack of phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis is an important link in protecting health. But it is known that it can occur with varying degrees of effectiveness. What does this depend on, and how can we determine the indicators of phagocytosis that reflect its “quality”?

Phagocytosis in various infections:

In fact, the first thing on which the strength of protection depends is the microbe itself, which “attacks” the body. Some microorganisms have special properties. Thanks to these properties, cells that participate in phagocytosis cannot destroy them.

For example, the pathogens of toxoplasmosis and tuberculosis are absorbed by phagocytes, but at the same time continue to develop inside them without any harm to themselves. This is achieved because they inhibit phagocytosis: the microbial membrane secretes substances that do not allow the phagocyte to act on them with the enzymes of its lysosomes.

Some streptococci, staphylococci, and gonococci can also live happily and even multiply inside phagocytes. These microbes produce compounds that neutralize the above enzymes.

Chlamydia and rickettsia not only settle inside the phagocyte, but also establish their own orders there. Thus, they dissolve the “bag” in which the phagocyte “catches” them, and pass into the cytoplasm of the cell. There they exist, using the resources of the phagocyte for their nutrition.

Finally, viruses are generally difficult to reach for phagocytosis: many of them immediately penetrate the cell nucleus, integrate into its genome and begin to control its work, invulnerable to immune defense and therefore very dangerous to health.

Thus, the possibility of ineffective phagocytosis can be judged by what exactly a person is sick with.

Tests that determine the quality of phagocytosis:

Phagocytosis involves mainly two types of cells: neutrophils and macrophages. Therefore, to find out how well phagocytosis proceeds in the human body, doctors study the indicators of mainly these cells. Below is a list of tests that allow you to find out how active polymicrobial phagocytosis is in a patient.

1. Complete blood count with determination of the number of neutrophils.

2. Determination of phagocytic number, or phagocytic activity. To do this, neutrophils are removed from a blood sample and observed as they carry out the process of phagocytosis. They are offered staphylococci, pieces of latex, and Candida fungi as “victims.” The number of phagocytosed neutrophils is divided by their total number, and the desired indicator of phagocytosis is obtained.

3. Calculation of the phagocytic index. As is known, each phagocyte can destroy several harmful objects throughout its life. When calculating the phagocytic index, laboratory assistants count how many bacteria were captured by one phagocyte. Based on the “gluttony” of phagocytes, a conclusion is drawn about how well the body’s defense is carried out.

4. Determination of the opsonophagocytic index. Opsonins are substances that enhance phagocytosis: the phagocyte membrane responds better to the presence of harmful particles in the body, and the process of their absorption is more active if there are a lot of opsonins in the blood. The opsonophagocytic index is determined by the ratio of the phagocytic index of the patient's serum and the same index of normal serum. The higher the index, the better the phagocytosis.

5. Determination of the speed of movement of phagocytes to harmful particles that have entered the body is carried out by a special reaction of inhibition of leukocyte migration.

There are other tests that can determine the capabilities of phagocytosis. We will not bore readers with details, we will only say that obtaining information about the quality of phagocytosis is possible, and for this you should contact an immunologist who will tell you what specific studies need to be done.

If there is reason to believe that you have a weak immune system, or if you know this for sure based on the results of the tests, you should start taking medications that will have a beneficial effect on the effectiveness of phagocytosis. The best of them today is the immunomodulator Transfer Factor. Its educational effect on the immune system, which is realized due to the presence of information molecules in the product, allows you to normalize all processes occurring in the immune system. Taking Transfer Factor is a necessary measure to improve the quality of all parts of the immune system, and therefore the key to maintaining and strengthening health in general.

Immunogram indicators - phagocytes, antistreptolysin O (ASLO)

Immunogram analysis is done to diagnose immunodeficiency.

The presence of immunodeficiency can be assumed if there is a significant decrease in immunogram parameters.

A slight fluctuation in the values of indicators can be caused by various physiological reasons and is not a significant diagnostic sign.

Immunogram prices If you need more information, call!

Phagocytes

Phagocytes play a very important role in the natural or nonspecific immunity of the body.

The following types of leukocytes are capable of phagocytosis: monocytes, neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils. They can capture and digest large cells - bacteria, viruses, fungi, and remove their own dead tissue cells and old red blood cells. They can move from the blood to the tissues and perform their functions. During various inflammatory processes and allergic reactions, the number of these cells increases. To assess the activity of phagocytes, the following indicators are used:

Phagocytic number - shows the number of particles that can absorb 1 phagocyte (normally a cell can absorb 5-10 microbial bodies),
Phagocytic capacity of blood,
Phagocytosis activity – reflects the percentage of phagocytes that can actively capture particles,
Number of active phagocytes,
Phagocytosis completion index (must be greater than 1).

To carry out such an analysis, special NST tests are used - spontaneous and stimulated.

The factors of natural immunity also include the complement system - these are complex active compounds called components, these include cytokines, interferons, interleukins.

Indicators of humoral immunity:

Phagocytosis activity (VF, %)

Intensity of phagocytosis (PF)

NST - spontaneous test, %

NST - stimulated test, %

A decrease in phagocyte activity may be a sign that phagocytes are not coping well with their function of neutralizing foreign particles.

Test for antistreptolysin O (ASLO)

With streptococcal infections caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus, microbes that enter the body secrete a specific enzyme, streptolysin, which damages tissues and causes inflammation. In response, the body produces antistreptolysin O - these are antibodies to streptolysin. Antistreptolysin O - ASLO increases in the following diseases:

Rheumatism,
Rheumatoid arthritis,
Glomerulonephritis,
Tonsillitis,
Pharyngitis,
Chronic diseases of the tonsils,
Scarlet fever,
Erysipelas.

What organisms are capable of phagocytosis?

Answers and explanations

Platelets, or blood platelets, are mainly responsible for blood clotting, stopping bleeding, and forming blood clots. But, in addition to this, they also have phagocytic properties. Platelets can form pseudopods and destroy some harmful components that enter the body.

It turns out that the cellular lining of blood vessels also poses a danger to bacteria and other “invaders” that have entered the body. In the blood, monocytes and neutrophils fight foreign objects, in the tissues macrophages and other phagocytes wait for them, and even in the walls of blood vessels, being between the blood and tissues, “enemies” cannot “feel safe.” Truly, the body’s defense capabilities are extremely great. With an increase in the content of histamine in the blood and tissues, which occurs during inflammation, the phagocytic ability of endothelial cells, almost imperceptible before, increases several times!

Under this collective name all tissue cells are united: connective tissue, skin, subcutaneous tissue, organ parenchyma, and so on. No one could have imagined this before, but it turns out that under certain conditions, many histiocytes are able to change their “life priorities” and also acquire the ability to phagocytose! Damage, inflammation and other pathological processes awaken in them this ability, which is normally absent.

Phagocytosis and cytokines:

So, phagocytosis is a comprehensive process. Under normal conditions, it is carried out by phagocytes specially designed for this, but critical situations can force even those cells for which such a function is not in character. When the body is in real danger, there is simply no other way out. It’s like in war, when not only men take weapons in their hands, but also everyone who is able to hold it.

During the process of phagocytosis, cells produce cytokines. These are so-called signaling molecules, with the help of which phagocytes transmit information to other components of the immune system. The most important of the cytokines are transfer factors, or transfer factors - protein chains, which can be called the most valuable source of immune information in the body.

In order for phagocytosis and other processes in the immune system to proceed safely and fully, you can use the drug Transfer Factor, the active substance of which is represented by transfer factors. With each tablet of the product, the human body receives a portion of invaluable information about the proper functioning of the immune system, received and accumulated by many generations of living beings.

When taking Transfer Factor, the processes of phagocytosis are normalized, the response of the immune system to the penetration of pathogens is accelerated, and the activity of cells that protect us from aggressors increases. In addition, by normalizing the immune system, the functions of all organs are improved. This allows you to increase your overall level of health and, if necessary, help the body fight almost any disease.

Cells capable of phagocytosis include

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)

Fixed macrophages (alveolar, peritoneal, Kupffer, dendritic cells, Langerhans

2. What type of immunity provides protection for mucous membranes communicating with the external environment. and skin from penetration of the pathogen into the body: specific local immunity

3. The central organs of the immune system include:

Bursa of Fabricius and its analogue in humans (Peyre's patches)

4. What cells produce antibodies:

B. Plasma cells

5. Haptens are:

Simple organic compounds with low molecular weight (peptides, disaccharides, NK, lipids, etc.)

Unable to induce antibody formation

Capable of specifically interacting with those antibodies in the induction of which they participated (after attaching to a protein and transforming into full-fledged antigens)

6. Penetration of the pathogen through the mucous membrane is prevented by class immunoglobulins:

7. The function of adhesins in bacteria is performed by: cell wall structures (fimbriae, outer membrane proteins, LPS)

U Gr(-): associated with pili, capsule, capsule-like membrane, outer membrane proteins

U Gr(+): teichoic and lipoteichoic acids of the cell wall

8. Delayed hypersensitivity is caused by:

Sensitized T-lymphocyte cells (lymphocytes that have undergone immunological “training” in the thymus)

9. Cells that carry out a specific immune response include:

10. Components required for the agglutination reaction:

microbial cells, latex particles (agglutinogens)

11. The components for staging the precipitation reaction are:

A. Cell suspension

B. Antigen solution (hapten in physiological solution)

B. Heated microbial cell culture

D. Immune serum or test serum of the patient

12. What components are necessary for the complement fixation reaction:

patient's blood serum

13 Components required for the immune lysis reaction:

D. Saline solution

14. In a healthy person, the number of T-lymphocytes in the peripheral blood is:

15. Drugs used for emergency prevention and treatment:

16. The method for quantitative assessment of T-lymphocytes in human peripheral blood is the reaction:

B. Complement fixation

B. Spontaneous rosette formation with sheep erythrocytes (E-ROC)

G. Rosette formations with mouse erythrocytes

D. Rosette formations with erythrocytes treated with antibodies and complement (EAS-ROK )

17. When mouse erythrocytes are mixed with human peripheral blood lymphocytes, “E-rosettes” are formed with those cells that are:

B. Undifferentiated lymphocytes

18. To perform the latex agglutination reaction, you must use all of the following ingredients, except:

A. Patient’s blood serum diluted 1:25

B. Phosphate-buffered saline (saline)

D. Antigenic latex diagnosticum

19. What type of reactions does the test using latex diagnosticum include:

20. How does a positive latex agglutination reaction manifest itself when placed in plates for immunological reactions:

A. Formation of flocs

B. Antigen dissolution

B. Turbidity of the medium

D. Formation of a thin film at the bottom of the well of the plate with an uneven edge (“umbrella” shape)

D. Rim in the center at the bottom of the hole in the form of a “button”

21.For what purpose is the Mancini immunodiffusion reaction used:

A. Detection of whole bacterial cells

B. Determination of polysaccharide – bacterial antigen

B. Quantitative determination of immunoglobulin classes

D. Determination of the activity of phagocytic cells

22. To determine the amount of immunoglobulins in blood serum, use the following test:

B. enzymatic immunity

B. radioimmune test

G. radial immunodiffusion according to Mancini

23. What are the names of the antibodies involved in the Mancini immunodiffusion reaction:

A. Antibacterial antibodies

B. Antivirus AT

B. Complement-fixing antibodies

D. Anti-immunoglobulin antibodies

24. What form of infection are diseases associated with the entry of a pathogen from the environment:

A. a disease caused by a single pathogen

B. a disease that develops due to infection with several types of pathogens

B. a disease that developed against the background of another disease

A. blood is a mechanical carrier of the microbe, but it does not multiply in the blood

B. the pathogen multiplies in the blood

B. the pathogen enters the blood from purulent foci

27. After recovery from typhoid fever, the pathogen is released from the body for a long time. What form of infection are these cases:

A. Chronic infection

B. Latent infection

B. Asymptomatic infection

28. The main properties of bacterial exotoxins are:

A. Firmly associated with the body of bacteria

D. Easily released into the environment

H. Under the influence of formalin they can turn into toxoid

I. Cause the formation of antitoxins

K. Antitoxins are not formed

29. The invasive properties of pathogenic bacteria are due to:

A. the ability to secrete saccharolytic enzymes

B. the presence of the enzyme hyalorunidase

B. release of distribution factors (fibrinolysin, etc.)

D. loss of cell wall

D. ability to form capsules

Z. presence of col - gene

30. According to the biochemical structure, antibodies are:

31. If an infectious disease is transmitted to a person from a sick animal, it is called:

32. Basic properties and signs of a full-fledged antigen:

A. is a protein

B. is a low molecular weight polysaccharide

G. is a high molecular weight compound

D. causes the formation of antibodies in the body

E. does not cause the formation of antibodies in the body

Z. insoluble in body fluids

I. is able to react with a specific antibody

K. is not able to react with a specific antibody

33. Nonspecific resistance of a macroorganism includes all of the following factors, except:

B. gastric juice

E. temperature reaction

G. mucous membranes

Z. lymph nodes

K. complement system

34. After the vaccine is administered, the following type of immunity is developed:

G. acquired artificial active

35. Which of the following agglutination reactions are used to identify the type of microorganism:

B. extensive Gruber agglutination reaction

B. indicative agglutination reaction on glass

G. latex agglutination reaction

D. passive hemagglutination reaction with O-diagnosticum erythrocytes

36. Which of the following reactions is used to obtain adsorbed and monoreceptor agglutinating serums:

A. indicative agglutination reaction on glass

B. indirect hemagglutination reaction

B. extensive Gruber agglutination reaction

D. adsorption reaction of agglutinins according to Castellani

D. precipitation reaction

E. expanded Widal agglutination reaction

37. The necessary ingredients for staging any agglutination reaction are:

A. distilled water

B. saline solution

G. antigen (suspension of microbes)

E. red blood cell suspension

H. suspension of phagocytes

38.For what purpose are precipitation reactions used:

A. detection of agglutinins in the patient’s blood serum

B. detection of microorganism toxins

B. detection of blood type

D. detection of precipitins in blood serum

D. retrospective diagnosis of the disease

E. definition of food adulteration

G. determination of toxin strength

H. quantitative determination of classes of serum immunoglobulins

39. The necessary ingredients for staging an indirect hemagglutination reaction are:

A. distilled water

B. patient’s blood serum

B. saline solution

G. erythrocyte diagnosticum

D. monoreceptor agglutinating serum

E. unadsorbed agglutinating serum

H. red blood cell suspension

40. The main properties and characteristics of precipitinogen-hapten are:

A. is a whole microbial cell

B. is an extract from a microbial cell

V. is a toxin of microorganisms

D. is an inferior antigen

E. soluble in saline solution

G. causes the production of antibodies when introduced into the macroorganism

I. reacts with the antibody

41. Time to take into account the ring precipitation reaction:

42. Which of the following immune reactions is used to determine the toxigenicity of a microorganism culture:

A. Widal agglutination reaction

B. ring precipitation reaction

B. Gruber agglutination reaction

D. phagocytosis reaction

E. gel precipitation reaction

G. neutralization reaction

H. lysis reaction

I. hemagglutination reaction

K. flocculation reaction

43. The necessary ingredients for staging the hemolysis reaction are:

A. hemolytic serum

B. pure culture of bacteria

B. antibacterial immune serum

D. saline solution

G. bacterial toxins

44.For what purpose are bacteriolysis reactions used:

A. detection of antibodies in the patient’s blood serum

B. detection of microorganism toxins

B. identification of pure culture of microorganisms

D. determination of toxoid strength

45.For what purpose is RSK used:

A. determination of antibodies in the patient’s blood serum

B. identification of a pure culture of a microorganism

46. Signs of a positive bacteriolysis reaction are:

E. dissolution of bacteria

47. Signs of positive RSC are:

A. turbidity of the liquid in a test tube

B. immobilization of bacteria (loss of mobility)

B. formation of varnish blood

D. appearance of a cloudy ring

D. the liquid in the test tube is transparent, there is a sediment of red blood cells at the bottom

E. the liquid is transparent, there are bacterial flakes at the bottom

48. For active immunization the following are used:

B. immune serum

49. What bacteriological preparations are prepared from bacterial toxins:

50. What ingredients are needed to prepare a killed vaccine:

Highly virulent and highly immunogenic strain of microorganism (whole killed bacterial cells)

Heating at t=56-58C for 1 hour

Exposure to ultraviolet rays

51. Which of the following bacterial preparations are used to treat infectious diseases:

A. live vaccine

G. antitoxic serum

H. agglutinating serum

K. precipitating serum

52. For what immune reactions are diagnosticums used:

Expanded agglutination reaction of the Vidal type

Passive or indirect hemagglutination reactions (IRHA)

53. Duration of the protective effect of immune sera introduced into the human body: 2-4 weeks

54. Methods of introducing the vaccine into the body:

through the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract using artificial aerosols of live or killed vaccines

55. Main properties of bacterial endotoxins:

A. are proteins(cell wall of Gr(-) bacteria)

B. consist of lipopolysaccharide complexes

G. are easily released from bacteria into the environment

I. are capable of turning into toxoid under the influence of formalin and temperature

K. causes the formation of antitoxins

56. The occurrence of an infectious disease depends on:

A. forms of bacteria

B. reactivity of the microorganism

B. Gram staining ability

D. degree of pathogenicity of the bacterium

E. portal of entry infection

G. state of the cardiovascular system of the microorganism

Z. environmental conditions (atmospheric pressure, humidity, solar radiation, temperature, etc.)

57. MHC (major histocompatibility complex) antigens are located on the membranes:

A. nucleated cells of different microorganism tissues (leukocytes, macrophages, histiocytes, etc.)

B. only leukocytes

58. The ability of bacteria to secrete exotoxins is due to:

A. form of bacteria

B. ability to form capsules

59. The main properties of pathogenic bacteria are:

A. the ability to cause an infectious process

B. ability to form spores

B. specificity of action on the macroorganism

E. ability to form toxins

H. ability to form sugars

I. ability to form capsules

60. Methods for assessing a person’s immune status are:

A. agglutination reaction

B. ring precipitation reaction

G. radial immunodiffusion according to Mancini

D. immunofluorescence test with monoclonal antibodies to identify T-helper and T-suppressor cells

E. complement fixation reaction

G. method of spontaneous rosette formation with sheep erythrocytes (E-ROK)

61. Immunological tolerance is:

A. ability to produce antibodies

B. the ability to cause proliferation of a specific cell clone

B. lack of immunological response to antigen

62. Inactivated blood serum:

Serum subjected to heat treatment at 56C for 30 minutes, which led to the destruction of complement

63. Cells that suppress the immune response and participate in the phenomenon of immunotolerance are:

B. lymphocytes T-suppressors

D. lymphocytes T-effectors

D. lymphocytes T killers

64. The functions of T-helper cells are:

Necessary for the transformation of B lymphocytes into antibody-forming cells and memory cells

Recognize cells having MHC class 2 antigens (macrophages, B lymphocytes)

Regulates the immune response

65. Mechanism of precipitation reaction:

A. formation of an immune complex on cells

B. toxin inactivation

B. formation of a visible complex when an antigen solution is added to serum

D. Glow of the antigen-antibody complex in ultraviolet rays

66. The division of lymphocytes into T and B populations is due to:

A. the presence of certain receptors on the surface of cells

B. site of proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes (bone marrow, thymus)

B. the ability to produce immunoglobulins

D. presence of the HGA complex

D. the ability to phagocytose antigen

67. Aggression enzymes include:

Protease (destroys antibodies)

Coagulase (clotts blood plasma)

Hemolysin (destroys the membranes of red blood cells)

Fibrinolysin (dissolution of fibrin clot)

Lecithinase (acts on lecithin)

68. Class immunoglobulins pass through the placenta:

69.Protection against diphtheria, botulism, and tetanus is determined by immunity:

70. The reaction of indirect hemagglutination involves:

A. erythrocyte antigens participate in the reaction

B. the reaction involves antigens sorbed on erythrocytes

B. the reaction involves receptors for adhesins of the pathogen

A. blood is a mechanical carrier of the pathogen

B. the pathogen multiplies in the blood

B. the pathogen enters the blood from purulent foci

72. Intradermal test to detect antitoxic immunity:

The Schick test with diphtheria toxin is positive if there are no antibodies in the body that can neutralize the toxin

73. Mancini’s immunodiffusion reaction refers to a type reaction:

A. agglutination reaction

B. lysis reaction

B. precipitation reaction

D. ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay)

E. phagocytosis reaction

G. RIF (immunofluorescence reaction)

74. Reinfection is:

A. a disease that develops after recovery from repeated infection with the same pathogen

B. a disease that developed during infection with the same pathogen before recovery

B. return of clinical manifestations

75. The visible result of a positive Mancini reaction is:

A. formation of agglutinins

B. turbidity of the medium

B. cell dissolution

D. formation of precipitation rings in the gel

76. Human resistance to the causative agent of chicken cholera determines immunity:

77. Immunity is maintained only in the presence of a pathogen:

78. The latex agglutination reaction cannot be used for the following purposes:

A. identification of the pathogen

B. determination of immunoglobulin classes

B. detection of antibodies

79. Rosette formation reaction with sheep erythrocytes (E-ROC) is considered

positive if one lymphocyte adsorbs:

A. one sheep red blood cell

B. complement fraction

B. more than 2 sheep red blood cells (more than 10)

G. bacterial antigen

80. Incomplete phagocytosis is observed in diseases:

K. anthrax

81. Specific and nonspecific factors of humoral immunity are:

82. When sheep erythrocytes are mixed with human peripheral blood lymphocytes, E-rosettes are formed only with those cells that are:

83. The results of the latex agglutination reaction are recorded in:

A. in milliliters

B. in millimeters

84. Precipitation reactions include:

B. flocculation reaction (according to Korotyaev)

B. phenomenon of Isaev Pfeiffer

G. precipitation reaction in gel

D. agglutination reaction

E. bacteriolysis reaction

G. hemolysis reaction

H. Ascoli ring-reception reaction

I. Mantoux reaction

K. radial immunodiffusion reaction according to Mancini

85. Main features and properties of hapten:

A. is a protein

B. is a polysaccharide

G. has a colloidal structure

D. is a high molecular weight compound

E. when introduced into the body, it causes the formation of antibodies

G. when introduced into the body does not cause the formation of antibodies

Z. soluble in body fluids

I. is able to react with specific antibodies

K. is not able to react with specific antibodies

86. Main features and properties of antibodies:

A. are polysaccharides

B. are albumin

V. are immunoglobulins

G. are formed in response to the introduction of a full-fledged antigen into the body

D. are formed in the body in response to the introduction of hapten

E. are capable of interacting with a full-fledged antigen

G. are capable of interacting with hapten

87. Necessary components for staging a detailed Gruber-type agglutination reaction:

A. patient’s blood serum

B. saline solution

B. pure culture of bacteria

D. known immune serum, non-adsorbed

D. red blood cell suspension

H. known immune serum, adsorbed

I. monoreceptor serum

88. Signs of a positive Gruber reaction:

89. Necessary ingredients for performing a detailed Widal agglutination reaction:

Diagnosticum (suspension of killed bacteria)

Patient's blood serum

90. Antibodies that enhance phagocytosis:

D. complement-fixing antibodies

91. Components of the ring precipitation reaction:

A. saline solution

B. precipitating serum

B. suspension of red blood cells

D. pure culture of bacteria

H. bacterial toxins

92. To detect agglutinins in the patient’s blood serum, the following are used:

A. extensive Gruber agglutination reaction

B. bacteriolysis reaction

B. extended Vidal agglutination reaction

D. precipitation reaction

D. passive hemagglutination reaction with erythrocyte diagonisticum

E. indicative agglutination reaction on glass

93. Lysis reactions are:

A. precipitation reaction

B. Isaev-Pfeiffer phenomenon

B. Mantoux reaction

G. Gruber agglutination reaction

E. Widal agglutination reaction

94. Signs of a positive ring precipitation reaction:

A. turbidity of the liquid in a test tube

B. loss of bacterial motility

B. appearance of sediment at the bottom of the test tube

D. appearance of a cloudy ring

D. formation of varnish blood

E. the appearance of white lines of turbidity in the agar ("uson")

95. Time for final accounting of the Grubber agglutination reaction:

96. To set up the bacteriolysis reaction it is necessary:

B. distilled water

D. saline solution

D. red blood cell suspension

E. pure culture of bacteria

G. suspension of phagocytes

I. bacterial toxins

K. monoreceptor agglutinating serum

97. For the prevention of infectious diseases the following are used:

E. antitoxic serum

K. agglutinating serum

98. After an illness, the following type of immunity is developed:

B. acquired natural active

B. acquired artificial active

G. acquired natural passive

D. acquired artificial passive

99. After the administration of immune serum, the following type of immunity is formed:

B. acquired natural active

B. acquired natural passive

G. acquired artificial active

D. acquired artificial passive

100. Time for final recording of the results of the lysis reaction performed in a test tube:

101.Number of phases of the complement fixation reaction (CRR):

D. more than ten

102. Signs of a positive hemolysis reaction:

A. precipitation of red blood cells

B. formation of varnish blood

B. agglutination of red blood cells

D. appearance of a cloudy ring

D. turbidity of the liquid in a test tube

103. For passive immunization the following are used:

B. antitoxic serum

104. The ingredients necessary for staging the RSC are:

A. distilled water

B. saline solution

D. patient's blood serum

E. bacterial toxins

I. hemolytic serum

105. For the diagnosis of infectious diseases the following are used:

B. antitoxic serum

G. agglutinating serum

I. precipitating serum

106. Bacteriological preparations are prepared from microbial cells and their toxins:

B. antitoxic immune serum

B. antimicrobial immune serum

107. Antitoxic serums are the following:

D. against gas gangrene

K. against tick-borne encephalitis

108. Select the correct sequence of the listed stages of bacterial phagocytosis:

1A. approach of the phagocyte to the bacterium

2B. adsorption of bacteria on phagocyte

3B. engulfment of bacteria by phagocyte

4G. phagosome formation

5D. fusion of phagosome with mesosome and formation of phagolysosome

6E. intracellular inactivation of a microbe

7J. enzymatic digestion of bacteria and removal of remaining elements

109. Select the correct sequence of stages of interaction (intercellular cooperation) in the humoral immune response in the case of the introduction of a thymus-independent antigen:

4A. Formation of clones of plasma cells producing antibodies

1B. Capture, intracellular gene disintegration

3B. Antigen recognition by B lymphocytes

2G. Presentation of disintegrated antigen on the macrophage surface

110. An antigen is a substance with the following properties:

Immunogenicity (tolerogenicity), determined by foreignness

111. Number of immunoglobulin classes in humans: five

112. IgG in the blood serum of a healthy adult makes up the total content of immunoglobulins: 75-80%

113. During electrophoresis of human blood serum, Ig migrates to the zone of: γ-globulins

114. In immediate allergic reactions, the following is of greatest importance:

Production of antibodies of different classes

115. The receptor for sheep erythrocytes is present on the membrane of: T-lymphocyte

116. B-lymphocytes form rosettes with:

mouse erythrocytes treated with antibodies and complement

117. What factors should be taken into account when assessing immune status:

The frequency of infectious diseases and the nature of their course

Severity of temperature reaction

Presence of foci of chronic infection

118. “Zero” lymphocytes and their number in the human body are:

lymphocytes that have not undergone differentiation, which are precursor cells, their number is 10-20%

119. Immunity is:

A system of biological protection of the internal environment of a multicellular organism (maintaining homeostasis) from genetically foreign substances of exogenous and endogenous nature

120. Antigens are:

Any substances contained in microorganisms and other cells or secreted by them, which carry signs of foreign information and, when introduced into the body, cause the development of specific immune reactions (all known antigens are of colloidal nature) + proteins. polysaccharides, phospholipids. nucleic acids

121. Immunogenicity is:

Ability to induce an immune response

122. Haptens are:

Simple chemical compounds of low molecular weight (disaccharides, lipids, peptides, nucleic acids)

Not immunogenic

Have a high level of specificity for immune response products

123. The main class of human immunoglobulins that are cytophilic and provide an immediate hypersensitivity reaction is: IgE

124. During the primary immune response, the synthesis of antibodies begins with a class of immunoglobulins:

125. During a secondary immune response, antibody synthesis begins with a class of immunoglobulins:

126. The main cells of the human body that provide the pathochemical phase of the immediate hypersensitivity reaction, releasing histamine and other mediators, are:

Basophils and mast cells

127. Delayed hypersensitivity reactions involve:

T helper cells, T suppressor cells, macrophages and memory cells

128. The maturation and accumulation of which mammalian peripheral blood cells never occurs in the bone marrow:

129. Find correspondence between the type of hypersensitivity and the mechanism of implementation:

1.Anaphylactic reaction– production of IgE antibodies upon initial contact with an allergen, antibodies are fixed on the surface of basophils and mast cells, upon repeated exposure to the allergen, mediators are released - histamine, seratonin, etc.

2. Cytotoxic reactions– IgG, IgM, IgA antibodies are involved, fixed on various cells, the AG-AT complex activates the complement system along the classical pathway, trace. cell cytolysis.

3.Immunocomplex reactions– formation of IC (soluble antigen associated with antibody + complement), complexes are fixed on immunocompetent cells and deposited in tissues.

4. Cell-mediated reactions– the antigen interacts with pre-sensitized immunocompetent cells, these cells begin to produce mediators, causing inflammation (DTH)

130. Find correspondence between the pathway of complement activation and the mechanism of implementation:

1. Alternative path– due to polysaccharides, lipopolysaccharides of bacteria, viruses (AG without the participation of antibodies), the C3b component binds, with the help of the properdin protein this complex activates the C5 component, then the formation of MAC => lysis of microbial cells

2.Classic way– due to the Ag-At complex (complexes of IgM, IgG with antigens, binding of component C1, cleavage of components C2 and C4, formation of C3 convertase, formation of component C5

3.Lectin pathway– due to mannan-binding lectin (MBL), activation of protease, cleavage of components C2-C4, classic version. Paths

131. Antigen processing is:

The phenomenon of recognition of a foreign antigen by the capture, cleavage and binding of antigen peptides with molecules of the major histocompatibility complex class 2 and their presentation on the cell surface

132. Find correspondence between the properties of the antigen and the development of the immune response:

133. Find correspondence between the type of lymphocytes, their quantity, properties and the way of their differentiation:

1. T-helpers, C D 4-lymphocytes – APC is activated, together with the MHC class 2 molecule, division of the population into Th1 and Th2 (differing in interleukins), form memory cells, and Th1 can turn into cytotoxic cells, differentiation in the thymus, 45-55%

2.C D 8 - lymphocytes - cytotoxic effect, activated by class 1 MHC molecule, can play the role of suppressor cells, form memory cells, destroy target cells (“lethal blow”), 22-24%

3.B lymphocyte - differentiation in the bone marrow, the receptor receives only one receptor, can, after interaction with the antigen, go into the T-dependent pathway (due to IL-2 T-helper, the formation of memory cells and other classes of immunoglobulins) or T-independent (only IgM are formed) .10-15%

134. The main role of cytokines:

Regulator of intercellular interactions (mediator)

135. Cells involved in presenting antigen to T lymphocytes are:

136. To produce antibodies, B lymphocytes receive help from:

137. T lymphocytes recognize antigens that are presented in association with molecules:

Major histocompatibility complex on the surface of antigen presenting cells)

138. Antibodies of the IgE class are produced: during allergic reactions, by plasma cells in the bronchial and peritoneal lymph nodes, in the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract

139. The phagocytic reaction is performed:

140. Neutrophil leukocytes have the following functions:

Capable of phagocytosis

Secrete a wide range of biologically active substances (IL-8 causes degranulation)

Associated with the regulation of tissue metabolism and the cascade of inflammatory reactions

141. The following occurs in the thymus: maturation and differentiation of T-lymphocytes

142. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is responsible for:

A. are markers of the individuality of their body

B. are formed when the cells of the body are damaged by any agents (infectious) and mark cells that must be destroyed by T-killers

V. participate in immunoregulation, represent antigenic determinants on the membrane of macrophages and interact with T helper cells

143. Antibody formation occurs in: plasma cells

Pass through the placenta

Opsonization of corpuscular antigens

Complement binding and activation via the classical pathway

Bacteriolysis and neutralization of toxigens

Agglutination and precipitation of antigens

145. Primary immunodeficiencies develop as a result of:

Defects in genes (such as mutations) that control the immune system

146. Cytokines include:

interleukins (1,2,3,4, etc.)

tumor necrosis factors

147. Find correspondence between various cytokines and their main properties:

1.Hematopoietins- cell growth factors (ID provides growth stimulation, differentiation and activation of T-.B-lymphocytes,N.K.-cells, etc.) and colony-stimulating factors

2.Interferons– antiviral activity

3.Tumor necrosis factors– lyses some tumors, stimulates antibody formation and mononuclear cell activity

4.Chemokines -attract leukocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes to the site of inflammation

148. Cells that synthesize cytokines are:

thymic stromal cells

149. Allergens are:

1.full antigens of protein nature:

food products (eggs, milk, nuts, shellfish); poisons of bees, wasps; hormones; animal serum; enzyme preparations (streptokinase, etc.); latex; components of house dust (mites, mushrooms, etc.); pollen of grasses and trees; vaccine components

150. Find correspondence between the level of tests characterizing a person’s immune status and the main indicators of the immune system:

1st level- screening (leukocyte formula, determination of phagocytosis activity by the intensity of chemotaxis, determination of immunoglobulin classes, counting the number of B-lymphocytes in the blood, determination of the total number of lymphocytes and the percentage of mature T-lymphocytes)

2nd level – quantities. determination of T-helpers/inducers and T-killers/suppressors, determination of the expression of adhesion molecules on the surface membrane of neutrophils, assessment of the proliferative activity of lymphocytes for the main mitogens, determination of proteins of the complement system, determination of acute phase proteins, subclasses of immunoglobulins, determination of the presence of autoantibodies, performing skin tests

151. Find correspondence between the form of the infectious process and its characteristics:

By origin: exogenous– the pathogenic agent comes from outside

endogenous– the cause of infection is a representative of the opportunistic microflora of the macroorganism itself

autoinfection– when pathogens are introduced from one biotope of a macroorganism to another

By duration of flow: acute, subacute and chronic (the pathogen persists for a long time)

By distribution: focal (localized) and generalized (spread through the lymphatic tract or hematogenous): bacteremia, sepsis and septicopyemia

According to the site of infection: community-acquired, hospital-acquired, natural-focal

152. Select the correct sequence of periods in the development of an infectious disease:

3.period of pronounced clinical symptoms (acute period)

4. period of convalescence (recovery) - possible bacterial carriage

153. Find correspondences between the type of bacterial toxin and their properties:

1.cytotoxins– block protein synthesis at the subcellular level

2. membrane toxins– increase surface permeability. membranes of erythrocytes and leukocytes

3.functional blockers- distortion of nerve impulse transmission, increased vascular permeability

4.exfoliatins and erythrogenins

154. Allergens contain:

155. Incubation period is: the time from the moment a microbe enters the body until the first signs of disease appear, which is associated with reproduction, accumulation of microbes and toxin

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