What was Greek fire used for? Greek fire - a deadly weapon guarding Byzantium
The term "Greek fire" was not used either in the Greek language or in the languages of Muslim peoples, it originates from the moment when Western Christians became acquainted with it during the Crusades. The Byzantines and Arabs themselves called it differently: “liquid fire”, “sea fire”, “artificial fire” or “Roman fire”. Let me remind you that the Byzantines called themselves “Romans”, i.e. by the Romans.
The invention of "Greek fire" is attributed to the Greek mechanic and architect Kalinnik, a native of Syria. In 673, he offered it to the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV Pogonatus (654-685) for use against the Arabs, who were besieging Constantinople at that time.
"Greek fire" was used primarily in naval battles as an incendiary, and according to some sources, as an explosive.
The recipe for the mixture has not been preserved for certain, but based on fragmentary information from various sources, it can be assumed that its composition included oil with the addition of sulfur and saltpeter. In the “Book of Fire” by Mark the Greek, published in Constantinople at the end of the 13th century, the following composition of Greek fire is given: “1 part rosin, 1 part sulfur, 6 parts saltpeter, finely ground, dissolve in linseed or laurel oil, then put in a pipe or into a wooden trunk and light it. The charge immediately flies in any direction and destroys everything with fire." It should be noted that this composition only served to release a fiery mixture that used an “unknown ingredient.” Some researchers have suggested that the missing ingredient may have been quicklime. Other possible components have been suggested asphalt, bitumen, phosphorus, etc.
It was impossible to extinguish the “Greek fire” with water; attempts to extinguish it with water only led to an increase in the combustion temperature. However, subsequently, means were found to combat the “Greek fire” using sand and vinegar.
“Greek fire” was lighter than water and could burn on its surface, giving eyewitnesses the impression that the sea was burning.
In 674 and 718 AD. "Greek fire" destroyed the ships of the Arab fleet besieging Constantinople. In 941, it was successfully used against Russian ships during the unsuccessful campaign of the Kyiv prince Igor against Constantinople (Constantinople). A detailed description of the use of “Greek fire” in the battle with the Pisan fleet off the island of Rhodes in 1103 has been preserved.
“Greek fire” was thrown out using throwing tubes operating on the principle of a siphon, or the burning mixture in clay vessels was shot from a ballista or other throwing machine.
To throw Greek fire, long poles were also used, mounted on special masts, as shown in the figure. 
The Byzantine princess and writer Anna Komnena (1083 - c. 1148) writes about the pipes or siphons installed on Byzantine warships (dromons): “On the bow of each ship were the heads of lions or other land animals, made of bronze or iron and gilded, moreover, so terrible that it was scary to look at them; those heads were arranged in such a way that fire would erupt from their open mouths, and this was carried out by soldiers with the help of mechanisms obedient to them.”
The range of the Byzantine “flamethrower” probably did not exceed several meters, which, however, made it possible to use it in naval combat at close range or in the defense of fortresses against wooden siege structures of the enemy.
Diagram of a siphon for throwing "Greek fire" (reconstruction) 
Emperor Leo VI the Philosopher (870-912) writes in his writings about the use of “Greek fire” in naval battles. In addition, in his treatise "Tactics" he instructs officers to use newly invented hand pipes, and recommends spewing fire from them under the cover of iron shields.
Hand siphons are depicted in several miniatures. It is difficult to say anything definite about their structure based on the images. Apparently, they were something like a spray gun, which used the energy of compressed air pumped using bellows.
"Flamethrower" with a manual siphon during the siege of a city (Byzantine miniature) 
The composition of “Greek fire” was a state secret, so even the recipe for making the mixture was not written down. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (905 - 959) wrote to his son that he was obliged “first of all to direct all his attention to the liquid fire thrown out through the pipes; and if they dare to ask you about this secret, as has often happened to me yourself, you must refuse and reject any entreaties, pointing out that this fire was given and explained by an angel to the great and holy Christian Emperor Constantine."
Miniature of the Madrid copy of the “Chronicles” of John Skylitzes (XIII century) 
Although no state except Byzantium possessed the secret of "Greek fire", various imitations of it have been used by Muslims and crusaders since the Crusades.
The use of an analogue of “Greek fire” in the defense of a fortress (medieval English miniature) 
The once formidable Byzantine fleet gradually declined, and the secret of true "Greek fire" may have been lost. In any case, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, he did not help the defenders of Constantinople.
Experts have different assessments of the effectiveness of “Greek fire”. Some even consider it more of a psychological weapon. With the beginning of the mass use of gunpowder (XIV century), “Greek fire” and other combustible mixtures lost their military significance and were gradually forgotten.
The search for the secret of “Greek fire” was carried out by medieval alchemists, and then by many researchers, but did not give clear results. Its exact composition will probably never be established.
Greek fire became the prototype of modern napalm mixtures and the flamethrower.
Throughout human history, the most advanced types of weapons have always been shrouded in secrecy. But none of them was surrounded by such mystery as Greek fire. "Popular Mechanics" tried to reveal the secret of the most terrible weapon of the Middle Ages.
The term "Greek fire" only appeared during the Crusades. It was also called “liquid”, “sea”, “living” and “fire of the Romans”. In the homeland of this weapon, in Byzantium, the term “Greek fire” was never used, since the Byzantines considered themselves Romans (“Romans”). Usually the Byzantines called this weapon simply "fire".
Few inventions amazed contemporaries as much. They claimed that the monstrous fire incinerated stones and iron, burned on water and, of course, destroyed all living things. For a long time, Greek fire remained the terrible secret weapon of Byzantium. Its composition and the design of the siphons with which it was thrown were kept in the strictest confidence. The secret was so well guarded that the composition of Greek fire has not been revealed to this day. Popular Mechanics tried to solve the mystery with the help of scientific experiments.
Architect-inventor
The invention of Greek fire dates back to the 7th century and is attributed to the architect Callinicus. Later, in the 10th century, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenet described this event as follows: “A certain Callinicus, who ran over to the Romans from Heliopolis, prepared liquid fire thrown out from the siphons, with which he burned the fleet of the Saracens [Saracens] at Cyzicus, the Romans won a victory.” Another Byzantine emperor, Leo VI the Philosopher, gives several descriptions of Greek fire: “We have various means, both old and new, to destroy enemy ships and the people fighting on them. This is fire prepared for siphons, from which it rushes with thunderous noise and smoke, burning the ships to which we direct it...” The evidence is very reliable - in those days (beginning of the 10th century) Greek fire was widely used, and the emperor was well familiar with this weapon .
Both emperors advised keeping the secret of Greek fire in the strictest confidence. Constantine Porphyrogenetus, in his instructions to his successor, recommended categorically rejecting any requests to open fire. He pointed out that the composition of Greek fire was communicated by an angel to the first Christian sovereign, under the condition of keeping the secret from other nations. There is a legend that one Byzantine nobleman, who wanted to reveal the secret of Greek fire to foreigners, was struck down by heavenly fire at the entrance to the church.
At sea and on land
Initially, Greek fire was used in naval battles. In 673 and 717-718, with its help, the Arab fleet was burned, in 872, 20 Cretan ships were destroyed, and in 882, the fiery Byzantine ships (helandria) again defeated the Arab fleet. The fleet of the Russian prince Igor, who tried to capture Constantinople in 941, was also destroyed by Greek fire. The Russian chronicle (“The Tale of Bygone Years”) tells about this event as follows: “Theophanes met them in boats with fire and began to shoot fire at the Russian boats with pipes.” A century later, in 1043, Russian longships under the leadership of Vladimir, son of Yaroslav the Wise, again suffered from Greek fire near Constantinople. This was the last military clash between Rus' and Byzantium.
When equipping the fleet for a campaign against the Pisans, Emperor Alexei Komnenos (1056-1118) ordered that the siphons placed on the bows of the ships be decorated in the form of the heads of wild animals, which seemed to spew fire - this enhanced the psychological effect. According to Anna Komnena, “the barbarians were horrified by the fire, which they did not know and which - unlike the one that burns upward by nature - was thrown at objects as it pleased the launcher, now downwards, now to the sides...”.
Greek fire soon became widespread in siege warfare - for burning siege equipment, setting fire to wooden fortifications and gates, as well as in melee flamethrower weapons. Leo VI the Philosopher describes these hand-held flamethrowers: “Another device was small siphons, which were fired by hand from behind iron shields. They were called hand siphons and recently began to be produced in our domain. From this [device] you can throw prepared fire directly into the faces of your enemies.” These hand-held flamethrowers were probably similar in design to large ship siphons.
In the hands of competitors
For a long time, Byzantium managed to keep the secret of Greek fire a secret from both enemies and allies. The latter more than once turned to the Byzantine emperors with a request to help them with “Roman fire.” Pope Stephen V in 886 asked Emperor Leo to send fire-bearing chelandria to fight the Arabs. Hugo of Provence made the same request to Emperor Roman in 941. Similar requests from the Khazars, Hungarians, Rus and other northern peoples are mentioned by Constantine Porphyrogenet.
The Arabs were the first to use Greek fire after the Byzantines. They used some kind of incendiary means back in the 7th century, and by the beginning of the Crusades they had become well accustomed to Greek fire and used it more than once against the crusaders. The Saracens used Greek fire at the sieges of Nicaea, Maarrata and Acre, as well as in other places.
In Muslim countries, Greek fire, like other incendiary compositions, was called naphtha. In the Arab armies, special units were created - naffatuns, who threw incendiary compositions and were assigned to the corps of archers. In addition to large incendiary devices, these units were armed with small vessels, which they threw at the enemy at close range. Vessels for incendiary compositions were made from baked clay, glass, tree bark, leather, paper and metal. They were set on fire using wicks. For their own protection, the Naffatuns used clothing soaked in vinegar or fish glue, and also covered with talcum powder or brick dust.
Greek fire came to Western Europe after the first Crusades, in the 12th century. It was probably Godfrey V of Anjou who first used it here in 1151. The Mongols also used Greek fire in the 13th century, as evidenced by Plano Carpini: “If they cannot take possession of a fortification, then they throw Greek fire at it.”
History has preserved the message that during the siege of Durazzo by the Normans in 1108, the besieged during the assault blew a burning mixture of tar and sulfur into their faces, and the fiery stream burned many Norman beards. But can this be considered Greek fire? To answer this question, you need to understand how Greek fire differs from other combustible mixtures.
Fire recipes
With the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 and the shift of priority to firearms, Greek fire was gradually forgotten. Nevertheless, interest in Greek fire arose again from time to time. For example, at the beginning of the 18th century, Russian engineer Vasily Korchmin armed ships with flamethrower tubes he designed and, together with Peter the Great, created instructions for their use. And in 1753 in France, a certain Dupre announced that he had discovered the secret of Greek fire. During trials near Le Havre, he burned a wooden sloop that was in the open sea. The impressed Louis XV bought a recipe for Greek fire from Dupre, and put Dupre himself in the Bastille - apparently to remain the only owner of the secret. True, in both cases these inventions had no further practical application. Apparently, compared to cannons, flamethrowers were less effective weapons.
Since the 19th century, researchers have been trying to unravel the mystery of Greek fire, and the debate has not subsided to this day. There are two main versions. According to one, the most prominent representative of which was James Partington, the basis of Greek fire was oil, to which sulfur, resin and other components, possibly quicklime, were added as “thickeners”. A conventional pump was used to throw this mixture. The mixture was either set on fire at the outlet of the siphon, or spontaneously ignited upon contact with water (due to the violent reaction of quicklime with water). Or the mixture was heated in a sealed cauldron, from where it burst out under the pressure of air pumped by bellows when the tap was opened. The mixture was ignited again with a torch from outside.
Another version, the apologist of which was the famous researcher V.V. Arendt, is based on the saltpeter base of Greek fire. Supporters of this version believe that the composition of Greek fire necessarily included saltpeter (KNO 3), as well as sulfur, resins and oil. Thanks to nitrate, a violent reaction began in the siphon; the burning mixture was ejected under the pressure of the resulting gases. In fact, it was gunpowder in which coal was replaced by oil or petroleum and therefore burned more slowly. Proponents of the saltpeter base of Greek fire believe that this was what led to the ejection of a long burning stream from the siphon.
Among other recipes from Mark the Greek, the author of the medieval treatise “The Book of Fires for Scorching Enemies,” we find the following recipe: “Prepare Greek fire in this way: sulfur, cream of tartar [potassium hydrogen tartrate, C 4 H 5 O 6 K], gum , resin, sal coctum, petroleum oil [apparently meaning simply petroleum] and ordinary [vegetable] oil. Boil it all together, then put the tow in there and light it. You can, as mentioned above, let the leak flow through the funnel. Then light it, and the fire will not go out without the help of urine, vinegar or sand.”
stumbling block
It was “sal coctum” that was the stumbling block for researchers. Supporters of the second version saw it as saltpeter, while supporters of the first believed that it was ordinary salt (NaCl), which was added to make the flame bright yellow and look more “hot.” An answer to the question of when saltpeter appeared in Europe could help in this discussion. But here the situation is just as ambiguous. Some believe that saltpeter was described by Pliny the Elder and was known during Antiquity or, at least, by the beginning of the Middle Ages. Others believe that purified saltpeter appeared in Europe, as well as in Muslim countries, only in 1225 and began to be used in mixtures only around 1250. The lack of accessible deposits of saltpeter in most European countries and the known facts about its high cost even in the first half of the 14th century speak in favor of the latter theory.
The version about the saltpeter base of Greek fire and the release of the mixture due to a violent reaction while still in the siphon seems unlikely. It is difficult to imagine that a fire would be built under a cauldron with a flammable mixture on board a wooden ship. But only with the help of temperature can you start the reaction of nitrate with other components and create excess pressure. A fire and a closed boiler, in which an irreversible chemical reaction is launched, spontaneously increasing the pressure inside, are more dangerous for the chelandria itself than for enemy ships. The sources would probably have noted cases of explosions on Byzantine fire-carrying ships, but there is no such data. It is even more difficult to imagine how a pressurized manual siphon could be heated and used. It must either explode or cool down before the warrior climbs onto the battle platform with it. These considerations incline us in favor of the first version - throwing Greek fire using compressed air and setting the mixture on fire from the outside. It was this method that was used in flamethrowers of the 20th century.
What was the composition of the legendary Greek fire, with the help of which so many ships were burned? Popular Mechanics began testing historical theories.
Debunking myths
Kerosene was chosen as the petroleum product - not a very light and not very heavy fraction of oil. Kerosene is quite fluid, but boils at higher temperatures (200-300°C) than lighter fractions (gasoline). This allows the mixture to be heated to a higher temperature. Heavier fractions (diesel fuel) burn poorly (only when hot). We also considered the option of using oil (olive, as the most common in the Ancient World). But, as it turned out during the experiments, olive oil does not burn at all (even when boiling).
It turned out that when heated, only sulfur dissolves in kerosene. Neither potassium nitrate nor quicklime dissolve in kerosene (even boiling) and settle to the bottom. In addition, saltpeter categorically does not want to react with sulfur and kerosene - neither cold nor boiling! The addition of gum has no effect on either the homogeneity or the solubility of the remaining components. And none of the components (sulfur, saltpeter, gum) has a noticeable effect on the flammability of the mixture.
A separate point of our research was to study the possibility of spontaneous combustion of the mixture by adding quicklime (pre-calcined) to it. But it turned out that when a hot suspension is poured into water, no spontaneous combustion of the mixture occurs. Moreover, the presence of kerosene slows down the reaction of quicklime with water, and it occurs even less violently than with the direct interaction of CaO with water.
In addition, we probably managed to refute the statement of Mark the Greek, having found out that a burning mixture based on kerosene cannot be extinguished either with water, or vinegar, or urine (urine). Perhaps vinegar used to be less pure than it is today, and included some salts, which, after the water evaporated, formed a film on the surface that made burning difficult. This is also supported by the recommendation of ancient authors to wet clothing or the surface of structures with vinegar in advance to prevent their ignition. However, this hypothesis needs additional verification.
So the theory about the saltpeter basis of Greek fire is not experimentally confirmed. Moreover, potassium nitrate, without dissolving in petroleum products, settles as a sediment or turns the combustible mixture into a suspension, which negatively affects its passage through the tube at the outlet of the siphon. There is no reason to include quicklime in the composition of Greek fire: it does not lead to spontaneous combustion of the mixture upon contact with water, and its disadvantages are the same as those of saltpeter.
The PM study allows us to conclude that Greek fire was thrown from siphons using pressure (apparently by pumping air with bellows), as in flamethrowers of the 20th century. Its composition, apparently, was quite simple: it included petroleum products, and also, possibly, sulfur, resin and oil. But the exact recipe will likely forever remain a historical mystery.
ATTENTION! ALL EXPERIMENTS WERE CONDUCTED UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS IN COMPLIANCE WITH SAFETY. ATTEMPTING TO REPEAT THEM ON YOURSELF IS LIFE DANGEROUS!
The editors thank the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University and Elena Alimovna Eremina for their assistance in conducting the experiments.
History and Application
The prototype of Greek fire supposedly appeared in 424 BC. e. , at the Battle of Delia: a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil was then released from a hollow log. Greek fire itself was invented in the city by the engineer and architect Kallinikos from the Syrian Heliopolis conquered by the Arabs (modern Baalbek in Lebanon); Callinicus fled to Byzantium and there offered his services to Emperor Constantine IV in the fight against the Arabs.
The installation with Greek fire was a copper pipe - a siphon, through which the liquid mixture erupted with a roar. Presumably, the maximum range of siphons was 25 m, so initially Greek fire was used only in the navy, where it posed a terrible threat to the slow and clumsy wooden ships of the time. In addition, according to contemporaries, the Greek fire could not be extinguished, since it continued to burn even on the surface of the water. For the first time, siphons with Greek fire were installed on Byzantine dromons during the Battle of Cilicia. The historian Feofan wrote about her:
If on land the Byzantine troops suffered defeats from the Arabs, then at sea Greek fire gave them superiority over the enemy. Thanks to him, a major naval victory over the Arabs was won in the city. With the help of Greek fire, the Byzantines defeated the fleet of Prince Igor Rurikovich that approached Constantinople. Greek fire was used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (-). The secret of preparing Greek fire was kept strictly secret, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was learned in Western Europe. In 1106, Greek fire was used against the Normans during the Siege of Durazzo. Greek fire was also known to the British.
Greek fire was also used in sieges of fortresses. Some researchers, based on an analysis of Russian chronicles, conclude that Greek fire was familiar to the Russians and Polovtsians. Also, according to some information, Greek fire was in service with the army of Tamerlane. The last mention of the use of Greek fire comes from the siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mohammed II: Greek fire was then used by both the Byzantines and the Turks.
After the widespread use of gunpowder-based firearms, Greek fire lost its military significance; its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.
Manufacturing
A siege engine pelts a castle with barrels of Greek fire, 13th century. Engraving from Harper's Magazine, 1869.
The exact composition of Greek fire is unknown, since the names of the substances are not always clearly identified in historical documents. Thus, in Russian translations and descriptions, the word “sulfur” could mean any flammable substance, including fat. The most likely components were quicklime, sulfur and crude oil or asphalt. The composition could also include calcium phosphide, which, upon contact with water, releases phosphine gas, which ignites spontaneously in air.
In the “Fire Book” of Mark the Greek, the following composition of Greek fire is given: “Dissolve 1 part rosin, 1 part sulfur, 6 parts saltpeter in finely ground form in linseed or laurel oil, then put it in a pipe or in a wooden trunk and light it. The charge immediately flies in any direction and destroys everything with fire.” It should be noted that this composition only served to release a fiery mixture that used an “unknown ingredient.”
Greek fire was more of a psychological weapon: fearing it, enemy ships tried to keep their distance from the Byzantine ships. A siphon with a Greek fire was usually installed at the bow or stern of the ship. Sometimes the fire mixture was thrown onto enemy ships in barrels: there are references to the fact that, as a result of careless handling of Greek fire, Byzantine ships often caught fire.
The search for the secret of Greek fire
Many alchemists and, later, scientists worked to uncover the secret components of the mixture. One of these researchers was the Frenchman Dupre, who in the city announced that he had discovered the secret of Greek fire. Tests were carried out near Le Havre, as a result of which a wooden sloop, located at a great distance in the open sea, was burned. King Louis XV, impressed and frightened by the effect of this weapon, bought all his papers from Dupre and destroyed them.
In the middle of the 19th century, after the beginning of the development of China, it was discovered that the composition of Greek fire was close to Chinese incendiary substances, containing large quantities of saltpeter, and known since the first millennium BC. e.
Greek fire became the prototype of modern napalm mixtures and the flamethrower.
Memoirs of eyewitnesses
The memoirs of Jean de Joinville, chronicler of the Seventh Crusade, contain descriptions of the effects of Greek fire:
It happened one night when we were on night watch on the tower; The Saracens brought a siege weapon called a perronel, which had never been done before, and loaded its sling with Greek fire. When the good knight Lord Walter of Kurel, who was with us, saw these preparations, he told us: “Gentlemen, we have found ourselves in such a mess that we have never been in before. If they aim their fire at our towers and shelters, we will lose and burn to death. If we lose the fortifications that we have been entrusted to guard, it will be the greatest shame - and only the Lord can save us from harm. This is my opinion and my advice: every time they throw fire at us, we should fall on our elbows and knees and pray to our Lord for salvation.”
As soon as the first shot rang out, we fell to our elbows and knees, exactly as he taught us; and their first shot went right past the two towers, and crashed into the ground right into the ditch in front of us. Our firemen had already rushed to extinguish the flames, and the Saracens, unable to target them, fired into the clouds so that the flames would fall on them.
This is the nature of Greek fire: its projectile is as huge as a vinegar vessel, and the tail trailing behind is like a giant spear. His flight was accompanied by a terrible noise, like heavenly thunder. The Greek fire in the air was like a dragon flying in the sky. Such a bright light emanated from it that it seemed as if the sun had risen over the camp. The reason for this was the enormous fiery mass and brilliance contained in it.
Three times that night they threw Greek fire at us [from the perronel], and four times they shot it at us from the ballista.
Greek fire
“Greek Fire” is one of the most attractive and exciting mysteries of the Middle Ages. This mysterious weapon, which had amazing effectiveness, was in service with Byzantium and for several centuries remained the monopoly of the powerful Mediterranean empire. As a number of sources suggest, it was “Greek fire” that guaranteed the strategic advantage of the Byzantine fleet over the naval armadas of all the dangerous rivals of this Orthodox superpower of the Middle Ages.
The first reliable case of an incendiary composition being thrown from a pipe was recorded at the Battle of Delium (424 BC) between the Athenians and Boeotians. More precisely, not in the battle itself, but during the Boeotians’ assault on the city of Delium, in which the Athenians took refuge.
The pipe used by the Boeotians was a hollow log, and the flammable liquid was presumably a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil. The mixture was thrown out of the chimney with sufficient force to force the garrison of Delium to flee from the fire and thereby ensure the success of the Boeotian warriors in the assault on the fortress wall.
In the Hellenistic era, a flamethrower was invented, which, however, did not throw a flammable composition, but a pure flame mixed with sparks and coals. As is clear from the captions to the drawing, fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier. Then, with the help of bellows, air began to be pumped, after which, with a deafening and terrible roar, flames burst from the vent. Most likely, the range of this device was small - 5-10 meters.
However, in some situations this modest range does not seem so ridiculous. For example, in a naval battle, when ships converge side by side, or during a sortie of besieged people against wooden siege structures of the enemy.
The real "Greek fire" appears in the early Middle Ages. It was invented by Callinicus, a Syrian scientist and engineer, a refugee from Heliopolis (modern Baalbek in Lebanon). Byzantine sources indicate the exact date of the invention of “Greek fire”: 673 AD.
“Liquid fire” erupted from siphons. The flammable mixture burned even on the surface of the water.
“Greek fire” was a strong argument in naval battles, since it was crowded squadrons of wooden ships that provided an excellent target for an incendiary mixture. Both Greek and Arab sources unanimously declare that the effect of the “Greek fire” was simply stunning.
The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Usually such substances as petroleum, various oils, flammable resins, sulfur, asphalt and - of course! - a kind of “secret component”. The most adequate option seems to be a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites when it comes into contact with water, and some viscous carriers like oil or asphalt.
For the first time, pipes with “Greek fire” were installed and tested on dromons, the main class of Byzantine warships. With the help of "Greek fire" two large Arab invasion fleets were destroyed.
The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: “In the year 673, the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV learned of the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-decker ships equipped with Greek fire and siphon carrier ships... The Arabs were shocked... They fled in great fear.”
The second attempt was made by the Arabs in 717-718.
“The Emperor prepared fire siphons and placed them on board one- and two-decker ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Most Holy Mother, the enemy was completely defeated."
Later, in the 10th century, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenet described this event as follows: “A certain Callinicus, who ran over to the Romans from Heliopolis, prepared liquid fire thrown out from the siphons, with which he burned the Saracen fleet at Cyzicus, the Romans won a victory.”
Another Byzantine emperor, Leo VI the Philosopher, gives this description of Greek fire: “We have various means, both old and new, to destroy enemy ships and the people fighting on them. This is a fire prepared for siphons, from which it rushes with thunderous noise and smoke, burning the ships to which we direct it.”
Siphons, as is commonly believed, were made of bronze, but exactly how they threw the flammable composition is unknown. But it’s easy to guess that the range of the “Greek fire” was more than moderate - a maximum of 25 m.
There is no doubt that over time the Arabs realized that the psychological impact of Greek fire was much stronger than its actual destructive ability. It is enough to maintain a distance of about 40-50 m from the Byzantine ships. This is what was done. However, “not approaching” in the absence of effective means of destruction means “not fighting.” And if on land, in Syria and Asia Minor, the Byzantines suffered one defeat after another from the Arabs, then Christians managed to hold Constantinople and Greece thanks to fire-carrying ships for many centuries.
There are a number of other precedents for the successful use of “liquid fire” by the Byzantines to defend their sea borders.
In 872, they burned 20 Cretan ships (more precisely, the ships were Arab, but operated from captured Crete). In 882, the fiery Byzantine ships (chelandii) again defeated the Arab fleet.
It should also be noted that the Byzantines successfully used “Greek fire” not only against the Arabs, but also against the Rus. In particular, in 941, with the help of this secret weapon, a victory was won over the fleet of Prince Igor, which approached directly to Constantinople.
The historian Liutprand of Cremona left a detailed account of this naval battle:
“Roman [the Byzantine emperor] ordered the shipbuilders to come to him, and told them: “Go now and immediately equip those khelands that remained [at home]. But place the fire-throwing device not only at the bow, but also at the stern and on both sides.”
So, when the Hellands were equipped according to his order, he put the most experienced men in them and ordered them to go to meet King Igor. They set sail; Seeing them at sea, King Igor ordered his army to take them alive and not kill them. But the kind and merciful Lord, wanting not only to protect those who honor Him, worship Him, pray to Him, but also to honor them with victory, tamed the winds, thereby calming the sea; because otherwise it would have been difficult for the Greeks to throw fire.
So, taking a position in the middle of the Russian [army], they [began] throwing fire in all directions. The Russians, seeing this, immediately began to throw themselves from their ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn in fire. Some, burdened with chain mail and helmets, immediately sank to the bottom of the sea, and were no longer seen, while others, having floated, continued to burn even in the water; no one escaped that day unless they managed to escape to the shore. After all, the ships of the Russians, due to their small size, also sail in shallow water, which the Greek Hellands cannot do because of their deep draft.”
Historian Georgiy Amartol adds that the defeat of Igor after the attack of the fiery hellands was completed by a flotilla of other Byzantine warships: dromons and triremes.
Based on this valuable recognition, it is possible to make assumptions regarding the organizational structure of the Byzantine fleet of the 10th century. Specialized ships - helandia - carried siphons for throwing “Greek fire”, since, presumably, they were considered less valuable (than dromons and triremes), but more structurally adapted for this function.
While the cruisers and battleships of the Byzantine fleet were dromons and triremes - which fought the enemy in a manner classic for the entire era of pre-gunpowder sailing and oaring fleets. That is, by ramming, firing with various projectiles from the throwing vehicles on board and, if necessary, by boarding, for which they had sufficiently strong detachments of fighters.
Later, the Byzantines used “Greek fire” against the Rus at least one more time, during the Danube campaign of Prince Svyatoslav, son of Igor (“Sfendoslav, son of Ingor” by the historian Leo the Deacon). During the struggle for the Bulgarian fortress of Dorostol on the Danube, the Byzantines blocked the actions of Svyatoslav’s fleet with the help of fire-carrying ships.
This is how Leo the Deacon describes this episode: “Meanwhile, fire-bearing triremes and food ships of the Romans appeared sailing along the Ister. At the sight of them, the Romans were incredibly happy, and the Scythians were seized with horror, because they were afraid that liquid fire would be turned against them. After all, they had already heard from the old men of their people that with this very “Median fire” the Romans turned the huge fleet of Ingor, Sfendoslav’s father, into ashes on the Euxine Sea. Therefore, they quickly gathered their canoes and brought them to the city wall in the place where the flowing Ister goes around one of the sides of Doristol. But fire-bearing ships lay in wait for the Scythians on all sides so that they could not escape on boats to their own land.”
The Byzantines also used Greek “fire” in the defense of fortresses. Thus, on one of the miniatures of the “Chronicles” of George Amartol from the Tver list (early 14th century), stored in the Moscow State Library named after V.I. Lenin, you can see the image of a warrior with a flame-throwing siphon in his hands.
Further, it is known that in 1106 “Greek fire” was used against the Normans during the latter’s siege of Durazzo.
"Greek fire" was also used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). Which, however, did not save Constantinople - it was taken by the crusaders and subjected to monstrous destruction.
The secret of making Greek fire was kept strictly secret, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was lost.
The last mention of the use of Greek fire dates back to the siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II the Conqueror: Greek fire was then used by both the Byzantines and the Turks.
After the widespread use of gunpowder-based firearms, Greek fire lost its military significance; its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.
"Greek Fire" is one of the most attractive and exciting mysteries of the Middle Ages. This mysterious weapon, which had amazing effectiveness, was in service with Byzantium and for several centuries remained the monopoly of the powerful Mediterranean empire. As a number of sources allow us to judge, it was “Greek fire” that guaranteed the strategic advantage of the Byzantine fleet over the naval armadas of all the dangerous rivals of this Orthodox superpower of the Middle Ages.
The prototype of Greek fire supposedly appeared in 190 BC. e. in defense of the island of Rhodes. But back in 424 BC. e. In the land battle of Delia, ancient Greek warriors released an incendiary mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil from a hollow log. Actually, “Greek fire” was invented in 673 by the engineer and architect Callinicus from Syrian Heliopolis (modern Baalbek in Lebanon) conquered by the Arabs, who apparently designed a special throwing device - a “siphon” - for throwing an incendiary mixture. Callinicus fled to Byzantium and there offered his services to Emperor Constantine IV in the fight against the Arabs. What the installation was like can be seen in the picture below. This is a reconstructed antique flamethrower with forced air injection.
Antique flamethrower with forced air injection (reconstruction). 1 - fire tube mouth; 2 - fryer 3 - damper for deflecting the air stream; 4 - wheeled trolley; 5 - a wooden pipe fastened with iron hoops to force air flow; 6 - shield for servants; 7 - bellows; 8 - bellows handles
Presumably, the maximum range of siphons was 25-30 m, so initially Greek fire was used only in the navy, where it posed a terrible threat to the slow and clumsy wooden ships of the time. In addition, according to contemporaries, the Greek fire could not be extinguished by anything, since it continued to burn even on the surface of the water. For the first time, siphons with Greek fire were installed on Byzantine dromons during the Battle of Cilicia. The historian Feofan wrote about her:
in the year 673, the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV learned of the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-decker ships equipped with Greek fire and siphon carrier ships... The Arabs were shocked... They fled in great fear.
However, over the course of history, the recipe for this very fire was lost and today the exact composition is impossible to find out. Many alchemists and, later, scientists worked to uncover the secret components of the mixture. One of these researchers was the Frenchman Dupre, who in 1758 announced that he had discovered the secret of Greek fire. Tests were carried out near Le Havre, as a result of which a wooden sloop, located at a great distance in the open sea, was burned. King Louis XV, impressed and frightened by the effect of this weapon, bought all his papers from Dupre and destroyed them.
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