Ear- a complex vestibular-auditory paired organ, which is located in the temporal bones of the skull and performs two functions: it perceives sound impulses and is responsible for the position of the body in space, for its ability to maintain balance.

The word “ear” usually means the pinna of the auricle. In fact, the ear consists of three parts: the outer, middle and inner ear.

This is the auricle and the external auditory canal up to the thin bridge - the eardrum.

Auricle- complex shaped elastic cartilage covered with skin. Its lower part is the lobe - a skin fold that consists of skin and adipose tissue. The auricle is very sensitive to any damage, therefore, for example, in boxers and wrestlers this part of the body is very often deformed.

The function of the pinna is to capture sounds, which are then transmitted to the inside of the hearing aid. Since in humans the auricle is practically motionless, the role it plays is much less significant than in animals, who are able, by moving their ears, to determine the location of the source of sound much more accurately than humans.

The folds of the human auricle introduce small frequency distortions into the sound entering the ear canal, depending on the horizontal and vertical localization of the sound. Thus, the brain receives additional information to clarify the location of the sound source. This effect is sometimes used in acoustics, including to create a sense of surround sound when using headphones.

External auditory canal has a length of 27-35 mm, diameter - 6-8 mm. The cartilaginous part of the auditory canal passes into the bone, and the entire external auditory canal is lined with skin containing sebaceous glands. The secretion of these glands - earwax - plays a protective role and normally, drying into crusts, is gradually released out on its own. Through the external auditory canal, sound waves are directed to the eardrum.

When excessively produced, wax can clog the ear canal, forming a wax plug.

Eardrum- this is a thin (about 0.1 mm thick) membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear.

Sound waves captured by the auricle, passing through the external auditory canal, strike the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. In turn, vibrations from the eardrum are transmitted to the middle ear.

• To prevent rupture of the eardrums from the shock wave, soldiers awaiting the explosion were advised to open their mouths in advance if possible.
• Loud music damages hearing not only in clubs and concerts, but also in headphones. By the way, listening to music through headphones increases the number of bacteria by 700 times.

The main part of the middle ear is tympanic cavity- a small space with a volume of about 1 cm 3, which is located in the temporal bone. There are three auditory ossicles (the smallest fragments of the human skeleton) - malleus, incus and stapes, which transmit sound vibrations through a chain from the outer ear to the inner ear, simultaneously amplifying them.

The middle ear cavity is connected to the nasopharynx through the eustachian tube, through which the air pressure inside and outside the eardrum is balanced. When external pressure changes, the ears sometimes become blocked. You can get rid of this problem by either yawning widely, or making swallowing movements, or blowing out your pinched nose.

Inner ear

Of the three sections of the organ of hearing and balance, the inner ear is the most complex and, due to its intricate shape, is called the bony labyrinth.

Three components of the bony labyrinth

• vestibule
• snail
• semicircular canals

In a standing person, the cochlea is in front, and the semicircular canals are behind, between them there is an irregularly shaped cavity - the vestibule. Inside the bone labyrinth there is a membranous labyrinth, which has exactly the same three parts, but smaller in size, and between the walls of both labyrinths there is a small gap filled with a transparent liquid - perilymph.

Snail is an organ of hearing: sound vibrations that enter the internal auditory canal from the external auditory canal through the middle ear are transmitted in the form of vibration to the fluid that fills the cochlea. Inside the cochlea there is a main membrane (lower membranous wall), on which the organ of Corti is located - a cluster of various supporting cells and special sensory epithelial hair cells, which, through vibrations of the perilymph, perceive auditory stimuli in the range of 16-20,000 vibrations per second, convert them and transmit them on the nerve endings of the VIII pair of cranial nerves - the vestibulocochlear nerve; Next, the nerve impulse enters the cortical auditory center of the brain.

Vestibule and semicircular canals- organs of the sense of balance and body position in space. The semicircular canals are located in three mutually perpendicular planes and are filled with translucent gelatinous fluid; inside the channels there are sensitive hairs immersed in liquid, and with the slightest movement of the body or head in space, the liquid in these channels shifts, pressing on the hairs and generating impulses in the endings of the vestibular nerve - the brain instantly receives information about changes in body position. The work of the vestibular apparatus allows a person to accurately navigate in space during the most complex movements.

Since the organ of balance has a connection with various organs and systems of the body, it is no coincidence that dizziness can be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and paleness.

Motion sickness syndrome. Unfortunately, the vestibular apparatus, like any other organ, is vulnerable. A sign of trouble in it is motion sickness syndrome. It can serve as a manifestation of one or another disease of the autonomic nervous system or gastrointestinal tract, inflammatory diseases of the hearing aid. In this case, it is necessary to carefully and persistently treat the underlying disease.

As you recover, as a rule, the unpleasant sensations that arose while traveling on a bus, train or car disappear. But sometimes even practically healthy people get sick in transport.

Prevention. What should completely healthy people do with motion sickness syndrome? We must remember well that an untrained person leading a sedentary lifestyle at a certain moment begins to feel a sharp deterioration in health, and the deterioration of the condition of the whole organism leads to dysfunction of the vestibular apparatus. Conversely, a hardened person almost always feels good. This means that even with increased sensitivity of the vestibular apparatus, it tolerates motion sickness less painfully or does not experience it at all.

Sports and physical education not only develop certain muscle groups, but also have a beneficial effect on the entire body, in particular on the vestibular apparatus, training and strengthening it. The most suitable sports for people prone to motion sickness are aerobics, jogging, basketball, volleyball, and football. When moving around a site or field at different speeds, the excitability of the vestibular apparatus sharply decreases, and the process of its adaptation to loads occurs, which helps a person get rid of motion sickness.

Exercises for training the vestibular apparatus

• various tilts and turns of the head; its smooth rotation from one shoulder to the other; bends, turns, rotations of the body in different directions (you can include these exercises in a complex of morning exercises or perform them throughout the day; at first, do each movement 2-3 times, gradually increase the number of repetitions to 6-8 times or more, focusing on how you feel and mood during classes)
• somersaults, gymnastic exercises on the horizontal bar, balance beam, and longue

001. The bony labyrinth of the inner ear does not include:

a) snail

b) internal auditory canal

c) vestibule

d) semicircular canals

Correct answer: b

002. Information is incorrect:

a) in each semicircular canal there is a smooth and widened knee

b) in the anterior and posterior canals the smooth knees are fused into one common one

c) all five knees face the elliptical recess of the vestibule

d) all five elbows face the spherical pocket

Correct answer: g

003. The membranous semicircular canals communicate with:

a) snail

b) with an elliptical bag

c) with the aedolimphatic duct

d) with a spherical bag

Correct answer: b

004. The cochlea is a bony spiral canal that in humans has:

a) 1 turn around the bone rod – modiolus

Correct answer: g

005. Scala vestibuli and scala tympani

divided:

a) only with a bone spiral plate

b) only the basilar or main membrane

c) only Reissner membrane

d) above with Reissner’s membrane, below with bone spiral plate

and main membrane

Correct answer: g

006. Membranous snail (ductus cochlearis) is not located:

a) between the scala vestibule and scala tympani

b) between the Reissner membrane and the main membrane

c) in the bone spiral canal

d) between the bone spiral plate and Reissner’s membrane

Correct answer: g

007. Between the bony wall of the cochlea and the cochlear duct is:

a) endolymph

b) perilymph

c) liquor

d) cortilymph

Correct answer: b

008. The vestibule sacs contain:

a) endolymph

b) perilymph

d) liquor

Correct answer: a

009. Perilymph communicates with the subarachnoid space through:

a) hole - helicotrema

b) snail aqueduct

c) round window

d) semicircular canals

Correct answer: b

010. The perilymph of both scalae mixes at the apex of the cochlea:

a) through a hole – helicotrema

b) does not mix

c) through the cochlear duct

d) through a round window

Correct answer: a

011. Sections of the membranous labyrinth related to the vestibular labyrinth

to the analyzer:

a) cochlear duct

b) scala vestibular

c) semicircular canals

d) scala tympani

Correct answer: in

012. The endolymphatic sac is located:

b) on the posterior surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone

c) on the upper surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone

d) on the medial surface of the tympanic cavity

Correct answer: b

013. The following nerves are not located in the internal auditory canal:

a) facial

b) additional

c) middle

d) auditory-vestibular

Correct answer: b

014. The inner ear is supplied with blood by the artery:

a) internal carotid

b) occipital

c) vertebral

d) temporal

Correct answer: in

015. The spiral organ is located in the cochlea on:

a) basilar plate (basic membrane)

b) vestibular membrane

c) bone spiral plate

d) spiral ligament

Correct answer: a

a) at the base of the cochlea

b) at the top

c) near the spherical sac

d) in the middle part of the cochlea

Correct answer: b

017. The spiral (organ of Corti) does not contain the following cells:

a) inner and outer hair cells

b) external and internal columnar cells

c) goblet secretory

d) supporting and nourishing (Deiters, Hensen, Claudius)

Correct answer: in

018. Hair cells of the organ of Corti are located in:

a) perilymph

b) endolymph

c) cortilymph

d) interstitial fluid

Correct answer: in

019. The sound-receiving apparatus includes:

a) eardrum

b) auditory ossicles

c) organ of Corti

d) perilymph

Correct answer: in

020. The conductive paths of the sound analyzer include:

a) 2 neurons

Correct answer: g

021. The cortical hearing center is located in:

a) temporal lobe of the brain

b) frontal lobe of the brain

c) parietal lobe of the brain

d) occipital lobe of the brain

Correct answer: a

022. The organ of Corti is located:

a) in the staircase vestibule

b) in the scala tympani

c) in the cochlear passage

d) in a spherical bag

Correct answer: in

a) vibration

c) rotation

d) acceleration

Correct answer: b

024. When transmitting sound vibrations from the eardrum to

the foot plate of the stirrup occurs:

a) the amplitude of sound vibrations increases and their strength increases

b) the amplitude remains constant and the pressure force remains constant

c) the amplitude of vibrations decreases, but their strength increases

d) the amplitude of vibrations decreases and their strength decreases

Correct answer: in

025. The sound strength when transmitting sound vibrations from the eardrum to the foot plate of the stapes increases approximately:

a) by 10 dB

b) by 25 dB

c) by 50 dB

d) by 100 dB

Correct answer: b

026. Sound transmission suffers more from:

a) disturbances in the vibrations of the main membrane

b) impaired mobility of the stapes

c) thickness of the eardrum

d) restrictions on the mobility of labyrinthine fluids

Correct answer: b

027. Frequency range characterizing spoken speech:

a) from 2500 hertz and above

b) from 250 to 2500 hertz

c) from 16 to 250 hertz

d) from 4000 hertz and above

Correct answer: b

028. This indicator does not characterize any sound:

a) height

b) resonance

Correct answer: b

029. Units of measurement of sound intensity in clinical practice:

b) decibels

d) octaves

Correct answer: b

030. The human ear is capable of perceiving sounds with a frequency of:

a) from 1 to 10 thousand hertz

b) from 16 to 40 thousand hertz

c) from 16 to 20 thousand hertz

d) from 0 to 5 thousand hertz

Correct answer: in

031. In a comparative study of air and bone conduction

experience is called:

b) Federice

d) Schwabach

Correct answer: in

032. During a comparative tuning fork study of hearing from the mastoid process and tragus, we perform:

a) Jelle's experiment

b) Federici's experience

c) Weber's experiment

d) Schwabach's experiment

Correct answer: b

033. Negative tests of Jelle, Rinne and Federici are most typical for:

a) sensorineural hearing loss

b) sudden deafness

c) otosclerosis

d) epitympanitis

Correct answer: in

034. Laterization of sound (Weber’s experiment) in case of impaired sound conduction:

a) in a healthy direction

b) to the painful side

c) in the better hearing ear with 2-sided damage

d) in both ears with unilateral lesions

Correct answer: b

035. The phenomenon of reflection of a sound wave from those encountered on its path

obstacles are called:

b) diffraction

c) reverberation

d) interference

Correct answer: a

036. The main properties of the hearing analyzer do not include its

ability to distinguish sound by:

a) height (the concept of frequency)

b) volume (intensity)

c) timbre (including tone and overtones)

d) propagation speed

Correct answer: g

037. The threshold of auditory sensation is the energy of sound vibrations:

a) the minimum energy capable of causing the sensation of sound

b) moderate, persistently perceived

c) intense, perceived as sound

d) intense, already causing pain

Correct answer: a

038. Ototopics is:

a) the ability to determine the intensity of sound

b) the ability to determine the direction of sound

c) the ability to determine the frequency of a tone

d) the ability to adapt to silence

Correct answer: b

039. The main role in the trophism of the spiral organ is played by:

a) perilymph

b) endolymph

c) stria vascularis

d) cortilymph

Correct answer: in

040. The ascending auditory pathways do not include:

a) spiral ganglion and cochlear nuclei

b) the upper olive and lower mounds of the roof plate

c) internal geniculate body and temporal lobe

d) cerebellum

Correct answer: g

041. Y order auditory neuron concentrated in:

a) cochlear nuclei of the medulla oblongata

b) superior olive complex

c) inferior colliculi of the roof plate or inferior colliculus

d) medial geniculate body

Correct answer: g

042. Localization of sound sources in space vertically depends on:

a) auricle

b) external auditory canal

c) middle ear

d) inner ear

Correct answer: a

043. The centers of the statokinetic analyzer are located:

a) in the temporal and parietal lobes

b) in the ancient cortex and frontal lobe

c) in the occipital lobe of the brain

d) in the cerebellum and medulla oblongata

Correct answer: a

044. The otolithic apparatus is located:

a) in the internal auditory canal

b) in the cochlea

c) in advance

d) in the semicircular canals

Correct answer: in

a) vibration

c) angular acceleration

d) linear acceleration

Correct answer: in

046. The receptor apparatus of the semicircular canals adequately responds to:

a) linear acceleration

b) centrifugal force

c) the force of gravity

d) angular acceleration

Correct answer: g

047. Angular acceleration is perceived by hair cells:

a) in the windows of the labyrinth

b) in the cochlea

c) in advance

d) in the semicircular canals

Correct answer: g

048. A change in body position in space is an adequate stimulus for:

a) organ of Corti

b) ampullary apparatus

c) otolithic apparatus

d) cerebral cortex

Correct answer: in

049. Oculomotor reactions are realized due to connections of the vestibular nuclei with:

a) cerebral cortex

b) cerebellum

c) nuclei of the vagus nerve

d) nuclei of the oculomotor nerves

Correct answer: g

050. Vestibulosomatic reactions are realized due to connections of the vestibular nuclei with:

a) cerebral cortex

b) cerebellum

c) spinal cord

d) nuclei of the vagus nerve

Correct answer: in

a) fast component

b) slow component

c) plane

d) amplitude

Correct answer: a

052. The presence of a labyrinthine fistula is indicated by nystagmus:

a) post-rotational

b) caloric

c) pressor

d) galvanic

Correct answer: in

053. Pressor nystagmus is caused by:

a) compression and decompression of air in the ear canal

b) pouring water into the ear canal

c) irritation by electric current

d) rotating the patient

Correct answer: a

054. Is not a symptom of irritation of the vestibular analyzer:

a) dizziness

b) change in the tone of striated muscles

c) hearing loss

d) nausea, vomiting

Correct answer: in

055. Labyrinthine balance disorders are directed towards:

a) slow component of nystagmus

b) fast component of nystagmus

c) slow and fast components of nystagmus

d) neither slow nor fast components of nystagmus

Correct answer: a

056. To determine the function of the vestibular analyzer, the following is not examined:

a) stability in the Romberg pose

b) straight and flank gait

c) index test

d) acumetry

Correct answer: g

057. A healthy person will not have nystagmus:

a) with a caloric test

b) pneumatic test

c) rotational test

d) galvanic test

Correct answer: b

058. A study of the otolithic apparatus is carried out to determine:

a) professional suitability

b) identifying areflexia of the vestibular apparatus

c) hearing acuity

d) the level of damage to the conduction pathways of the vestibular analyzer

Correct answer: a

059. The characteristics of nystagmus along the plane do not include nystagmus:

a) horizontal

b) vertical

c) small-scaled

d) rotatory

Correct answer: in

060. Adiadochokinesis is a specific symptom of the disease:

a) temporal lobe of the brain

b) cerebellum

c) vestibular analyzer

d) auditory analyzer

Correct answer: b

Larynx - anatomy.

001. The larynx is located at the level:

a) IV – VI cervical vertebrae

b) II - IV cervical vertebrae

c) VI – VII cervical vertebrae

d) VII - VIII cervical vertebrae

Correct answer: a

002. The larynx is a hollow organ, the basis of which is:

a) bone structures

c) cartilage, muscles, ligaments

d) elastic cone

Correct answer: in

003. The main cartilage of the larynx, to which all other cartilages are attached:

a) supraglottic

b) thyroid

c) arytenoid

d) cricoid

Correct answer: g

004. The largest cartilage of the larynx:

a) arytenoid

b) thyroid

c) cricoid

d) supraglottic

Correct answer: b

005. The cricoid and thyroid cartilages of the larynx are:

a) hyaline

b) elastic

c) mixed (gealin-elastic)

d) rudimentary

Correct answer: a

006. The cricoid cartilage consists of:

a) 2 plates fused at an angle

b) base and petal

c) signets and arcs

d) arches and bodies

Correct answer: in

007. The epiglottis is:

a) not cartilage tissue

b) mixed cartilage

c) hyaline cartilage

d) elastic cartilage

Correct answer: g

008. The cricoid and thyroid cartilages are connected to each other:

a) tightly - motionless

b) through a joint

c) with one single muscle and hang on each other

d) do not connect to each other

Correct answer: b

009. The arytenoid cartilage has processes in the following quantities:

c) four

d) one

Correct answer: a

a) corniculate cartilage

c) muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage

d) base of the arytenoid cartilage

Correct answer: b

011. The paired cartilages of the larynx include:

a) cricoid

b) thyroid

c) arytenoid

d) supraglottic

Correct answer: in

012. The paired cartilages of the larynx include:

a) cricoid

b) thyroid

c) horn-shaped

d) supraglottic

Correct answer: in

013. The paired cartilages of the larynx include:

a) cricoid

b) thyroid

c) wedge-shaped

d) supraglottic

Correct answer: in

014. The unpaired cartilages of the larynx are:

a) wedge-shaped

b) horn-shaped

c) arytenoid

d) cricoid

Correct answer: g

015. Unpaired cartilages of the larynx are:

a) wedge-shaped

b) horn-shaped

c) arytenoid

d) thyroid

Correct answer: g

016. Unpaired cartilages of the larynx are:

a) wedge-shaped

b) horn-shaped

c) arytenoid

d) supraglottic

Correct answer: g

017. The cricoid and arytenoid cartilages are connected to each other:

a) motionless

b) movably through a joint

c) do not connect with each other

d) elastic membrane

Correct answer: b

a) vestibular fold

c) elastic cone

d) conical ligament

Correct answer: a

a) to the angle of the thyroid cartilage

b) to the hyoid bone

d) to the arch of the cricoid cartilage

Correct answer: a

020. The laryngeal ventricles are:

a) depressions outside the aryepiglottic folds

b) pockets on the anterior surface of the larynx

c) depressions between the root of the tongue and the epiglottis

Correct answer: g

021. The laryngeal cavity in the section is:

a) hourglass

d) triangle

Correct answer: a

a) vestibule of the larynx

c) subglottic space

d) area of ​​vestibular folds

Correct answer: b

a) duplication of the mucous membrane

b) muscle formations

d) cavity pockets

Correct answer: a

024. The motor nerve for the larynx is mainly:

a) upper laryngeal

b) midlaryngeal

c) lower laryngeal

d) glossopharyngeal

Correct answer: in

025. The sensory nerve for the larynx is mainly:

a) glossopharyngeal

b) lower laryngeal

c) midlaryngeal

d) upper laryngeal

Correct answer: g

026. The social function of the larynx is:

b) respiratory

c) dividing

d) protective

Correct answer: a

027. The vital (life) function of the larynx is:

b) respiratory

c) capacitor

d) protective

Correct answer: b

028. The larynx is located:

a) to the right of the esophagus

b) to the left of the esophagus

c) anterior to the esophagus

d) posterior to the esophagus

Correct answer: in

029. In the larynx there are floors and reflexogenic zones:

d) four

Correct answer: in

030. The upper reflexogenic zone of the larynx is located:

a) in the vestibule of the larynx

d) in the area of ​​the epiglottis only

Correct answer: a

031. The middle reflexogenic zone of the larynx is located:

a) in the vestibule of the larynx

c) in the subglottic region of the larynx

d) in the area of ​​the epiglottis

Correct answer: b

032. The lower reflexogenic zone of the larynx is located:

a) in the vestibule of the larynx

c) in the subglottic region of the larynx

d) in the area of ​​the epiglottis

Correct answer: in

a) pearly white

b) red

c) pink

d) blue

Correct answer: a

034. Physiological crepitus of the larynx is caused by:

a) contraction of the muscles of the larynx

b) movement in the joints of the larynx and its friction against the spine

d) movement of air in the lumen of the larynx

Correct answer: b

a) front

b) average

c) rear

d) all three

Correct answer: b

036. The conical ligament of the larynx is located:

a) in the lumen of the larynx between the arytenoid cartilages

b) on the anterior surface of the larynx between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages

c) between the thyroid cartilage and the hyoid bone

d) between the arch of the cricoid cartilage and the trachea

Correct answer: b

037. Location of the point of greatest vibration of the vocal folds (area of ​​growth of benign tumors):

c) on the border of the anterior and middle third of the folds

Correct answer: in

a) nerve impulse

b) air stream

c) sound vibrations

d) mechanical vibrations

Correct answer: b

a) cylindrical

b) flickering

c) ciliated

d) flat

Correct answer: g

040. The largest part of the larynx is covered with epithelium:

a) flickering

b) flat

c) cylindrical

d) cubic

Correct answer: a

041. The largest lumen of the larynx is:

a) on average 6 mm.

b) on average 15 mm.

c) on average 20 mm.

d) on average 40 mm.

Correct answer: b

c) between the scooper and epiglottis folds

d) laryngeal ventricles

Correct answer: a

a) nerve impulses from the cerebral cortex

b) vibrations of the air stream in the lumen of the larynx

c) volitional muscle contractions

d) shifting cartilages of the larynx

Correct answer: a

044. The outflow of lymph from the upper and lower floors of the larynx occurs:

a) to the occipital lymph nodes

b) to the preglottic group of lymph nodes

c) into the submandibular nodes

d) into the deep cervical lymph nodes along the internal jugular vein

Correct answer: g

Trachea

001. The length of the trachea in an adult varies on average:

a) from 9 to 11 cm

b) 11 – 13 cm

d) 2 – 4 cm

Correct answer: a

002. Tracheal bifurcation is:

a) the place where the larynx enters the trachea

b) membranous posterior wall of the trachea

c) cartilaginous semi-rings of the trachea

d) the place where the trachea divides into two main bronchi

Correct answer: g

003. Level of trachea:

a) from the I thoracic vertebra to the IV thoracic vertebra

b) from the III cervical vertebra to the VI cervical vertebra

c) from the IV cervical vertebra to the VI cervical vertebra

d) from the lower edge of the VI cervical vertebra to the upper edge of the V thoracic vertebra

Correct answer: g

004. The projection of the tracheal bifurcation onto the anterior wall in adults corresponds to:

a) level II – III ribs

b) level III – IV ribs

c) level IV – V ribs

d) level V – VI ribs

Correct answer: a

005. Number of tracheal rings:

a) constantly

b) inconsistent

c) children have less

d) decreases in older people

Correct answer: b

006. The trachea consists of half rings in the following quantities:

Correct answer: in

007. The anterior wall of the trachea is represented by:

a) muscles

b) ligaments

c) connective tissue

d) cartilaginous half rings

Correct answer: g

008. Posterior wall of the trachea:

a) membranous

b) cartilaginous

c) bone

d) adventitia

Correct answer: a

009. The trachea is bordered posteriorly by:

a) with the esophagus

b) with the larynx

c) with the spine

d) with the carotid arteries

Correct answer: a

010. The semi-rings of the trachea are connected to each other:

a) mucous membrane

b) cartilage tissue

c) fibrous ligaments

d) muscles

Correct answer: in

011. The mucous membrane of the trachea is represented by:

a) flat epithelium

b) ciliated epithelium

c) cuboidal epithelium

d) columnar epithelium

Correct answer: b

012. Inspection of the entire trachea is possible with:

a) indirect laryngoscopy

b) direct laryngoscopy

c) tracheobronchoscopy

d) esophagoscopy

Correct answer: in

013. The safest method of examining the trachea:

a) fibrolaryngotracheobronchoscopy

b) rigid laryngotracheobronchoscopy

c) indirect laryngoscopy

d) direct laryngoscopy

• How does the ear (organ of hearing) work?

How does the ear (organ of hearing) work?

The organ of hearing consists of three sections - the outer, middle and inner ear.

The external ear includes the pinna and the external auditory canal, which continues to the eardrum. These parts of the outer ear belong to the sound-gathering and sound-conducting sections.

The middle ear consists of three sections: the auditory (Eustachian) tube, the tympanic cavity and the cells of the mastoid process of the temporal bone, located in the postauricular region. All cavities of the middle ear are filled with air, and their walls are lined with mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the nasopharynx.

The auditory tube has two openings - one in the nasopharynx (connection with the nasopharyngeal cavity), the other in the tympanic cavity. The auditory tube is designed to perform two functions - ventilation and drainage. The essence of the ventilation function is that through the auditory tube there is a constant exchange of air throughout the entire middle ear system (in the tympanic cavity and the cells of the mastoid process). When swallowing movements, air from the nose and nasopharynx enters the auditory tube, tympanic cavity and mastoid cells. The drainage function ensures the outflow of waste contents (air and secretions) from the middle ear.

The second section of the middle ear is the tympanic cavity, which has the shape of a cube with a volume of 1 cm3 and 6 walls. On the inner-lateral wall, the mouth (hole) of the auditory tube opens, through which it communicates with the nasopharynx. A hole opens on the outer side wall leading to the postauricular region and air cells. The outer wall is the eardrum, the inner wall is the wall behind which the vestibular apparatus and auditory nerve are located. The upper wall borders the cranial cavity, and the lower wall borders large vessels. In the tympanic cavity itself there is a chain of auditory ossicles (hammer, incus and stapes), which transmits sound to the inner ear and the auditory nerve.

The third, most deeply located section is the cells of the mastoid process, filled with air, which constantly enters through the auditory tube and the tympanic cavity. Among the numerous cells, there is one large one - the antrum, which most often suffers during the inflammatory process, especially in young children.

All parts of the middle ear communicate with each other, as well as with the cavities of the nose, nasopharynx and pharynx. The condition of the latter has a direct impact on the functions of the middle ear, in particular on hearing. As noted, in the auditory tube and tympanic cavity the mucous membrane is similar in structure to the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity and nasopharynx, being its continuation. Therefore, the inflammatory process that occurs in the nose and nasopharynx easily spreads to the tube and tympanic cavity. This is the main cause of frequent ear diseases.

The inner ear plays an important role functionally. The components of the inner ear are the cochlea and three semicircular canals. Inside the cochlea there is a complex structure, the nerve endings of which receive sound waves and transmit them along the auditory nerve, which is located in the internal auditory canal, to the auditory centers of the brain. The semicircular canals belong to the vestibular apparatus and allow one to determine the position of the body in space.

L. Kovaleva

“How the ear (organ of hearing) works” - article from the section

The ear is a complex organ that performs two functions: listening, through which we perceive sounds and interpret them, thus communicating with the environment; and maintaining body balance.

Auricle- captures and directs sound waves into the internal auditory canal;

Back labyrinth, or semicircular canals - directs movements to the head and brain to regulate the balance of the body;

Front labyrinth, or cochlea - contains sensory cells that, capturing vibrations of sound waves, transform mechanical impulses into nerve impulses;

Auditory nerve- directs general nerve impulses to the brain;

Middle ear bones: hammer, incus, stirrup - receive vibrations from auditory waves, amplify them and transmit them to the inner ear;

External auditory canal- captures sound waves coming from outside and directs them to the middle ear;

Eardrum- a membrane that vibrates when sound waves hit it and transmits vibrations along the chain of bones in the middle ear;

Eustachian tube- a canal that connects the eardrum to the pharynx and allows for support
in balance the pressure created in the middle ear with the pressure of the environment.

The ear is divided into three sections, the functions of which are different.

;the outer ear consists of the pinna and the external auditory canal, its purpose is to capture sounds;
; the middle ear is located in the temporal bone, separated from the inner ear by a movable membrane - the eardrum - and contains three articular bones: the malleus, the incus and the stapes, which take part in the transmission of sounds to the cochlea;
;the inner ear, also called the labyrinth, is formed of two sections that perform different functions: the anterior labyrinth, or cochlea, where the organ of Corti is located, responsible for hearing, and the posterior labyrinth, or semicircular canals, in which impulses are generated that take part in maintaining balance body (article "Balance and Hearing")

The inner ear, or labyrinth, consists of a very strong bony skeleton, the ear capsule, or bony labyrinth, within which is a membranous mechanism with a structure similar to that of bone, but consisting of membranous tissue. The inner ear is hollow, but filled with fluid: between the bony labyrinth and the membrane there is perilymph, while the labyrinth itself is filled with endolymph. The anterior labyrinth, a bony form called the cochlea, contains structures that generate auditory impulses. The posterior labyrinth, which takes part in regulating the balance of the body, has a bony skeleton consisting of a cubic part, a vestibule and three arc-shaped canals - semicircular, each of which includes a space with a flat plane.

The cochlea, so named because of its spiral shape, contains a membrane consisting of fluid-filled channels: a central canal of triangular cross-section and a helix containing endolymph, which is located between the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani. These two scalae are partially separated, they pass into the large canals of the cochlea, covered with thin membranes that separate the inner ear from the middle ear: the scala tympani begins with the oval window, while the scala vestibule reaches the rounded window. The cochlea, which has a triangular shape, consists of three faces: the upper, which is separated from the scala vestibule by the Reissner membrane, the lower, separated from the scala tympani by the main membrane, and the lateral, which is attached to the shell and is a vascular groove that produces endolymph. Inside the cochlea there is a special auditory organ - the Corti organ (the mechanism of sound perception is described in detail in the article "

Like many other organs, they are characterized by a very complex structure and functions. In particular, the middle ear, as one of the components of the hearing organ, is a very important link in the auditory process, since it is responsible for the sound-conducting function.

As already mentioned, human ear– this is a complex hearing aid, which consists of 3 sections:

Each of the above departments performs a specific job and has its own special characteristics.

Anatomical structure of the hearing organ

To say that some part of the ear is the main one, and the rest are secondary, is completely wrong. After all, if one of the components of the organ is damaged, a person may experience hearing impairment, or even loss of it altogether.

Interesting. When a person needs to hear something, he “puts” his right ear closer, and for good reason. Scientists have proven that the hearing acuity of the right ear is slightly higher than the left.

Middle ear- an element of the auditory system of the human body. It looks like a very small space, which is located between the other two parts of the hearing analyzer: external and internal. It consists of 3 cavities connected to each other.

So, having briefly familiarized ourselves with the structure of the ear and determined what its middle section is, we will next consider what is located in the middle part of the ear.

Structure of the middle ear

In terms of structural complexity, the middle section is second only to the inner part of the ear. The middle ear includes the following components:

1. Tympanic cavity.
2. System of cavities of the mastoid process.

Detailed anatomical structure of the middle part of the hearing organ

Tympanic cavity- an important element of this department. It contains the auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, stirrup. Their names come from the uniqueness of their structure and functioning. The system of mutual operation of these bones is similar to the mechanism of levers.

All 3 auditory ossicles are connected to each other. The tiny handle of the hammer is located in the center of the eardrum, and its head is connected to the incus. It, in turn, connects to the stirrup. The latter is connected to the inner ear through the oval window.

Reference. This arrangement of the bones determines not only the transmission, but also the amplification of sound. It is approximately amplified 60-70 times.

The surface of the stapes is much smaller than the eardrum, which means its impact on the oval window is many times stronger. Thanks to this, a person can hear very quiet sounds.

Mastoid cavity system located in the temporal bone and filled with air. The largest cavity is the mastoid cave, which is connected to the tympanic cavity using a special channel. All cells are interconnected by narrow passages, which improves the sound characteristics of the sound-conducting section.

Location of the mastoid air cavity system

Eustachian tube- an important component of the middle part. It acts as a link between the tympanic cavity and the nasopharynx. The opening of the Eustachian tube is located on the lateral wall of the pharynx flush with the hard palate. Inside, it is lined with ciliated epithelium, which protects the middle ear from pathogenic agents entering it.

The anatomy of this department provides for the presence of muscle fibers. In this situation, there are only two of them - the stapedius muscle and the muscle that strains the eardrum. They are responsible for the function of maintaining the auditory ossicles in weight and regulating them.

Reference. The ear muscles are the smallest muscles in the human body.

Where is the middle ear located?

The location of the temporal bone in the skull, which contains the middle ear

The middle part of the ear is located in the thickness of the temporal bone. It is a paired bone, characterized by complex anatomy, since it is responsible for all 3 functions of the skeleton. Thus, it creates part of the side wall and base of the skull, and also houses the organ of hearing and balance.

As for location in the auditory analyzer system, then this part of the organ begins immediately behind the eardrum, to which the ear canal leads. It acts as a partition between the outer and middle sections.

And the inner ear is separated by a bone wall, in which there are 2 windows: oval and round, protected by a special membrane.

What fills the middle ear cavity?

The Eustachian tube equalizes the pressure in the middle ear, otherwise we constantly felt fullness in our ears

Most interested people ask the question: “What fills the cavity of the human middle ear?” It would seem to be a very simple question, the answer to which comes by itself if you just think logically.

But no, for some reason this issue gives rise to a lot of controversy on the forums. This is because some people hotly dispute that the middle ear is filled with some kind of fluid. We won’t even list the names here, because there are a huge number of options. And all of them are unfaithful!

So, what is the middle ear filled with? By air! The middle section of the ear cavity is a kind of air chamber.

As mentioned earlier, the middle ear is connected to the nasopharynx through the Eustachian tube. However, it not only connects these two cavities, but also with its help the pressure in the middle ear is equalized with atmospheric pressure.

If there were no such device and air communication, we would constantly feel a feeling of congestion in our ears.

Functions of the middle ear

The most important responsibility assigned to this part of the hearing organ is the conduction of sound waves. Thus, they make the eardrum vibrate, which in turn transmits vibrations to the auditory ossicles. Next, sound vibrations are transmitted to the inner part of the ear, where they are converted into an impulse and sent to the brain.

The main function of the middle ear is sound conduction

The anatomical structure of this part of the ear cavity ensures that it performs the following functions:

• ensuring the tone of the components of the middle section;
• protection from loud sounds;
• adaptation of the organ to a variety of sounds.

Important. However, such protection is powerless in case of sudden deafening sounds. For example, an explosion can damage the acoustic apparatus because muscle contractions in the middle ear are slightly delayed. It takes about 10 ms for them to respond.

Also, the middle ear is a “protector”, since it protects the vulnerable inner part of the ear from such phenomena:

1. Dust and moisture.
2. Mechanical influences.
3. Penetration of pathogenic organisms.
4. Jumps in atmospheric pressure indicators.

Based on the structure and function of the middle ear, it is possible to say that without it a person would not be familiar with the auditory function. Each of its components has its own specific role, which allows for the normal functioning of the hearing organ as a whole.

However, it is worth remembering that the normal functioning of this organ also depends on careful treatment and timely treatment if certain pathologies occur. Such actions are an opportunity to preserve hearing acuity until old age.