Cough

Adipocytes. Pigmentocytes

Basophils (BASO) are a small group of representatives. These small (smaller in size than neutrophils) cells, after formation, immediately go to the periphery (into the tissue), without creating a reserve in the bone marrow. Basophils do not live long, up to a week. They weakly phagocytose, but this is not their task. Basophils are carriers of receptors for immunoglobulin E, producers of histamine and other stimulating substances, and take part in the coagulation process (produce the anticoagulant heparin).

The tissue form of basophils is mastocytes, which are more commonly called mast cells. There are many basophils in the skin, serous membranes, and also in the connective tissue surrounding capillary vessels. These leukocytes still have many useful properties, although they themselves basophils in the blood - nothing at all - 0-1%, but if the body needs them, their number will increase.

There are no reduced values

The norm of basophils in peripheral blood in adults is 0-1%, but this does not mean that they may not be present in the body at all; for example, an allergic reaction will instantly activate them and their number will increase. There is no such thing as “basophilopenia” in medical practice.

Despite the fact that the leukocyte formula in children tends to change with age, experiencing two crossovers, all these changes do not affect basophils - they remain at the same normal value - on average 0,5% (0-1%) , and in a newborn child they cannot always be found in a smear. In general, the ratio of white cells in the formula (in percentage) in infants can vary noticeably even during the day (crying, restlessness, introduction of complementary foods, changes in temperature, illness), therefore, to obtain a more accurate result, the results are assessed in absolute values.

The absolute content of basophils will normally be in the range: from 0 to 0.09 X 10 9 / l (0.09 Giga / liter).

The reasons for increased basophil values can be various conditions, ranging from an immediate reaction to the administration of a drug and ending with a long-term inflammatory process. In short, the levels of these cells are increased in the case of:

Acute hypersensitivity reactions;
Certain hematological diseases (hemolytic, chronic myeloid)
After the introduction of preventive vaccines;
Viral infections (chickenpox, influenza);
Rheumatoid arthritis;
Tuberculosis process;
Iron deficiency anemia;
Nonspecific ulcerative colitis;
Malignant neoplasms from epithelial tissue.

Thus, a general blood test with an increased number of basophilic granulocytes primarily indicates the penetration of a foreign antigen, which, according to its characteristics, absolutely does not fit into the antigenic composition of a given organism, which is why the latter tries to reject the enemy as quickly as possible. Sometimes the answer can be very stormy and rapid ( anaphylactic shock), then the patient requires the same rapid medical care (administration of adrenaline, hormones), otherwise a sad outcome will quickly occur.

Important functions of a small group

A large number of stimulating substances, receptors for immunoglobulin E (IgE), cytokines, and complement are concentrated on the surface of basophils. They carry out immediate type reactions (granulocyte-dependent type), where these cells play a major role. We can see the participation of basophils in the development of anaphylactic shock. Seconds - and a person needs emergency help.

Basophils produce histamine, serotonin, heparin, proteolytic enzymes, peroxidase, prostaglandins and other biologically active substances (BAS), which for the time being are stored in their granules (that’s what they are needed for). The ingress of a foreign antigen causes basophils to quickly migrate to the site of the “accident” and release biologically active substances from their granules, and thereby help restore order to problem areas (dilation of capillaries, healing of wound surfaces, etc.).

As noted, basophils are involved in the production of a natural anticoagulant - heparin, which prevents blood clotting where it is not necessary, for example, with anaphylaxis, when there is a real danger of developing thrombohemorrhagic syndrome.

Protector or enemy?

Embodying the functional abilities of tissue mast cells, basophils on their surfaces concentrate binding sites with high affinity for IgE (they are called high-affinity receptors - FcεR), which ideally meet the needs of immunoglobulins of this class (E). These areas, that is, FcεR receptors, unlike other Fc structures, have the ability to bind antibodies that move freely in the bloodstream, which is why they are classified as high-affinity. Since basophils are naturally endowed with the advantage of having such receptors, then free-floating antibodies quickly “feel” them, “sit” on them and firmly “stick” (bind). By the way, eosinophils also have the same receptors, so they always accumulate in areas of immediate-type hypersensitivity reactions, where, together with basophils, they perform effector function(effector cells of IgE-mediated allergic reactions).

Schematically, this entire interaction between antibodies and receptors of basophilic granulocytes can be represented as follows:

Antibodies, moving along the bloodstream, search for suitable receptors that are located on the membranes of basophilic leukocytes. Having found the desired object, antibodies attach to it, thereby gaining the opportunity to attract antigens similar to their specificity.
Antigens, having penetrated the body, reach the waiting antibodies associated with basophilic granulocytes.
When interacting with antibodies, specific antigens “crosslink” with them, resulting in the formation of IgE aggregates.
The receptors signal basophils and mast cells to initiate a local inflammatory response. This causes them to become active and begin to secrete the contents of the granules, that is, biogenic amines and other mediators of immediate hypersensitivity.
In an instant, histamine with serotonin and heparin are released from the basophil granules (degranulation), causing local dilation of the microvasculature at the site of inflammation. The permeability of the capillary walls increases, the blood flow in this area increases, fluid accumulates in the surrounding tissues, and granulocytes circulating there rush from the bloodstream to the site of the “catastrophe”. During degranulation, the basophils themselves do not suffer, their viability remains preserved, everything is simply arranged in such a way that the granules are directed to the periphery of the cell and exit through the membrane pores.

Such a rapid reaction can become a protector of the body or serve as a factor that attracts other participants in the immune response to the infectious focus:

, possessing all the properties of phagocytic cells;
, capturing and processing foreign substances;
, destroying antigens or giving commands to produce antibodies;
The antibodies themselves.

But still, first of all, such events (immediate reactions) form the basis for the development of anaphylaxis, and then they are perceived in a different capacity.

Histamine and serotonin are not characterized by a long-lasting effect, because these substances cannot exist for a long time. Meanwhile, the local inflammatory focus does not disappear with the cessation of the action of serotonin and histamine; the fight against infection is supported by other components of the reaction (cytokines, vasoactive metabolites - leukotrienes and other substances produced at the site of inflammation).

Clinical manifestations of anaphylaxis and emergency case – shock

Clinically, an allergic (anaphylactic) reaction can manifest itself:

Anaphylactic shock, which is one of the most severe manifestations of allergies (loss of consciousness, drop in blood pressure) and requires immediate medical attention;
An attack of suffocation in asthmatic patients;
Continuous sneezing and swelling of the nasal mucosa (rhinitis);
The appearance of a rash ().

Obviously, the body's fastest response to the arrival of a foreign antigen is anaphylactic shock. The onset time is seconds. Many people have witnessed or experienced cases where an insect bite (usually a bee) or the administration of medications (usually novocaine in a dental office) caused a sharp drop in pressure, which created a threat to life. This is anaphylactic shock, which a person who has experienced such horror should remember for the rest of his life, because the second case will develop even more rapidly. However, each subsequent response is more severe than the previous one - after all, the antibodies are already there. And it’s good if there is an anti-shock first aid kit with adrenaline and glucocorticoids nearby...

In the cytoplasm of the cells there are granules with histamine and heparin, the shape of the cells is varied, they are capable of amoeboid movements, the organelles are poorly developed, there are many enzymes in the cytoplasm: lipase, phosphatase, peroxidase. These cells are found wherever there are layers of loose fibrous connective tissue. They are regulators of local homeostasis, take part in reducing blood coagulation, in the process of inflammation and immunogenesis.

Macrophages (macrophagocytes)- from Greek. makros - large, fagos - devouring - actively phagocytic cells, there are many of them in areas richly supplied with blood vessels, with inflammation their number increases. The shape of macrophages is different: flattened, round, elongated, irregular. They have a small, intensely colored round nucleus, the cytoplasm is heterogeneous, with granules. Macrophages synthesize biologically active substances and enzymes into the intercellular substance, i.e. provides a protective function. The concept - macrophage system - was introduced by the Russian scientist Mechnikov. The macrophage system is a powerful protective apparatus that takes part in the body's defense reactions. This system is a collection of cells that have the ability to phagocytose bacteria and foreign particles from tissue fluid. Phagocytosed material undergoes enzymatic degradation. These are cells such as macrophages of loose fibrous connective tissue, stellate cells of sinusoidal vessels of the liver, macrophages of the hematopoietic organs and lung, osteoclasts, glial macrophages of nervous tissue. All of them are capable of active phagocytosis and originate from bone marrow promonocytes and blood monocytes. Monocytes migrate from the bloodstream to tissues, where they transform into free macrophages and take part in phagocytosis, inflammatory and immune reactions of the body.

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INFLUENCE OF TISSUE PREPARATIONS ON PHYSIOLOGICAL AND IMMUNOLOGICAL INDICATORS IN YOUNG PIGS UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OF FEEDING AND MAINTENANCE ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

VILNIUS STATE UNIVERSITY

The purpose of our work was to study the effect of tissue preparations (liquid and dry) on immunological reactivity, some metabolic parameters, as well as on the growth of young pigs under conditions of different feeding, housing and health conditions.

The activity of the dry tissue preparation according to yeast dough is 1.6-1.7.<...>preparation; III - liquid tissue preparation.<...>preparation; Sh - g i d k i d tissue preparation.<...>preparation; Ш - liquid tissue preparation.<...>Agar-tissue preparation prepared according to the method of V.P.

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No. 2 [International Veterinary Bulletin, 2010]

The journal publishes articles on veterinary medicine, animal science, chemistry, biology, biological chemistry, and physiology.

P. 25 ♦Species and age morpho-functional characteristics of tissue basophils in the organs of the reproductive system<...>Filippova) Key words: tissue basophils (TB), testes, epididymis, ovaries, gonadectomy UDC: 636<...>However, it is noteworthy that in case of infertility, 2 types of tissue basophils were found in the testicle of men, differing<...>The edematizing effect of estrogens on the uterine stroma is carried out through the participation of tissue basophils<...>Tissue basophils and basophilic granulocytes of blood / V.A. Protsenko, S.I. Shpak, S.M. Dotsenko.

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Experiments on white outbred male rats with transplanted sarcoma-45 showed a pronounced antitumor effect of thymalin in doses lower than therapeutic ones. Stopping tumor growth and regression was observed in more than half of the animals, inhibition of its growth by 78% in the remaining cases. Microstructural changes in the thymus were studied. There was a significant increase in lymphoproliferative activity, as well as an increase in the number of tissue basophils and plasma cells in the thymus lobules. With tumor regression, the development of persistent anti-stress adaptive reactions of calm and increased activation was noted. The high effectiveness of thymalin is associated with the use of a reduced dose of the drug and a targeted change in its value during the course of exposure in accordance with activation therapy regimens

A significant increase in lymphoproliferative activity was noted, as well as an increase in the number of tissue<...>from normal values of the relative number of band neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils<...>basophils and plasma cells in the thymus lobules (Fig. 2c; table).<...>An increase in the number of degranulating tissue basophils, which are known to be regulators of tissue<...>basophils 3.7±0.5 4.0±0.4 3.5±0.7 5.6±0.4*+ox 4.0±0.3 Note.

In experiments on white outbred mature rats with transplanted sarcoma 45, it was revealed that intravenous administration of homeopathic doses of cerebrospinal fluid of patients operated on and treated for malignant brain tumors, without subsequent relapses, can have a pronounced antitumor effect. Using cytological, histological and histochemical methods, the anti-stress nature of the effect of heterocerebrospinal fluid therapy on the body of experimental animals was established.

regressed tumor with connective tissue with abundant infiltration of lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages and tissue<...>basophils.<...>The content of tissue basophils in the interlobular connective tissue was also high, most of which<...>Contacts of degranulated tissue basophils with thymocytes were often observed (Fig. 4b).<...>Brachet. 10×16; b – increase in the number of degranulated tissue basophils in close contact

The article presents data from our own studies of humoral immunity factors (immunoglobulins) in blood serum in 34 patients with chronic polypous rhinosinusitis (CPRS), who were treated at the Republican Scientific and Practical Center of Otorhinolaryngology in 2012. An enzyme immunoassay of blood serum revealed an increase in the level of immunoglobulins of classes G, M, E and secretory IgA in the majority of those examined. The data obtained indicate that after careful study it is possible to use indicators of humoral immunity in the blood serum of patients with chronic polyposis rhinosinusitis as diagnostic and prognostic criteria for the occurrence, course and recurrence of the polyposis process

They attach to specific receptors on the surface of mast cells and basophils, and if<...>line of defense", which is carried out, as a rule, by IgA, is bound by specific IgE on the surface of tissue<...>basophils.<...>The result of this interaction is the next stage of protection - release from tissue basophils<...>membranes in contact with the environment, bind foreign agents with specific IgE on the surface of tissue

Immunology of reproduction monograph

RIC SSAA

The monograph contains information about the role of immune factors and immunological mechanisms in the process of sexual reproduction in mammals. It is written on the basis of domestic and foreign scientific materials, as well as the authors’ own research published in recent years. The work focuses on the close relationship revealed (mainly in recent years) between the biological restructuring of the body and the immunological status at all stages of the reproductive period: during fertilization, during pregnancy, in newborns and in subsequent periods of ontogenesis. An analysis of new works in immunology has been carried out, which have appeared in the 21st century, significantly complementing, and in some directions changing our ideas about the role of factors of innate and acquired immunity in different periods of individual development in higher animals and humans.

The phenotype of tissue basophils can vary depending on the topography.<...>Distribution of two histochemical types of tissue basophils near the mesothelium / Zh.K.<...>Possible reasons for the heterogeneity of the histochemical properties of tissue basophils / Zh.K.<...>Analysis of the results of a thirty-year study of tissue basophils in normal and pathological conditions./Zh.K.<...>Tissue basophils and basophilic granulocytes of blood/V.A. Protsenko, S.I. Shpak, S.I.

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The significance of fundamental research in neurohistology carried out by a team of scientists led by P.A. is discussed. Motavkina, for forensic medical practice. The patterns identified in the study of vasomotor innervation are used to solve such significant problems of forensic medical examination as establishing the type of material evidence, their biological origin, establishing the age of death, lifetime and duration of spinal injury, establishing the age interval for personal identification.

Motavkin to identify chronological patterns of changes in the tissue structures of the spinal cord on the action<...> <...>The concentration of tissue basophils progressively increases from the 8th week of prenatal ontogenesis to 2–3<...> <...>

Target. To evaluate the effectiveness of long-term vitamin supplementation based on blood composition indicators in schoolchildren in Siberia and the Far North. Patients and methods. Schoolchildren from Krasnoyarsk and Norilsk (151 people) aged 10–11 years were under observation. The main group in each city included children who took a multivitamin complex, 1 tablet once a day, for 7 months. The comparison group consisted of children who did not take multivitamins. The composition of cellular elements of peripheral blood (leukocyte formula) and indicators of physical performance were determined. Results. The study showed that the blood composition of children of primary school age adequately reflects the different time stages of seven-month vitamin supplementation in Siberia and the Far North and can serve as a criterion for its effectiveness. In Krasnoyarsk, children after 6 months of vitamin supplementation showed a 9-fold increase in the level of leukocyte intoxication index (p

It is known that between peripheral blood basophils and tissue basophils (mast cells) there is<...>Activation of tissue basophils is usually accompanied by the release of biologically active components,<...>Norilsk, the content of basophils was 4.3 times higher (p basophils in the peripheral blood of children in Norilsk).<...>Norilsk and increased serotonin levels likely cause activation of tissue basophils, which may

General pathological anatomy. A short course of lectures, a textbook for students studying in the specialty "Veterinary Medicine" full-time and part-time forms of study

FSBEI HPE Izhevsk State Agricultural Academy

The manual presents materials on general pathological processes that can be used by students for self-study in the discipline “Pathological Anatomy and SVE”, when working in the classroom and in preparing for exams.

Pathology of tissue growth.<...>basophils, single neutrophils and eosinophils, histiocytes.<...>Eosinophils are attracted by chemotaxins and factors that are released by tissue basophils and, in turn,<...>Eosinophils develop from precursors in the bone marrow along with tissue basophils and basophils<...>Tissue basophils and blood basophils have high-affinity Fc receptors for IgE.

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Histology lecture text

The text of the lectures outlines the basics of histology for biologists. The sections “Epithelial tissues” and “Tissues of the internal environment” are included, as well as small sections of comparative histology, which reflect generalized material on the organization and functional significance of tissues and their constituent elements in representatives of various types of multicellular animals. This material is presented taking into account the principle of historical evolutionism, the theory of parallelism of tissue structures. A histology course with the basics of comparative histology at the biological faculties of universities introduces students to the general patterns of organization and changes in the evolution of tissues of all multicellular animals; in terms of the depth of analysis of tissue structures, histology is increasingly closely related to structural biochemistry and a whole complex of sciences united in the synthetic science of cell biology. The text of the lectures is intended for students studying in the specialties 020201 Biology, 020801 Ecology and the direction of training 020800 Ecology and environmental management (discipline “Histology”, blocks of Ethnic Sciences and OPD), full-time and part-time forms of study.

Under the influence of stress factors, basophils degranulate.<...>to the Fc fragment of antibodies of class E (mast cells to basophils) and class G4 (basophils).<...>tissue system.<...>These are histiocytes-macrophages, antigen-presenting cells, tissue basophils (mast cells), plasma cells<...>Tissue basophils (mast cells, mast cells, heparinocytes) develop from hematopoietic stem cells

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A brief history of the study of the autonomic nervous system and the results of many years of research by P.A. are given. Motavkin and his students, who made it possible to identify the cerebral and intramedullary sections of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), to include paravasal nerves and ganglion nerve cells that form functional connections with blood vessels and the ependymal membrane of the spinal cord. It has been proven that the intracerebral division of the ANS innervates intraorgan blood vessels, paravasal connective tissue, glial membranes and the ependymal membrane. The intramedullary department forms a single whole with the nervous apparatus of the main cerebral vessels, which allows us to consider them as departments that have a common organization. The concept developed by the authors of the article is analyzed, according to which the mediators of the sympathetic department of the ANS norepinephrine and adrenaline, which have antioxidant and antiradical properties, protect blood vessels from damage caused by disturbances in the cycles of nitric oxide and superoxide anion radical and the formation of highly toxic and reactive nitrogen dioxide.

rat basophils.<...>Inhibition of enzyme function by eserine or proserine is accompanied by a reaction of tissue basophils and melanocytes<...>In ontogeny, the same order exists, i.e. the appearance of biogenic monoamines in chromaffinocytes and tissue<...> <...>Age-related features of biological rhythms of tissue basophils of the dura mater of the rat brain

Technique of microscopy of organs and tissues: guidelines for practical work

RIC SSAA

Precursors of tissue basophils originate from hematopoietic stem cells of the red bone marrow<...>The number of tissue basophils changes depending on the physiological conditions of the body: it increases<...>Know the cellular and tissue composition of villi and crypts.<...>The structure and functions of erythrocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes and lymphocytes. 5.<...>There are lymphocytes and plasma cells, tissue basophils.

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M.: PROMEDIA

The author notes that the immune phenomenon of allergy underlies the currently extremely common allergic diseases, the pathogenesis of which is determined by the involvement of various types of allergic reactions. Referring to numerous and varied studies conducted in the field of allergopathology, the author states the isotypic diversity of reagin immunoglobulins as allergic skin-sensitizing antibodies, which significantly expands the view of the pathogenesis of various allergies and can help improve the quality of their diagnosis.

Novitsky noted (1980) that allergic antibodies specifically act on mast cells, tissue<...>Ponyakin noted (2003) that the inducers of degranulation of basophils and mast cells are antigens or<...>The IgD-antigen complex subsequently triggers antimicrobial and proinflammatory processes in basophils.<...>B lymphocytes can produce IgD to activate basophils against infectious antigens that enter<...>“Tissue basophils and basophilic granulocytes of blood” Moscow “Medicine” 1987 p.108. 19. Sakharchuk I.I.

The article describes the micromorphology and histochemistry of the cells of the mucous membrane of the caudal part of the infundibulum, the albumen and shell sections of the oviduct of chickens during the period of oviposition and analyzes their participation in egg formation. All cells of the mucous membrane of the oviduct can be divided into three groups: 1. cells of the integumentary epithelium; 2. epithelial cells of the glands of the lamina propria; 3. connective tissue cells. The integumentary epithelium of the folds of the oviduct funnel is represented by two types of cells - ciliated and goblet. The epithelial cells of the tubular glands of the caudal part of the infundibulum are cubic or columnar in shape. The integumentary epithelium of the protein section includes three types of cells – ciliated, goblet and protein-secreting. In the protein section of the oviduct, three generations of glands were found, the epithelial cells of which differ from each other morphometrically. The integumentary epithelium of the putamen is single-layered, double-rowed, columnar, ciliated, and is represented by ciliated and goblet cells. The epithelial cells of the tubular glands of the putamen are columnar. In the loose connective tissue of the mucous membrane of the oviduct there are fibroblasts, histiocytes, tissue basophils, plasma cells, lymphocytes, and in the shell section - eosinophilic macrophages.

In the loose connective tissue of the mucous membrane of the oviduct there are fibroblasts, histiocytes, tissue<...>basophils, plasma cells, lymphocytes, and in the putamen - eosinophilic macrophages.<...>Based on the degree of cytoplasmic basophilia, glandular epithelial cells can be divided into two zones.<...>element of connective tissue are typical fibroblasts, and in addition to them there are individual macrophages, tissue<...>basophils and accumulations of plasma cells.

Cell physiology and pathology

Publishing and Printing Center of Voronezh State University

The textbook was prepared at the Department of Human and Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Soil Sciences, Voronezh State University.

Basophils. Basophils are found not only in the blood, but also in the vascular wall.<...>When tissue basophils leave granules, histamine expands and increases vascular permeability; reduces<...>In the tissue microenvironment, the monocyte differentiates into a macrophage.<...>What is the sequence of vascular-tissue reactions during inflammation?<...>; 2) basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils; 3) eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils; 4) neutrophils, basophils,

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FEATURES OF THE MORPHOFUNCTIONAL STATE OF THE THYMUS OF MICE WHEN INTRODUCING NANOPARTICLES OF VARIOUS METALS [Electronic resource] / Zlatnik, Peredreeva, Evstratova // News of higher educational institutions. North Caucasus region. Natural Sciences.- 2011.- No. 1.- P. 123-126.- Access mode: https://site/efd/426384

We studied the effect of intraperitoneal administration of metal nanoparticles (NPs) (Cu, Zn, Fe) on the morphofunctional state of the mouse thymus. It has been shown that under the influence of Zn NPs there are morphological signs of thymus activity, and under the influence of Fe NPs there are signs of its depletion and an increase in the number of dystrophically altered thymocytes. The effect of Cu NPs on the state of the thymus is insignificant.

A decrease in the distribution density of thymocytes, as well as a decrease in the number of epithelioreticulocytes and tissue<...>basophils (mast cells).<...>In this case, a significant role is played by mast cells (tissue basophils), the granules of which contain various

Physiology of blood

This textbook is educational material on blood physiology. For a veterinarian, laboratory blood tests are very important.

Basophils.<...>, contains mast cells, otherwise called “tissue basophils”.<...>The function of basophils is due to the presence of a number of biologically active substances in them.<...>Depending on the source, thromboplastin can be blood or tissue.<...>Tissue thromboplastin is much more active than blood thromboplastin.

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Data are presented on the nature of the morphohistological picture of skin biopsy samples from patients with dermal vasculitis. An expansion of the diameter of the dermal vessels, an increase in their number, and an increase in the level of perivascular lymphocytic infiltration of the dermis were noted, which, in comparison with the indicators of the control group (skin biopsies of healthy volunteers), indicates neoangiogenesis and pathological expansion of the capillaries of the dermis. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 in skin biopsies of patients with dermal vasculitis was detected in elevated concentrations with a homogeneous distribution, which may be due to the regulatory role of matrix metalloproteinases in the processes of extracellular matrix remodeling and neoangiogenesis.

Clusters of histiocytes with the presence of tissue basophils and fibroblasts were also observed in the dermis.<...>Clusters of histiocytes with the presence of tissue basophils and fibroblasts were also observed in the dermis.

Morphological characteristics of the structures of the iridocorneal angle of rats at different periods of action and in the early stages after withdrawal of experimental opioid influence [Electronic resource] / Yakimiv // Ophthalmology. Eastern Europe.- 2014.- No. 2.- P. 89-97.- Access mode: https://site/efd/500546

The work is devoted to the study of changes in the morphology of the iridocorneal angle of rats that arose as a result of exposure to an opioid analgesic (nalbuphine) over different time intervals. The experiment was carried out on 48 male Wistar rats. It has been proven that the greatest degree of severity of morphological changes is characteristic of the microvasculature of the studied area and depends on the timing of administration of the opioid analgesic. The results of the analysis of the structure of the study area during the action of opioids and a week after their cessation allowed us to conclude that at all periods of the study after the cessation of opioid administration, dystrophic and destructive changes were less pronounced than immediately after exposure to the opioid. However, a week after stopping the action of the opioid, there was no complete restoration of the structures of the iridocorneal angle

venules and predetermines inertial edema and perivascular hemorrhages, as well as an increased number of tissue<...>basophils and leukocytes in the perivascular spaces (Fig. 3).<...>which was indicated by pronounced swelling of the inertia, perivascular hemorrhages, as well as an increase in the number of tissue<...>basophils and leukocytes in the perivascular spaces.

Research in recent decades has revealed the important role of ground mites of the pyroglyphid family in the development of respiratory pathology, in particular allergic rhinitis (Zheltikova T.M. et al., 1990). It is of interest to evaluate the severity of the prick tests for the allergens of the pyroglyphide mites Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (Dpt) and Dermatophagoides farina (Df) and to compare the intensity of these skin reactions to mite allergens in individuals with symptoms of allergic rhinitis

As is known, the most important factor involving mast cells and basophils in the hypersensitivity reaction<...>“Tissue basophils and basophilic granulocytes of blood” Moscow “Medicine” 1987, 108. 3.

Mast cells form a heterogeneous multifunctional cell population that ensures local homeostasis of connective tissue by slowly releasing biologically active substances that primarily affect vascular permeability and tone, maintaining water-salt balance and the composition of the intercellular substance. Along with this, they are able to quickly release inflammatory mediators and chemotactic factors that ensure the mobilization of effector cells of the innate immune system to combat various pathogens. In addition, they are initiators of allergic reactions. Aggregation of high-affinity FcεRI receptors that bind IgE triggers a signaling cascade leading to rapid degranulation and release of inflammatory mediators. It is known that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in intracellular signaling, in particular, they stimulate the production of a number of proinflammatory cytokines, regulating innate immune responses. This review examines in detail the known molecular mechanisms of the FcεRI-dependent mast cell activation pathway, and also discusses the role of ROS in the regulation of this pathway.

Mast cells (MC) (tissue basophils, mast cells, mast cells) are a multifunctional cell population<...>Morphologically and functionally, MCs are similar to basophils, but unlike basophils, they belong to cells<...>Schematic diagram of the development, migration and localization of MCs and basophils.<...>Basophils, through the basophil precursor (pBf), differentiate from pTC/pBf and enter the blood in adulthood.<...>Synthesis of cartilage tissue, anti-inflammatory effect, migration of leukocytes, attraction and tissue infiltration

Currently, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and coronary heart disease (CHD) are often combined in one patient. Systemic inflammation, which develops during long-term chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, is also a pathogenetic mechanism for the development of coronary artery disease. A high concentration of systemic inflammation markers is associated with worsening atherosclerosis, the development of its complications and the progression of coronary artery disease.

atherosclerotic damage is facilitated by the infiltration of the plaque by inflammatory cells (macrophages, T-lymphocytes, tissue<...>basophils, etc.).<...>IL-10, which is produced by activated lymphocytes, macrophages and tissue basophils, is

Laboratory classes in histology. At 2 p.m. Part 1 tutorial. allowance

Buryat State University

Each topic of the manual contains modern theoretical information, sets out goals, objectives, the required initial level of knowledge, methods for studying histological structures under a light microscope, test questions, tasks, and a list of references.

Tissue basophils (mast cells, mast cells) are true cells of loose fibrous connective tissue<...>This is achieved through synthesis by tissue basophils and subsequent release into the intercellular environment<...>The ultrastructural organization of tissue basophils is characterized by the presence of two types of granules in the cytoplasm<...>When tissue basophils are excited, biologically active substances are released from them in two ways:<...>Mast cells (tissue basophils) in loose fibrous connective tissue.

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No. 1 [Russian Bulletin of Perinatology and Pediatrics, 2011]

The former name "Issues of Motherhood and Childhood Protection" is one of the oldest scientific and practical journals (published since 1956). The journal reflects modern trends in the diagnosis and treatment of childhood diseases in various fields of medicine: neonatology and perinatology; cardiovascular system; gastroenterology; nephrology and urology; pulmonology and allergology; psychoneurology, etc. The publication contains discussion and lecture articles, literature reviews and abstracts of articles published in foreign journals. Traditionally, the magazine introduces readers to the materials of scientific congresses, congresses and other medical forums related to issues of perinatology and pediatrics.

basophils.<...> <...> <...> <...>

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Cytology and histology textbooks. allowance

The textbook provides data on the microscopic and submicroscopic structure of cells, tissues and organs in their normal, intact state, and contains descriptions of preparations that should be considered by students in practical classes. The manual is equipped with a large number of drawings, diagrams and microphotographs, including electronic ones, taking into account modern cytological data.

Any animal organ is a complex tissue system.<...>Mast cells (tissue basophils) (granulocytus) cells that synthesize, accumulate and secrete<...>With subsequent differentiation, the volume of cytoplasm increases and basophilia decreases.<...>Among basophils, small and large cells are described.<...>Tissue evolution, according to A.A.

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Purpose of the study: to find the optimal mode of non-contact electrosurgical effect on liver tissue to achieve the best hemo- and cholestasis with minimal damage to the underlying tissues

modes of HPC, enhanced by argon and krypton, in all experimental observations revealed the same type of tissue<...>In addition, degranulation of tissue basophils, perivascular edema, fiber disintegration and swelling were detected<...>a layer of sharply deformed pycnomorphic cells, cavities of various diameters, necrotic tissue<...>Deep edematous-hemorrhagic changes in the underlying tissue structures of the wound bottom during APC, coloring<...>Granulomatous macrophage tissue reaction in the area of scab demarcation, an abundance of giant cells: a

The authors studied the effect of high-frequency current (66 kHz) on the skin of a rat during an incision wound using a bipolar scalpel after impregnation of the skin with saline in the experiment. A high-frequency electrocoagulator EK-300M1 was used as a current source. Morphological examination of animal biological tissues was carried out on the 1st, 7th, 14th and 21st days. The experimental studies conducted indicate the formation of a specific demarcation strip from the surrounding unchanged skin structures with phenomena of blood stasis with hemolysis of erythrocytes and leukocytosis, swelling, exudation, destructive-dystrophic changes in the dermis of the skin with the presence of loosening, round cell infiltration, destruction of epithelial formations of skin appendages and the manifestation of more severe damage to fat and muscle tissue. The prevalence of edematous phenomena in the demarcation strip clearly indicates the decisive contribution to its prevalence and the extent of skin saturation with liquid during the introduction of saline, its importance as a factor modeling this strip

In the dermis outside the zone of coagulation necrosis, pronounced loosening of tissue structures and filled<...>destructive-dystrophic disorders, which created a kind of demarcation strip from the surrounding intact tissue<...>Pronounced loosening of tissue structures and blood-filled vessels with phenomena of hemolysis of red blood cells<...>a large number of vessels, fibroblasts, newly formed fibers and a significant number of tissue<...>basophils (mast cells), located mainly on the periphery of the scarring area and promoting collagen formation

The review provides information on the significance of markers of endothelial dysfunction in the progression of chronic kidney disease in children. The role of individual markers of endothelial dysfunction is considered using the example of C-type natriuretic peptide, endothelin-1, tissue plasminogen activator and tissue plasminogen activator inhibitor in the development and progression of chronic kidney diseases. Data are presented on the differences in the influence of these markers on the vascular endothelium.

basophils.<...>tissue growth factor-β 1.<...>Tissue plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 is a major antagonist of tissue plasminogen activator<...>Tissue plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and tissue plasminogen activator are major regulators<...>Ratio of tissue plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 mRNA to tissue plasminogen activator mRNA

No. 2 [Postgraduate student and applicant, 2017]

The journals publish peer-reviewed scientific articles by graduate students, applicants, doctoral students and researchers in various fields of knowledge

Novitsky pointed out (1980) that allergic antibodies that specifically act on mast cells and tissue<...>established that for the development of organ sensitization, a peculiar connection of the antibody molecule with tissue<...>In the implementation of this connection, two main components are involved: the Fc fragment of the immunoglobulin molecule, as well as tissue<...>Degranulation of basophils using aggregated IgE.<...>"Tissue basophils and basophilic granulocytes". - Moscow. - “Medicine.” – 1987. – P. 108. 18.

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The conducted studies showed that when white rats were intoxicated with aluminum chloride, changes in the morphostructure of the jejunum and ileum, as well as their vascular bed, were revealed. The result of this is alterative, infiltrative, necrotic processes, as well as vascular dilation, states of stasis and sludge of cellular elements of the blood. Quantitative indicators of contrast X-ray angiograms of the small intestine of experimental animals made it possible to compare the information obtained over time

characterize the adaptive-compensatory processes of the bloodstream of the jejunum and ileum on the organ, tissue<...>Tissue basophils were at the border with the basement membrane, and their body shape was agranular.

REACTION OF A LIVING CELL AND FOREIGN TOXIC SUBSTANCES OF THE ACRIDIINE SERIES ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTOR OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY, USSR Academy of Sciences

Our goal was to conduct an experimental cytological study to clarify some general aspects of the interaction of biologically active substances foreign to the cell with the cell.

In tissue culture cells placed in a hypotonic environment, it is possible to detect<...>To carry out experiments of this kind in a culture medium with growing tissue culture cells,<...>The process of crinogenesis was reproduced on cells of continuous strains of tissue cultures.<...>Effect of acridine orange on the incorporation of S c-methionine into tissue culture cells.<...>The effect of acridine orange on the early stages of protein biosynthesis in tissue culture cells.

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Histology, embryology, cytology

Medicine Far East

The proposed educational manual is written in accordance with the current program and the latest data on histology, embryology and cytology for 1-2 year students of medical universities in the following specialties: 060101 General Medicine, 060103 Pediatrics, 060105 Medical and Preventive Medicine, 060201 Dentistry. The main objective of the manual is to provide students with the necessary information in a brief form for successful work during laboratory classes and during individual work at the department in order to develop their skills in independently studying the microstructure of tissues and identifying their main morphological characteristics.

Hence the term basophilia (base-loving) to designate tissue components that are stained<...>Specialized cells: mast cells, tissue basophils; plasma cells; reticular cells<...>At the Department of Histology of TSMU, numerous comprehensive studies of tissue basophils (labrocytes) have been carried out<...>The size is 10-20 microns, the cytoplasm has pronounced basophilia.<...>A histological specimen shows a large number of granules next to tissue basophils.

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Clinical and diagnostic significance of changes in the leukocyte formula and absolute content of leukocytes of certain types in the peripheral blood [Electronic resource] / Dalnova, Svetlitskaya // Laboratory diagnostics Eastern Europe. - 2013 . - No. 1 . - pp. 116-129 . - Access mode: https://site/efd/493411

Interpretation of changes in the leukocyte formula has important clinical and diagnostic significance. The need to assess the absolute number of different types of leukocytes in pathology is substantiated. The pathogenetic and kinetic characteristics of changes in the number of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, plasma cells, erythrokaryocytes are given

<...> <...> <...>A decrease in the number of basophils is difficult to interpret due to their low normal content (0–1%).<...>

The current state of dairy farming in the Russian Federation is characterized by uneven profitability of dairy production. One of the main limiting factors for the development of highly productive dairy farming is the significant prevalence of diseases of the distal limbs in cattle.

At the same time, the vessels of the microcircular bed were collapsed, many degranulated tissues were revealed<...>basophils.

On June 6–10, 2015, the next congress of the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) was held in Barcelona, Spain. More than 7,500 participants attended the congress. Traditionally, a delegation of the Russian Association of Allergologists and Clinical Immunologists (RAACI), headed by the President of RAACI, Academician, took part in the work of the congress. RAS R.M. Khaitov. RAACI has been a member of EAACI since 1997 and is the exclusive representative of Russia in this organization. RAACI actively cooperates with EAACI. 5 joint scientific sessions were successfully held at international congresses and forums, RAACI members regularly make presentations at EAACI congresses. RAACI representatives participate in the activities of EAACI working groups and committees and make a significant contribution to the preparation of international position documents. In particular, a group of Russian experts (R.M. Khaitov, N.A. Ilyina, L.V. Luss, M.R. Khaitov) became part of the team of authors of the international publication “Global Atlas of Allergy”, an updated version of which was presented at the congress in Barcelona. In 2013, Vice-President of RAACI prof. M.R. Khaitov was included in the EAACI Executive Committee and was re-elected to this position in 2015. M.R. Khaitov oversees the “Infections and Allergies” direction, participates in the development of educational programs and planning of scientific activities of EAACI. With his direct participation, the EAACI/RAACI international school on molecular diagnostics of allergies was organized, which was held in Moscow on August 27–29, 2015.

Also at the plenary sessions, the mechanisms of activation of allergy effector cells (basophils, eosinophils) were discussed<...>functioning of effector cells, signal transduction through FcER1, protective and pathological role of basophils<...>, the role of mast cells as major regulators of tissue inflammation and remodeling.<...>The specialized symposium was dedicated to new tissue cytokines – TSLP IL-22 and IL-33.<...>The clinical significance of the basophil activation test, the breadth of its use and application for

A review of current data on risk factors for the development of arterial hypertension in children and adolescents, as well as the role of endothelial dysfunction in the etiology and pathogenesis of the disease is presented.

It has been established that NO is a local tissue hormone that supports active vasodilation, and one<...>can be synthesized in vascular smooth muscle cells, neurons, astrocytes, endometrium, hepatocytes, tissue<...>basophils.

IMMUNOHISTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE OF NEUROMA OF AN INJURED PERIPHERAL NERVE AFTER SURGICAL TREATMENT USING AN ELECTROSURGICAL INSTRUMENT IN WELDING MODE [Electronic resource] / Korsak, Tchaikovsky // Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine.- 2 015 .- No. 6 .- P. 110-113 .- Access mode : https://site/efd/354716

An immunohistochemical analysis of changes in neuroma was carried out after surgical treatment of an injured peripheral nerve using a high-frequency electrosurgical device, which allows welding of soft tissues with high-frequency current. It has been established that this technology and the bipolar instrument have no harmful effect on the process of degeneration and regeneration of the injured nerve trunk.

interact with the microenvironment consisting of different cells (neurolemmocytes, fibroblasts, macrophages, tissue<...>basophils, perineurium cells and microvessels).

No. 2 [Pacific Medical Journal, 2016]

"Pacific Medical Journal" is intended to unite specialists from the Russian Far East and the countries of the Asia-Pacific region working in the field of medicine and biology on a wide range of issues related to scientific research, educational work and healthcare practice. Unlike other periodical scientific publications published by academic institutions and medical organizations in Siberia and the Far East, the Pacific Medical Journal is focused primarily on current regional problems, which are considered in a wide range from pilot innovative research to the widespread implementation of scientific developments in practice. The journal provides its pages for publishing the results of research by specialists working in various fields of medicine and biology, the topics of which do not always correspond to the format of scientific publications published in other regions of Russia, but are of high importance for the Far East and Asia-Pacific countries. A wide range of issues covered on the pages of the publication is structured in accordance with the formation of thematic issues of the magazine devoted to specific problems of medicine and biology. The journal serves as an information platform for major scientific and practical conferences and forums taking place in the Russian Far East. Considerable attention is paid to covering issues related to the general ethnic and environmental conditions for the development of pathology for the population of the Russian Far East and the countries of the Asia-Pacific region.

Local differences in tissue basophils of the dura mater of the rat brain // Morphology. 1993.<...>Age-related features of biological rhythms of tissue basophils of the dura mater of the rat brain<...>In an 8-week embryo, tissue basophils appear on the spinal vessels.<...>From 17 years of age to old age, the number of tissue basophils remains virtually unchanged.<...>Local differences in tissue basophils of the dura mater of rats // Morphology. 1993.

neurons, hepatocytes, endometrium, Sertoli cells, mesagangliocytes, endothelial cells of mammary glands, tissue<...>basophils.<...>Modern research methods have specified the tissue localization of ET receptor subtypes.

Analysis of the results of modern scientific research forms the basis for effective surgical treatment of acute pancreatitis (AP). The goal is to study the main components of complex surgical treatment of AP and its complications. Based on an assessment of the treatment of 1752 patients with AP who underwent conservative treatment (81.9%) and surgical interventions (18.1%) using minimally invasive and traditional surgical technologies, answers to the main and not fully clarified questions were formulated. When examining patients, clinical, laboratory-biochemical, radiation, endoscopic methods, as well as bacteriological and cytological studies were used. The nature of local complications of the disease was analyzed, systematizing them according to topographic-anatomical zones of development, qualitative and quantitative characteristics, with a statement of their dominant occurrence in the free abdominal cavity (49.6%), retroperitoneal space (10.4%) and several anatomical areas simultaneously (40 %). The spectrum of verified microflora (according to the main characteristics) indicated its colonic origin. The addition of an infectious factor was noted both in late (up to 2nd–3rd weeks) and early (up to 1st week) periods. The results of bacteriological studies were analyzed. It has been shown that individual characteristics of the microbial factor, as well as the results of a cytological study of the contents of pancreatogenic fluid accumulations, represent objective criteria for determining the severity of AP. Minimally invasive interventional techniques are systematized according to the following principles - “by technology”, “by goal” and “by final result”. 57% of interventions were definitive, 25% were staged, and 18% of interventions were stabilizing the patient’s condition. The scope of open surgical interventions is outlined depending on limited (29.3%) or widespread (70.7%) peripancreatic lesions. The implementation of the developed components of complex surgical treatment of AP and its complications led to a decrease in postoperative mortality rates from 30.7 to 9.3%.

According to the characteristics of the pathomorphological substrate, they were liquid, tissue and liquid-tissue<...>Eastern Europe" No. 2 (06), 2013 Exchange of experience - liquid limited and tissue widespread<...>(44.2% each) and retroperitoneal - fluid-tissue (68.2%), and according to quantitative characteristics - combined<...>mesotheliocytes acquired signs of atypicality, which was manifested by an increase in their size and increased basophilia<...>Nuclear and cytoplasmic basophilia, nuclear hypertrophy, and nuclear polymorphism were also determined.

The main route of development of acute orchiepididymitis is the retrograde canalicular pathway against the background of prostatitis and urethritis. The causative agents of the infection are both opportunistic and sexually transmitted diseases. Data from the examination and treatment of 110 patients with acute orchiepididymitis aged 18 to 37 years, from 2005 to 2013, are presented. The clear advantage of the proposed complex lymphotropic therapy and therapy with exogenous nitric oxide over traditional treatment has been proven by analyzing the proposed criteria for the effectiveness of therapy, which include normalization of quality of life indicators, histamine levels in urethral smears, relief of clinical manifestations, normalization of laboratory parameters, radiological data, eradication microflora from biological fluids (urine and ejaculate), reduction of bed days, reduction of patient treatment costs.

Released by tissue mast cells (tissue basophils, mast cells) and blood basophils, histamine

STUDY OF BIOINTEGRATION AND STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF A NEW BIOMATERIAL MADE FROM XENOGENIC PERICARDIA FOR RECONSTRUCTIVE CARDIOVASCULAR SURGERY [Electronic resource] / Fadeeva [et al.] // Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. - 2019.- No. 4 .- Access mode: https http://site/efd/684298

<...>

STUDY OF BIOINTEGRATION AND STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF A NEW BIOMATERIAL MADE FROM XENOGENIC PERICARDIA FOR RECONSTRUCTIVE CARDIOVASCULAR SURGERY [Electronic resource] / Fadeeva [et al.] // Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. - 2019.- No. 4 .- Access mode: https http://site/efd/694106

The biocompatibility, elastic-strength properties and biointegration potential of a new biomaterial made from xenopericardium for reconstructive cardiovascular surgery were studied. The biomaterial produced by the proposed method has a high degree of biocompatibility, biointegration and elastic-strength properties that exceed those of native pericardium by 2-4 times. The results obtained indicate the promise of the proposed method for obtaining biomaterials for reconstructive cardiovascular surgery.

neoelastic fibers (Fig. 2, c) and newly formed glycosaminoglycans, as well as active migration of tissue<...>basophils into samples from contact tissues of the subcutaneous space (Fig. 2, d).

No. 4 [Doctor, 2004]

A scientific, practical and journalistic journal for a wide range of specialists. Published since 1990. One of the most famous and prestigious publications for practicing doctors. The editor-in-chief of the journal is Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences I. N. Denisov. The editorial board of the journal includes recognized authorities in the world of medicine: N. A. Mukhin - Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, director of the Clinic of Therapy and Occupational Diseases named after. E. M. Tareeva; V.P. Fisenko - corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, (deputy editor-in-chief) and many others. By the decision of the Plenum of the Higher Attestation Commission, “Vrach” was included in the list of journals in which the publication of the results of dissertation research for the degree of Doctor of Science is recommended. Main sections: current topic; clinical review; lecture; problem; new in medicine; pharmacology; healthcare. The frequency of release is once a month. The target audience is attending physicians, chief doctors of hospitals and clinics, heads of medical institutions, heads of research institutes, medical centers, associations, heads of sanatoriums, pharmacies, and libraries.

RAS and RAMS M. Paltsev), "Tissue cell systems - a key link in biomedical technologies" (academician.<...>The emergence of ACE inhibitors with high tissue specificity (perindopril, ramipril, trandolapril) opens up<...>Recently, an increase in tissue ACE was demonstrated in the synovial tissue of patients with RA.<...>Therapy with ACE inhibitors with high tissue specificity to reduce the risk of complications in patients<...>Equally important is the ability of NSAIDs to block the interaction of bradykinin with tissue receptors

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Brachet. 10×16; b – increase in the number of degranulated tissue basophils in close contact

No. 1 [Laboratory diagnostics Eastern Europe, 2013]

Tissue basophils were at the border with the basement membrane, and their body shape was agranular.<...>Basophils Differentiation of basophils and mast cells occurs in the bone marrow in 1.5–5 days under the influence of<...>It is assumed that mast cells are tissue analogues of blood basophils.<...>Basophils are also involved in blood clotting and lipid metabolism.<...>It is necessary to remember the ability of tissue macrophages to enter the vascular bed and the activation of this

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BLOOD SYSTEM IN ACUTE RADIATION SICKNESS CAUSED BY BRACKMULAR RADIATION AND FAST BETATRON ELECTRONS WITH DIFFERENT ENERGIES A BSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF MEDICAL SCIENCES

OMSK STATE MEDICAL INSTITUTE

The advantages of betatron radiation over conventional kilovoltage therapy make experimental research relevant.

Tarasova conducted studies of tissue respiration in the liver and spleen on 117 guinea pigs<...>Tissue respiration of the spleen decreased more sharply after exposure to a dose of 9000 rad.<...>in each field of view, there were giant hypersegmented neutrophils with varying degrees of basophilia<...>Necrobiotic. the changes concerned mainly the already matured ones, which had completely lost the basophilia of the cytoplasm<...>differentiation phases: the latter into giant neutrophils, in rare cases - giant eosinophils and basophils

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Knowledge of the features of the morphological structure of atypical forms of lichen planus is necessary for the correct diagnosis of lichen planus. Due to the large number of atypical forms, diagnosis often requires a histological examination of a biopsy of the affected skin. The article is devoted to a description of the pathomorphological features of typical and some atypical forms of lichen planus observed in recent years in the department of dermatovenereology and dermato-oncology of the State Budgetary Healthcare Institution of the Moscow Region MONIKI named after. M.F. Vladimirsky

vessels and perivascular infiltrates, mainly from lymphocytes, among which are histiocytes, tissue<...>basophils and melanophages that phagocytose melanin; in old elements the infiltrate is less dense and consists

Physiology of humans and animals. manual for students in education. higher education programs education in the field of training 06.03.01 Biology

The textbook consists of sections that include self-study, assignments and guidance for performing laboratory work, material for students’ independent work, which allow them to expand their knowledge of the theoretical course and acquire experimental research skills.

The journal is included in the List of leading scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission, in which the main results of dissertations for the scientific degree of candidate and doctor of sciences should be published.

genital prolapse in combination with cervical elongation CURRENT ISSUES OF CELLULAR AND TISSUE TRANSPLANTOLOGY<...>JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 420 CURRENT ISSUES IN CELLULAR AND TISSUE TRANSPLANTOLOGY<...>JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 421 CURRENT ISSUES IN CELLULAR AND TISSUE TRANSPLANTOLOGY<...>OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 423 CURRENT ISSUES OF CELLULAR AND TISSUE TRANSPLANTOLOGY<...>basophils. 5.

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Adipocytes. Fat cells - adipocytes - develop from adventitial cells. These are large spherical cells with a diameter of 30-50 microns. Lipid inclusions accumulate in the cytoplasm of adipocytes in the form of small droplets, which later merge into one large droplet. In this case, the nucleus is pushed to the periphery, and the cytoplasm forms only a narrow rim. A defatted cell on a histological section resembles a ring in appearance. Under an electron microscope, poorly developed cytoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex and mitochondria are detected in fat cells. Adipocytes accumulate fat as trophic reserve material. Fat cells can be freed from inclusions. At the same time, they become difficult to distinguish from fibroblastic cells.

Fat cells found among fibroblasts of loose connective tissue in small quantities. In cases where they form large clusters, they no longer speak of individual cells, but of adipose tissue.

Pigmentocytes. In loose fibrous connective tissue, cells are found whose cytoplasm contains grains of pigment - melanin. Among these cells, there are those that synthesize pigment - melanocytes and those that phagocytose the finished pigment, for example, fibroblasts and macrophages. Tissue with a large number of melanocytes is found in humans in the iris and choroid, in the connective tissue layers of highly pigmented areas of the skin, as well as in birthmarks. Melanocytes are derivatives of the neural crest, have a process or spindle-shaped shape, are mobile, the function and shape of the cells can change depending on humoral and nervous factors. Cells can retract or extend their processes, the color of the organ changes accordingly, or, for example, in the organ of vision, the photosensitive process of a neuron is protected from exposure to light.
What has been said is not true is struggling all the variety of cellular forms found in loose connective tissue.

In loose connective tissue There are always cells that are descendants of the hematopoietic stem cell. These are histiocytes-macrophages, antigen-presenting cells, tissue basophils (mast cells), plasma cells, blood cells (granulocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes).

Histiocytes-macrophages. They make up 10-20% of the total cellular composition of loose connective tissue. Cell size is 12-25 microns. Macrophages that are in a resting state are called histiocytes, sedentary macrophages or wandering cells at rest (Fig. 51). Motile macrophages that do not have a specific localization in the tissue are called free macrophages. The nucleus of macrophages is dark, round, and contains large clumps of chromatin. The cytoplasm of macrophages is clearly contoured. It contains a large number of vacuoles - phagosomes and lysosomes, the Golgi complex, and numerous pinocytotic vesicles. The remaining organelles are moderately developed. A well-developed musculoskeletal system promotes cell migration and phagocytosis of foreign particles. Based on the nature and number of ultrastructures, macrophages are classified into secretory and phagocytic types. In the former, secretory vacuoles predominate in the cytoplasm, in the latter, the lysosomal apparatus predominates. The source of macrophage formation is blood monocytes.

Special variety macrophages takes part as an antigen-presenting cell and thus are participants in the cooperation of T and B lymphocytes in the immune response to foreign substances. Macrophages neutralize toxins and can accumulate vital dyes when introduced into the blood. They exhibit antibacterial properties, releasing lysozyme, acid hydrolases, lactoferrin, etc., and have antitumor activity, releasing tumor necrosis factor. Macrophage growth factors affect the proliferation of epithelial cells, proliferation and differentiation of fibroblasts, new formation of blood vessels, etc.

Ability to phagocytosis is a general biological property of many tissue cells. However, only those cells that are capable of capturing and enzymatically processing bacteria, foreign particles, toxins, etc. in their cytoplasm should be classified as the macrophage system of the body. The doctrine of the macrophage system was laid down by I.I. Mechnikov (1882), who in experiments on invertebrates discovered motile cells accumulating near a foreign body. These cells were called macrophages. In addition to histiocyte macrophages, the macrophage system of the body includes liver macrophages (stellate macrophages, osteoclasts, glial macrophages, macrophages of the hematopoietic organs, lung macrophages, etc.). Regulation of the macrophage system is carried out by both local and central (nervous and endocrine systems) mechanisms.

Tissue basophils(mast cells, mast cells, heparinocytes) - develop from hematopoietic stem cells. The cells are round or oval in size, ranging in size from 20 to 30-100 microns, located mainly along small blood vessels. They have a small dense nucleus and granular cytoplasm (Fig. 52). The most characteristic feature of mast cells is the presence in the cytoplasm of numerous granules, the diameter of which is 0.3-0.7 microns, which have the property of metachromasia (stained differently from the color of the dye). The granules contain heparin, histamine, chondroitin sulfates, hyaluronic acid, serotonin, chemotactic factors for eosinophilic and neutrophilic granulocytes, etc. When mast cells degranulate, heparin is released, which prevents blood clotting. The release of biogenic amines is accompanied by a change in the permeability of the blood-tissue barrier. In addition, mast cells produce cytokines involved in immune processes. Mast cells reproduce extremely rarely.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE.

The skeleton, skin, cartilage, tendons and ligaments, and the basis of organs are built from connective tissue.

Connective tissues include: connective tissue itself, skeletal tissue and connective tissue with special properties. In turn, the connective tissue itself is divided into loose and dense, and the latter into formed and unformed.

The skeletal system consists of bone and cartilage. There are reticular, adipose, pigment and mucous tissues with special properties.

By origin, connective tissues belong to the mesenchymal group, and by function to the group of supporting-trophic tissues or tissues of the internal environment.

Connective tissue (textus connectivus) is very common in the body: in general it makes up about 50% of body weight.

Among all the types of connective tissue mentioned in the classification, the most common and the one that contains all types of elements is loose fibrous connective tissue. It is found in almost all internal organs, forms their membranes, fills the gaps between organs, and accompanies blood vessels and nerves.

It performs all the functions that are characteristic of the tissues of the internal environment, namely: trophic, protective, musculoskeletal. In addition, loose connective tissue also performs a replacement function (if damaged, it replaces or fills in a defect in the organs).

Loose connective tissue (textus connectivus laxus) is built from cells and intercellular substance. The latter, in turn, includes fibrous structures (collagen, elastic and reticular fibers) and the main intercellular substance.

A similar structure plan is characteristic of all other types of connective tissue. The cellular elements of loose connective tissue include: fibroblasts, macrophages, plasmacytes, tissue basophils, adipocytes, pigmentocytes, adventitia cells, as well as leukocytes that migrate from the blood.

Cellular elements of connective tissue.

Among the cells of loose connective tissue, many types of cells are distinguished. However, based on certain characteristics, they can be combined into the following three groups:

Cells fibroblastic row- these are fibroblasts of varying degrees of maturity, fibrocytes, myofibroblasts and fibroclasts

Fibroblasts- These are the cells that produce intercellular substance. They are the ones who synthesize both fibrous structures and the main components of the amorphous substance. In essence, fibroblasts build connective tissue. Due to their abilities to build the body's major support structures, fibroblasts are often called mechanocytes. The ability to create fibers is evidenced by their name (“fiber” - fiber and “blastos” - rudiment). The activity of these cells ensures wound healing, scar development, capsule formation around a foreign body, and the like. Fibroblasts belong to a large group of cells, varying in degree of differentiation, which form the so-called fibroblastic series (or diferon): stem cells - semi-stem progenitor cells - unspecialized fibroblasts - mature fibroblasts - fibrocytes. In addition, myofibroblasts and fibroclasts belong to the same series.

Less specialized, or young, round or spindle-shaped fibroblasts with basophilic cytoplasm contain a large number of free ribosomes. Other organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi complex) are poorly developed. Capable of mitotic reproduction.

On the film preparation you can see the distribution of the fibroblast cell body into two zones - the internal endoplasm, which is stained more intensely, and the external ectoplasm, the color of which is much weaker; it has no clear boundaries and merges with the surrounding intercellular substance. The fibroblast cytoplasm contains all common organelles. The granular endoplasmic reticulum is especially well developed, which occupies up to 35% of the cell volume; here the synthesis of procolagen and elastin occurs. The Golgi complex is also well developed, which makes up about 10% of the cell volume, in the form of cisterns and vesicles scattered throughout the cell; synthesized here glycosaminoglycans. The latter, like fibrillar proteins, are secreted into the intercellular substance and are part of the fibers and amorphous substance. Fibroblasts also synthesize the fibrillar glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix - fibronectin, which ensures the binding of cells to their microenvironment and regulates cell movement. Mitochondria are large and their number is moderate, as are lysosomes.

At the periphery of the cytoplasm there are microfilaments 5-6 nm thick, which contain contractile proteins such as actin and myosin and provide the ability of these cells to move. It is believed that there are two populations among fibroblasts: those with a short life cycle (several weeks) and those with a long life cycle (several months).

Fibrocytes- these are the definitive (final) forms of fibroblast development. Their shape is spindle-shaped, they may have pterygoid processes. Contains a small number of organelles. Their synthetic processes are reduced.

Myofibroblasts is a type of cell into which fibroblasts can develop. They are functionally similar to smooth muscle cells, but, unlike the latter, they have a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum. Such cells can be observed in the uterus during pregnancy, as well as in granulation tissue (during wound healing).

Fibroclasts - another type of cell derived from fibroblasts. They have high phagocytic activity and contain a significant amount of lysosomes. They take part in the lysis of intercellular substance: they can be observed in the uterus at the end of pregnancy.

Immigrating cells – cells that migrated from the blood and lymph are monocytes, which turned into macrophages, plasma cells, basophils (tissue basophils) and leukocytes - lymphocytes and neutrophils.

Macrophages(macrophagocytes). These cells are also called histiocytes. In terms of quantitative content in loose connective tissue, macrophages occupy second place after fibroblasts. In comparison with the latter, they have a smaller cell body (10-15 µm), which is well delimited from the main substance. The shape is different: round, elongated or irregular. The nucleus is also smaller in size, not as regular in shape as that of a fibroblast, and contains more heterochromatin, looks dense, colors quite intensely. The cytoplasm of macrophages is basophilic, heterogeneous, spotted, contains many lysosomes, phagosomes, and pinocytotic vesicles. Other organelles (mitochondria, granular endoplasmic retina, Golgi complex) are moderately developed.

The plasmalem of macrophages forms deep folds and long microvilli, with the help of which these cells capture foreign particles. On the surface of the macrophage plasmolema there are receptors for tumor cells, erythrocytes, T- and B-lymphocytes, antigens, immunoglobulins. The presence of receptors for immunoglobulins ensures participation in immune reactions.

Macrophages play an important role in both natural and acquired immunity of the body. The participation of macrophages in natural immunity is manifested in their ability to phagocytose and in the synthesis of a number of active substances - phagocytin, lysozyme, interferon, pyrogen, components of the complement system and other factors of natural immunity. Their role in acquired immunity is to transfer the antigen to immunocompetent cells (lymphocytes) after its processing from corpuscular to molecular form (participation in the cooperative three-cell immune response system together with T- and B-lymphocytes). In addition, macrophages secrete monokine mediators, which provide a specific response to antigens, and cytolytic factors, which selectively destroy tumor cells.

Macrophages come from promonocytes of the red bone marrow, that is, from hematopoietic stem cells, and complete the monocyte histogenetic series.

Developing the concept of phagocytosis, I.I. Mechnikov substantiated the feasibility of combining phagocytic cells into one system, which he called macrophage. That's why macrophage the body system is a system of all cells that are capable of capturing foreign particles, bacteria, antigens, dead cells, their remains, and the like from tissue fluid.

Due to the peculiarities of their structure, these cells eliminate agents harmful to the body that enter. Let us list these cells: macrophages-histiocytes, fibroblasts, osteoclasts, free and fixed macrophages of the hematopoietic organs, stellate cells of the liver vessels, alveolar macrophages of the lungs, glial macrophages (microgliocytes) of the nervous tissue. All these cells are capable of phagocytosis; they have receptors for immunoglobulins on the surface of the plasma membrane, and therefore are capable of immune phagocytosis.

TO macrophage the system belongs to the totality of all cells that are capable of capturing foreign particles, dead cells and non-cellular structures, bacteria and the like from tissue fluid. Phagocytosed material inside the cell is amenable to enzymatic breakdown in the lysosomal apparatus. Thus, agents harmful to the body are eliminated. These cells can be identified using the vital stain method using intravital injection of trypan blue, colloidal silver or Chinese ink into the body. All of these colloidal substances are phagocytosed by macrophages due to the fact that they form macromolecular aggregates, and the cells become clearly visible on the preparation. These cells include histiocytes-macrophages of loose connective tissue, free and fixed macrophages of hematopoietic organs, stellate cells of the sinusoidal vessels of the liver, alveolar macrophages of the lungs, peritoneal macrophages, glial macrophages of nervous tissue (microglia), osteoclasts, giant cells of third-party bodies. All of them are capable of active phagocytosis, have receptors for immunoglobulins on the surface (due to which they are capable of immune phagocytosis), and originate from red bone marrow promonocytes and blood monocytes. Unlike macrophages, which I. I. Mechnikov called “professional phagocytes,” other types of cells have the ability for facultative phagocytosis - fibroblasts, reticular cells, endotheliocytes, neutrophil leukocytes. But these cells do not belong to macrophage system, because they cannot carry out specific immune phagocytosis, and also differ in their origin.

The concept of phagocytosis was first put forward by I.I. Mechnikov. He came to the conclusion that phagocytosis, which arose in evolution as intracellular digestion and was established in many cells, is also an important protective mechanism. He substantiated the feasibility of combining such cells into one system and proposed calling it macrophage. In the 30-50s, this protective system was called reticuloendothelial (RES), mistakenly attributing to it some types of facultative phagocytes. Recently, it has been called the mononuclear phagocyte system, which, however, is not entirely accurate, since among the cells of this system there are also multinucleated ones (osteoclasts and giant cells of third-party bodies).

Macrophagicsystem is a strong protective apparatus that takes part in both general and local protective reactions of the body. In the whole organism macrophage the system is regulated by local mechanisms, as well as the nervous and endocrine systems.

Plasma cells (plasmocytes) have dimensions of 7-10 microns, although they can be somewhat larger. Their shape is round or polygonal if they press on one another. The nucleus is small, round, located eccentrically, contains mainly condensed chromatin, lumps of which form a pattern characteristic of a plasma cell - a wheel with spokes or numbers on a watch dial. The cytoplasm is intensely basophilic, against which a “light yard” or perinuclear zone with a weaker color is clearly visible near the nucleus. The ultrastructure of these cells is characterized by the presence in the cytoplasm of a well-developed granular endoplasmic reticulum, which is located concentrically and occupies most of the cell. A large number of ribosomes (RNA) determines the basophilia of the cytoplasm. In the “light courtyard” area, centrioles are localized, surrounded by cisterns of the Golgi complex. In the cisterns of the granular endoplasmic reticulum of plasma cells, the synthesis of immunoglobulins (antibodies) occurs. Part of the carbon component of immunoglobulins is synthesized in the Golgi complex. This organelle, which is quite well developed in plasma cells, is also responsible for the secretion of synthesized immunoglobulins outside the cell; Then they pass through the lymph into the blood.

Thus, plasma cells provide humoral immunity, that is, the production of specific antibody proteins, reacting to the penetration of an antigen into the body, which will be neutralized by it. Plasma cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells, namely B lymphocytes. Plasma cells are mainly found in the loose connective tissue of the own layer of the mucous membrane of the intestine and respiratory tract, in the lymph nodes, spleen, interstitial connective tissue of different glands.

Tissue basophils have many names that are useful to give to help navigate the literature: mast cells, mast cells, mast cells. The last name was given to these cells by P. Ehrlich, who in 1877. first described cells that were filled with granules. This name is very common in literature. The name “tissue basophils” corresponds to the modern international histological nomenclature and indicates that the cells have a granularity similar to the granules of basophilic blood leukocytes. Tissue basophils are often localized along the blood vessels of the microvasculature, forming perivascular vagina. A large number of these cells are found in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract, in the uterus, mammary gland, thymus, and amygdala.

The shape of tissue basophils is varied, as are their sizes. They are round, oval, with wide processes. Sizes range from 10-20 to 35 and even up to 100 microns. The kernels are relatively small, round, of normal structure. The cytoplasm contains a large number of mitochondria, some granular, as well as agranular endoplasmic reticulum; The Golgi complex is well developed. The main feature of these cells is the presence of a large number of characteristic granules measuring 0.2-0.8 microns, each of which is surrounded by a membrane. For electron microscopic The structure of the granules of human tissue basophils is crystalloid or lamellar (species differences in the structure of the granules are observed). The grain is stained basophilically, metachromatically. The granules contain substances that are of great physiological importance. The first of these substances is heparin, which makes up 30% of the content of granules and mainly determines their basophilia and metachromasia. The second substance is histamine, which makes up 10% of their content. The granule matrix consists of protein (mast cell chymase) and heparin, which form a stable network; histamine is attached to it by ionic bonds. The granules also contain chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, serotonin is also found in some animals, but humans do not have it.

Heparin- it is sulfated glycosaminoglycan, which was first isolated from the liver (hence its name) and which prevents blood coagulation. Tissue basophils have been found to synthesize heparin in the Golgi complex. They can lose their granules (degranulation process), and then heparin is released into the intercellular substance. Heparin has an anti-inflammatory effect and is an anticoagulant. In addition, heparin stimulates enzyme activity lipoprotein lipases and thus helps in the breakdown of plasma chylomicrons.

Histaminesynthesized in tissue basophils with the participation histidine decarboxylase(a marker enzyme of these cells), which converts histidine into histamine, which acts on smooth muscles, causing them to contract, and also promotes the release of plasma from venules and capillaries by expanding and increasing the permeability of their walls. As a result of the release of plasma, blisters form in the loose connective tissue under the epidermis. This symptom is called urticaria. The described action of histamine can be observed during anaphylactic shock or allergy. The development of these processes and the participation of tissue basophils in them is explained as follows. In response to the penetration of certain antigens into the body, which are called allergens, specific antibodies are formed that belong to the IgE class.

Tissue basophils, like basophilic leukocytes, have receptors for antibodies of this type and bind them so that the variable sites for antigen binding remain free. When the antigen is reintroduced, it quickly binds to specific antibodies on the surface of the mast cells. After the formation of the antigen-antibody complex, histamine is released from the granules of these cells. Symptoms of allergy or anaphylaxis can be treated with antihistamines. Under normal conditions, such hypersensitivity reactions, which occur with the participation of tissue basophils, tend to be self-limiting due to the release of a chemotactic factor for attracting eosinophils by these cells. Eosinophil enzymes histaminase, arylsulfatase destroy substances that tissue basophils secrete during immune reactions.

It is known that tissue basophils originate from hematopoietic stem cells. Undifferentiated mast cell precursors migrate through the blood into the connective tissue, where they proliferate and differentiate into mature cells. T lymphocytes take part in these processes. Mitotic division of mast cells is observed quite rarely. Since there is evidence of the ability of tissue basophils to synthesize DNA, it is possible that mitoses occur more often in them, but they are difficult to see due to the large number of granules contained in the cytoplasm of these cells.

Group of optional, non-permanent cells – adipocytes (fat cells), pigmentocytes, adventitia cells and pericytes.

Adipocytes (fat cells).

Previously they were called lipocytes. These cells are capable of accumulating reserve fat in their cytoplasm, which takes part in trophism, energy generation and water metabolism. In loose connective tissue they are located in groups, less often in single cells, and, for the most part, near blood vessels. When they accumulate in large quantities, they form adipose tissue.

The shape of a single adipocyte is spherical, and when there are many of them, they press one on top of the other and take on a polygonal shape. A mature fat cell contains one large drop of fat, which stretches the entire cell so that only a thin layer of cytoplasm surrounds the fat. The core changes its shape and becomes flattened. The diameter of a fat cell can reach 120 microns. Such a cell in cross section resembles a signet ring: the core is the seal, and the ring is a thin layer of cytoplasm that surrounds fat. Lipids are easily stained orange by Sudan III or black by osmic acid.

Organelleslocated mainly around the nucleus, where there is more cytoplasm. The fat cell contains free ribosomes, both types of endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex and mitochondria. The accumulation of such fat cells forms white adipose tissue.

Fat droplets that enter the lymph and then into the blood from the epithelial cells of the small intestine, about 1 micron in size, are called chylomicrons (from the Greek “chylos” - juice, “micron” - small). These particles contain triglycerides, as well as phospholipids, cholesterol ester and a small amount of proteins that form lipoproteins with lipids. Under the influence of enzymes lipoprotein lipases, which are produced by the vascular endothelium, chylomicron triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, which can be absorbed by the fat cell. Under the influence of glycerokinase, which is formed in this cell during carbohydrate metabolism, from fatty acids and glycerol are resynthesized triglycerides. Fat stored in adipocytes metabolized under the influence of lipolytic hormones (adrenaline, insulin) and the tissue enzyme lipase, which breaks down triglycerides of glycerol and fatty acids. The latter bind to blood albumin and are transported to other tissues that need nutrients.

In origin, fat cells are obviously a separate cell line. Fat cells live a long time. Mitosis in adipocyte precursor cells ends two to three weeks after birth. In adults, fat cells do not divide, but there is evidence that new adipocytes in adults can be formed from adventitia cells through the accumulation of fat in them.

Pigmentocytes (pigment cells, melanocytes) contain the pigment melanin in their cytoplasm. They are found not only in connective tissue, but also in the epithelium, in particular, in the basal layer of the epidermis. Melanocytes of connective tissue, as a rule, do not produce melanin, but only phagocytose it (as evidenced by a negative DOPA reaction).

The only exception is people of the Mongoloid type; in the connective tissue of the dermis of the coccygeal area, melanin-synthesizing pigment cells are found, which form the so-called Mongolian spot. Melanocytes, unlike other connective tissue cell populations, are derived from neural crest cells rather than mesenchyme.

Adventitation cells this is a population unspecialized cells that are located along blood vessels. They have a flat or spindle-shaped shape, weakly basophilic cytoplasm, an oval nucleus and poorly developed organelles. During the process of differentiation, these cells can apparently become fibroblasts and adipocytes. Many authors deny the existence of adventitious cells.

Fibrous structures .

Collagen fibers.

In loose connective tissue, collagen fibers are located in different directions and have the form of wavy, spiral, twisted, round or flat strands 1-10 microns thick. They are capable of forming bundles whose thickness can reach 150 microns. In their native form, collagen fibers are colorless, on a histological specimen they are stained oxyphilic, and when impregnated with silver they become brownish-yellow. These fibers do not branch and do not anastomose with each other.

Collagen fiber is constructed from bundles of fibrils cemented glycosaminoglycans and glycoproteins. The fibril thickness is 50-100 nm. The fibrils have a characteristic transverse striation in the form of light and dark stripes, which alternate with each other with a repetition period of 64 nm. Fibrils consist of microfibrils with a thickness of about 10 nm, they can be seen in an electron microscope in the form of threads similar to waves. Microfibrils are built from even thinner elements - protofibrils, and the latter - from collagen molecules. Collagen protein molecules are about 280 nm long and 1.4 nm thick. They are built from three polypeptide chains of the collagen precursor - procolagen. Collagen synthesis, as well as glycosaminoglycans and glycoproteins occurs in cells of loose connective tissue - fibroblasts. These substances are then secreted into the intercellular substance. Outside the cell, protofibrils, etc., are formed from collagen molecules. The marker amino acids of mature collagen are hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine.

There are 12 types of collagen, which differ in molecular organization, organ and tissue affiliation. Type I collagen is found in the connective tissue of the skin, bones, cornea, sclera, artery wall, etc.; Type II - in hyaline and fibrous cartilage, in the vitreous body; Type III - in the dermis of the fetal skin, in the wall of large blood vessels, in reticular fibers; Type IV - in the basement membranes, lens capsule; Type V - around the cells that synthesize it in the form exocytoskeleton. Types VI and VII collagens microfibrillar; Types HI, IX, X, XI collagens - the so-called small ones, are found in small quantities in the endothelium, cartilage, and vitreous body.

Collagen fibers contain 65% water. They are able to attract water and swell both within the body and outside it. In running water their thickness increases by 50% as a result of edema, and in an acidified environment - by 500 times; the length of the fibers does not increase. Such properties of collagen fibers predetermine their function in the body - to be a water depot. This property of collagen fibers is responsible for the appearance of edema in pathology. When blood is lost, they release water, replenishing blood volume. When scalded, collagen fibers create glue (hence their name, “cola” glue, “geno” - I give birth, produce). They have little resistance to acids, alkalis and proteolytic enzymes. Collagen fibers are very strong, but have low elasticity, their elastic modulus is 60-70 kg/mm. These are the most durable structures in the body, their main function is musculoskeletal.

Elastic fibers , unlike collagen, have a yellowish color in their native form, branch and anastomose with each other, are always located singly, and do not form bundles. Their thickness is from 0.3 to 10-18 microns.

The main chemical component of elastic fibers is the globular protein elastin, which is synthesized by fibroblasts. Elastin contains a large amount of the amino acids proline and glycine and lacks cystine. In addition, the presence of two amino acid derivatives is characteristic - desmosine and isodesmosine, which determine its elasticity. Elastin molecules have the shape of globules with a diameter of 2.8 nm. Outside the cell, they are connected into chains 3-3.5 nm thick, which are called elastic protofibrils, and in combination with glycoproteins, they form microfibrils 8-10 nm thick. Elastic fiber, according to electron microscopy, is built from two components: the center contains an amorphous component, and the periphery contains microfibrillary. In different types of elastic fibers the ratio of these two components is different. The most mature elastic fibers contain about 90% elastin in the form of an amorphous component. Microfibrillary the component is more developed where the requirements for mechanical strength are greater than for elasticity. In addition to mature elastic fibers, there are similar ones, the so-called elaunin and oxytalan fibers. In elaunin fibers, the ratio of microfibrils to the amorphous component is approximately the same, while oxytalan fibers consist only of microfibrils.

Elastic fibers are poorer in water compared to collagen fibers (contain 47% water). They are resistant to boiling, the action of acids, alkalis, maceration, rotting, they last longer in cadaveric material, their strength is much less than that of collagen fibers, but they are characterized by high elasticity. These are excellent shock absorbers that ensure that structures return to their original position. With age, the elasticity of these fibers decreases and they break up into fragments. Elastic fibers are poorly stained with histological dyes; they can be identified using orcein or resorcinol-fuchsin.

Reticular fibers can be observed in preparations, impregnated silver, which is why they are also called argyrophilic. Among the latter, two types of fibers are distinguished: reticular fibers themselves are definitive formations that are built from type III collagen; precollagenous- the initial stage in the formation of collagen fibers during embryogenesis, as well as during regeneration.

The content of the main substance is different in different types of connective tissue. Due to its physical and chemical properties, it is a gel of variable viscosity and chemical composition. Connective tissue cells and, first of all, fibroblasts take part in the formation of the main substance. The chemical composition of the amorphous component is characterized by the presence of water, proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and minerals. Polysaccharide content 0.5....5%. They belong to glycosaminoglycans(GAG): sulfated - heparin sulfate, chondroitin sulfate, chondroitin-6-sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and also non-sulfated, of which hyaluronic acid is a representative. Sulfated GAGs combine with proteins to form proteoglycans.

Glycosaminoglycansdetermine the consistency of an amorphous substance and its functional properties. In turn, the functional characteristics of connective tissue generally depend on the physicochemical composition of the main substance. The denser it is, the more pronounced the mechanical, supporting function. The lower the density of the main substance, the better the trophic function is ensured. Histamine and hyaluronidase increase the permeability of the amorphous component (there are many microorganisms that contain hyaluronidase, which helps them move through the connective tissue). Increasing the concentration of GAGs (in particular hyaluronic acid), on the contrary, reduces the permeability of the main intercellular substance.

The main substance creates the prerequisites for the movement of cells capable of movement by transporting nutrients and metabolic products.

Dense fibrous connective tissue (textus connectivus fibrosus compactus). This type of connective tissue is characterized by the overwhelming development of fibrous structures and, first of all, collagen fibers. This feature provides high shock-absorbing-mechanical properties. Depending on the method of orientation of collagen fibers in space, a distinction is made between formed dense fibrous connective tissue and unformed dense fibrous connective tissue.

Formed dense fibrous connective tissue located within fibrous membranes, ligaments, and tendons. The latter, connecting muscles with bones, experience the action of a force vector predominantly in one direction. This factor determines the strictly parallel orientation of collagen fiber bundles in space. Highly differentiated cells are located between individual fiber bundles fibroblastic series (fibrocytes), which, as a result of their synthetic activity, ensure the physiological regeneration of tendon bundles. A bundle of collagen fibers surrounded by a layer of fibrocytes is called a tendon bundle. Several tendon bundles of the first order together form tendon bundles of the second order, the latter delimited by layers of connective tissue, and are called endotendinium. As part of large tendons, bundles of the second order unite to form tendon bundles of the third and even fourth orders. Outside, the tendon is surrounded by peritendinium, formed by loose connective tissue.

Example unformed fibrous connective tissue there may be a reticular layer of the dermis of the skin. In its composition, thick bundles of collagen fibers go in different directions, which ensures skin resistance to a wide variety of directions of action of mechanical factors. Fibroblasts and macrophages, neurovascular bundles and the main intercellular substance are located between the bundles of collagen fibers.