Angina

Rebels in Gaul 4th-5th century. Gaul

Roman conquest of Gaul in 58–50 BC. e. - one of the most famous military campaigns of the Ancient world. And first of all, thanks to the “Notes” of Gaius Julius Caesar, in which the military leader informs readers in detail about the progress and results of his campaigns. The development of archeology allows us to more clearly imagine how events developed in Gaul, and even supplement Caesar’s account with new facts.

Political situation in Gaul on the eve of the Roman conquest

In the spring of 58 BC. e. Gaius Julius Caesar became governor of Gaul. By that time, he had a brilliant political career, ambition, and also huge debts. Caesar received from the Senate the right to military command for five years, the opportunity to recruit legions and appoint assistant legates of his choice. The ambitious politician gave Gaul a huge place in his plans, which was favored by the explosive situation that had developed here at that time.

Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). Bust from the Antique Collection, Berlin

Since ancient times, the country was divided into warring parties: one was headed by the powerful Arverni and their allies the Sequani, the other by the Aedui. The position of the Arverni was greatly shaken when in 121 BC. e. they were defeated by the Romans. The Aedui, who entered into an alliance with Rome, on the contrary, significantly strengthened their positions.

Around 63 BC e. The Aedui fought a war with the Sequani for a strategically important corridor leading from the Rhine valley to the upper reaches of the Rhone. The Sequani initially suffered defeats and recruited 15 thousand Germanic mercenaries from the Suebi tribe, led by Ariovistus, to participate in the war. The Germans came to Gaul from distant lands beyond the Rhine and had a reputation as brave and experienced warriors.

As a result, the Aedui suffered a heavy defeat from them in the battle of Magetobriga (possibly near modern Amage, 75 km from Besançon). The Sequani took possession of the disputed territories and settled here the warriors of Ariovistus, who were supposed to play the role of a border buffer between them and the Aedui.

The leader of the Sueves, not limiting himself to what had been achieved, began to transfer more and more new detachments of Germans across the Rhine. Soon their number here reached 120 thousand people. To resettle them, Ariovist demanded that the Sequani cede part of their possessions to him, and also began to take away lands from neighboring Gallic communities.

Helvetii

The Gauls were divided. One party, led by the Aedui leader Divitiacus, planned to turn to the Romans for protection. Another, led by Divitiac's brother Aedui Dumnorig, as well as Sequan Castic, proposed using the help of the Helvetii against the Germans.

This powerful and wealthy Celtic tribe, living in the northwestern part of modern Switzerland, before the growing onslaught of the Germans, decided to leave their possessions and settle in the southwestern part of Aquitaine. For this purpose, the Helvetii collected large supplies of food and burned their cities and villages.

Statue of a Gallic warrior from Vachers in southern France, 1st century AD. e.

Finding the path through the province blocked, the Helvetii moved around - through the areas of the Sequani and Aedui. Dumnorig obtained permission for them to pass freely. However, the violence that the Helvetii inflicted on the journey turned the Aedui in favor of Divitiac's party. As a Roman ally, he turned to Caesar asking for protection.

Caesar hastened to seize a convenient pretext for military action. At the beginning of the summer, he transferred three legions from Cisalpine Gaul across the Alps in addition to the legion stationed in the territory of Narbonne. In addition, he recruited two more legions of volunteers. Now having an army of six legions, i.e. 25-30 thousand people, Caesar rushed after the Helvetii.

June 6, 58 BC e. he attacked the Tigurins who were part of them during their crossing of the Arar. The surprise attack was successful: the Gauls were defeated and suffered heavy losses. Constantly pursuing the enemy, Caesar was able to force a decisive battle on the Helvetians a few days later somewhere near the Aedui capital Bibracte, possibly near modern Montmore.

Caesar's Campaign against Ariovistus

After the victory over the Helvetii, Caesar convened a general Gallic meeting in Bibracte, at which representatives of the most influential tribes brought him a complaint about the actions of Ariovistus. Ariovist refused his invitation to come to headquarters, which confirmed the worst suspicions about him.

Caesar's war with the Helvetii and the campaign against Ariovistus, 58 BC. e.

Soon Caesar learned that the Garudas, who had recently arrived from beyond the Rhine, were devastating the border lands of the Aedui, and on the other side of the river were standing, waiting for the crossing, huge forces of the Sueves. In an effort to prevent their connection with the main forces of Ariovistus, Caesar set out on a campaign at the end of August of the same year. He managed to occupy the capital of the Sequani, Vesontion (Besançon), before the main forces of the Germans approached it. Ariovist awaited Caesar's approach at the "Burgundian Gate" near modern Belfort. The personal meeting of the military leaders was unsuccessful. Ariovistus refused to accept Caesar's mediation and rejected his demands to grant the Gauls freedom.

For several days there were light skirmishes between the opponents. The decisive battle took place on September 10, 58 BC. e. At the beginning of the battle, the Germans managed to push back the Romans on one of the flanks, but Caesar promptly brought in reserves, which decided the outcome in his favor. About 80 thousand Germans died on the battlefield and during the flight to the banks of the Rhine. Ariovistus and a few associates managed to cross the river and escape. His further fate is unknown.

Campaign against the Belgae

Caesar regarded the Belgae's preparations as a threat to the new order he had created. In the spring of 57 BC. e. he recruited two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul and, with all the forces that were with him, invaded Belgica. The Rems, who lived between the Aisne and the Marne, assured him of their support and offered help. The Levki (Tul), the Mediomatriki (Metz) and the Treveri who lived in the Moselle valley declared their neutrality.

The rest of the Belgae, among whom the Bellovaci (Beauvais) played the most important role, gathered a militia of 300 thousand people. These enormous forces approached Caesar's fortified camp, which was set up on a hill on the banks of the Aisne near modern Craon. A direct assault on the camp was made difficult by the nearby swamp. Minor skirmishes took place on its banks.

Over time, the Belgae began to lack supplies, and their militia began to disintegrate. Caesar rushed in pursuit of the retreating and pursued them to Noviodun, 3.5 km from modern Soissons. The frightened Belgae, one tribe after another, began to express their submission to him. The Nervii who tried to resist were defeated and completely destroyed in the Battle of the Sambre River. According to Caesar, out of 60 thousand men capable of bearing arms, only 500 survived, and out of the 600 most noble senators, only three survived. Their death forced the recognition of the Roman rule of the Atrebates (Artois) and the Veromandui (Vermandois). The Aduatuci, who tried to defend themselves at Namur, suffered a severe defeat. After this, 33 thousand of the vanquished were sold into slavery.

Simultaneously with this campaign, Publius Licinius Crassus, with one legion, accepted the surrender of the Veneti, Osismi, Coriosolites, Aesubians and Redons in the coastal regions of Brittany. So by the end of the summer of 57 BC. e. a significant part of Gaul recognized the dominance of Roman weapons.

Caesar's campaign against the Belgae in 57 BC. e.

Conquest of Armorica and Aquitaine

Winter of 57–56 BC. e. The Roman legions spent time in Gaul, settling into quarters along the Loire. In the spring, the Veneti (Morbihan) came out against the Romans, joined by the coastal Armorian communities conquered last year. Caesar invaded Armorica with his main forces, and his legate Decimus Brutus, at the head of a newly built fleet, subdued the coast and defeated the ships of the Veneti at sea. As punishment for resistance, Caesar ordered the entire Veneti Senate to be executed and the prisoners sold into slavery.

Caesar's legate Quintus Titurius Sabinus with three legions marched with fire and sword through the territory of Normandy right up to the banks of the Seine, and Publius Crassus with twelve cohorts subjugated the territory of Aquitaine from the Garonne to the foot of the Pyrenees. In the decisive battle, the Aquitanian militia suffered such losses that only a quarter of its 50 thousand people survived.

Caesar's conquest of Armorica and Aquitaine, campaign 56 BC. e.

In the autumn of 56 BC. e. Caesar himself went to Belgica against the Morini and Menapii, who lived along the Scheldt River and in the lower reaches of the Rhine. As he approached, the barbarians hastened to retreat into dense forests and swamps. The Romans had to cut wide clearings and clear away rubble on the roads. Having limited himself to plundering homes and fields, Caesar gave the order to the troops to return to winter quarters.

Caesar crosses the Rhine

In the winter of 55 BC. e. The German tribes of the Usipetes and Tencteri, expelled from their homeland by the Suevi, crossed the Rhine in its lower reaches and found refuge in the lands of the Menapians. The refugees, who, according to Roman information, numbered 430 thousand, turned to Caesar with a request to give them land.

Caesar sought to prevent future uncontrolled crossings of the Germans across the Rhine and therefore gave them only three days to return back. Then, using as a pretext an attack by a detachment of barbarians on his foragers, he ordered the German leaders who had come for negotiations to be detained, and ordered the soldiers to slaughter all the people who had accumulated in the huge camp. Many people died, including old people, women and children.

The bridge over the Rhine was a real engineering miracle for its time. The flooring, covered with fascines, was supported by oak piles driven into the river bottom at a distance of 12 m from one another. To protect the load-bearing supports of the bridge upstream, bulls were built. All work took no more than 10 days

Not content with this result, Caesar decided to undertake a campaign across the Rhine. On his orders, in the area of present-day Koblenz, where the river is 0.5 km wide, engineering units erected a wooden bridge. The coastal communities of the Ubii declared their submission, but the Sugambri, who accepted the surviving Usipetes and Tencteri, preferred to retire deeper into their country. The Suevi also cleared the coastal areas and retreated into the thicket of their forests. Caesar did not pursue them, setting fire to the captured coastal settlements. On the 18th day of the campaign, his troops returned.

British expedition

Since Gaul remained calm, in August 55 BC. e. Caesar decided to undertake an expedition to Britain. Two legions were used in it. Having driven away the barbarian detachments with the fire of throwing machines, Caesar landed and fortified himself on the shore of the island. The Britons retreated deeper into their country, skillfully waging guerrilla warfare and destroying Roman detachments moving away from the coast. On the 18th day after landing, Caesar sailed back to Gaul.

In July 54 BC. e. A new invasion attempt followed, this time with four legions and 1,800 Gallic horsemen, transported on 800 ships. The Britons again did not fight a decisive battle, but instead retreated before their superior enemy. Meanwhile, some of the Roman ships were destroyed by a storm. Bad news came from Gaul about an uprising brewing there. Satisfied with receiving hostages and a formal expression of submission, on September 20, 54 BC. e. Caesar left the island again.

Caesar's expedition to the Rhine and campaign in Britain in 55 BC. e.

Gallic revolt

In the winter of 54–53 BC. e. the Gauls finally realized the danger that threatened them and began to act together. The Roman troops, numbering six legions, were at this time in winter quarters in the lands of the Belgae. The conspirators, among whom the decisive role was played by the Treverian leader Indutiomar and the Eburon leader Ambiorig, decided to attack them separately.

After this success, the rebels besieged the camp of Quintus Cicero on the Sambre. He barely managed to repel the first attack and held the camp until Caesar, who was wintering with three legions nearby in Samarobriva (Amiens), came to the rescue. In the ensuing battle, Caesar's 7 thousand Roman legionaries put 60 thousand Gauls to flight.

Campaign against the rebel Belgae in 53 BC. e.

Upon news of this defeat, the uprising began to decline. Indutiomarus, who with his trevians besieged the camp of Titus Labienus, allowed himself to be drawn into the battle before the approach of the Germans who had crossed the Rhine, was defeated and was killed. After this, the Germans returned to their home, and the Treveri submitted to Roman weapons.

In the spring of 53 BC. e. Caesar made up for the loss of personnel by recruiting three new legions and receiving another from Pompey. With these forces, during the summer campaign, he brutally dealt with the rebel Eburones, again pacified Belgica and once again crossed the Rhine to fully punish the Germans.

For the winter, two of his legions were stationed at the border of the Treveres, two at the Lingons, and the main group, which included six legions, at Agedinka (Sans), in the lands of the recently pacified Senones. Caesar himself went to Cisalpine Gaul to observe the course of events in Rome.

Vercingetorix

Meanwhile, the Gauls again began negotiations for a general uprising. At the first stage, it involved tribes living in the Loire and Seine basins: Aulerci, Andes, Turons, Parisians, Senones, Arverni, Cadurci and Lemovics. The conspirators were led by the Arverni leader Vercingetorix. He was a talented and energetic military leader, who later became a formidable opponent of Caesar.

On a predetermined day, February 13, 52 BC. e. The Carnutes killed all the Romans who were there in Kenab (Orléans). This massacre was supposed to serve as a signal for a general action. The total number of rebels was 80 thousand people. Vercingetorix, taking command of part of the allied forces, went to the region of the Bituriges, who then joined the uprising. Another army, led by Senon Drappet, was supposed to block Titus Labienus with his legions in Agedinka. Cadurc Lucterius with a third army invaded the region of the Rutheni, Arecomic Volcs and Tholosates, threatening the Narbonne province.

Caesar's position was extremely difficult. At the end of February, he managed to repel the immediate threat to Narbonne, after which, through the country occupied by the rebels, he arrived in Agedinck to the legions wintering there. From here Caesar went to Kenab to punish the Carnutes for the massacre they had carried out. The city was plundered and burned, and all its inhabitants were killed.

After this, Caesar crossed the Loire and entered the country of the Biturigi. Vercingetorix, using his superiority in cavalry, switched to guerrilla warfare tactics. The Gauls themselves burned several dozen of their cities and villages in order to deprive the enemy of food. They spared only Avaric (Bourges), the capital of the Biturigs, the most beautiful city in Gaul, which stood at the intersection of the most important trade routes. Caesar besieged Avaricus and took the city after a difficult siege that lasted 25 days. As punishment for resistance, the soldiers killed all its inhabitants. Of the 40 thousand people, only 500 survived, managing to reach the Gallic camp.

Roman siege works near Avaricus. In 25 days, the Romans built a siege mound 80 feet (24 meters) high and 330 feet (100 meters) wide, which allowed them to fight on the same level as the wall defenders. An attempt by the Gauls to set fire to the embankment was unsuccessful, and the city eventually fell

Having overestimated the significance of this victory, in April 52 BC. e. Caesar decided to go on the offensive, dividing his forces. Titus Labienus with four legions was sent to the lands of the Senones and Parisians to disrupt communication between the rebels and keep the Belgae in obedience. Caesar himself with six legions moved to the capital of the rebels, Gergovia. The city was located on a high hill, Vercingetorix blocked all approaches to the walls.

While the siege of Gergovia continued, unrest began among the Aedui, who had remained loyal to Rome all these years. If the Aedui had joined the uprising, the troops of Labienus, who were besieging Lutetia (Paris) at that time, would have been cut off from their main forces. To prevent such a turn of events, Caesar was forced to lift the siege of Gergovia, making an unsuccessful assault attempt before leaving. The Romans were repulsed from the walls and suffered heavy losses.

This defeat prompted the Aedui to enter into an alliance with Vercingetorix, since, among other trophies, hostages fell into his hands, ensuring the loyalty of their communities to the alliance with the Romans. After this, the uprising in Gaul became general.

Pan-Gallic uprising and campaign of 52 BC. e.

Siege of Alesia

The betrayal of the Aedui cut off Caesar from the Narbonne province. There were not enough forces to organize its defense, so Caesar decided to unite with Labienus and retreat south together. The latter, having learned of his failure, abandoned the siege of Lutetia and retreated to Agedinck, where in July 52 BC. e. united with Caesar who came there. Setting out towards the province of Narbonne, the Roman army was attacked by the cavalry of Vercingetorix on the march, but in the battle that followed, the German horsemen recruited by Caesar overturned and scattered the Gauls.

Now Vercingetorix himself was forced to retreat to the region of the Mandubians and seek refuge within the walls of their capital Alesia. Caesar surrounded the city with a line of fortifications with a total length of 15 km, along which 23 strong points were erected. From them it was possible to observe the Gauls day and night. In his “Notes” he left detailed descriptions of engineering work:

“He built a ditch 20 feet wide and with steep walls, and built all other fortifications 400 feet behind this ditch. Such a system was intended to prevent unexpected or night enemy attacks. He made two ditches 15 feet wide and the same depth, into one of them he carried water from the river. Behind them was built a dam and a rampart 12 feet high, which was equipped with a parapet and battlements, and at the junction of the parapet and the rampart large slingshots were issued to make it difficult for enemies to climb the rampart, and the entire line of fortifications was surrounded by towers 80 feet from one another. . Wolf pits were dug in the field in front of the ditches.”

The fortifications allowed 60 thousand Romans to keep the 80 thousand Gallic army under siege.

Siege of Alesia by Caesar. The city is located on the top of a plateau, adjacent to the camp of Vercingetorix. The city is surrounded by a double strip of fortifications built by Caesar’s soldiers with large camps and guard forts.

While the Romans had not yet managed to completely close the blockade ring, the remnants of the Gallic cavalry left the city and scattered throughout their districts to gather new forces there. On the 42nd day of the siege, a 250,000-strong Gaul militia under the command of Commius and Vercassivellauna approached the city. Now Caesar himself became a besieged man in his camp.

At night, on a three-kilometer front east of Alesia, the Gauls attacked the Roman line of fortifications, but were unsuccessful. The next night the assault was repeated in the northern and southeastern directions. At the same time, Vercingetorix tried to break through the line of Roman fortifications from the inside. In the night battle, the Romans had to strain all their strength. Caesar promptly transferred reserves to that sector of the defense that was in greatest danger.

Only by the morning of the next day was the attack repulsed on both fronts. The Gaulish army dispersed and Vercingetorix returned to his camp. The next day, September 27, 52 BC. e., Alesia capitulated.

Post-war structure of Gaul

Gaul paid dearly for its resistance. In his report to the Senate, Caesar reported that in nine years he had to fight three million people, of whom he exterminated one million, put one million to flight, and captured and sold one million. He destroyed 800 Gallic fortresses and conquered 300 tribes. The amount of gold captured by Caesar was so great that its price in Rome fell by a third.

Only the Remes, Lingones and Aedui retained the status of Roman allies in conquered Gaul. The remaining tribes were obliged to hand over hostages and pay taxes. The uprisings that the Gauls raised were ruthlessly suppressed.

Vercingetorix capitulates to Caesar, painting by L. Royer (1899)

In 22 BC. e. Augustus placed the province of Narbonne under the control of the Senate, and divided the rest of Gaul into three parts: Aquitaine, the Lugdunian province and Belgica, which were ruled by his legates. Lugdunum (Lyon) became the common capital of the Gallic provinces; representatives of 60 Gallic communities gathered here annually.

The Romanization of the country proceeded so quickly that already in 16 BC. e. The Romans moved the troops stationed here to the Rhine line, entrusting their command to the governor of Germany. The only garrison on the territory of Gaul remained 1,200 warriors of the cohorts of the city guard of Lugdunum. And in 36, Emperor Claudius granted the Gauls the right to Latin citizenship.

Literature:

Notes of Julius Caesar and his successors about the Gallic War, the Civil War, the Alexandrian War, the African War / trans. M. M. Pokrovsky. - M.-L., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 1948.
Mommsen T. History of Rome. - T. 3. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2005.
Mongait A. L. Archeology of Western Europe: Bronze and Iron Ages. - M.: Nauka, 1974.
Shchukin M. B. At the turn of the era. - St. Petersburg: Farn, 1994.

At the beginning of 54 BC, it seemed that the war was over, the job was done - Gaul had resigned itself to Roman dictates. But someone, Caesar, who managed to feel in his gut where he was and among whom, was aware of how precarious everything was and how small a spark was enough to ignite.

Broad sections of Gallic society were not going to put up with the new realities - it seemed, why on earth? They didn’t have a very clear idea of who they were dealing with.

The support of the emerging Roman rule were those “parties”, groupings of the nobility, which themselves benefited from relying on the alien force - in order to take a leading position in their tribes. And Caesar skillfully used all his political talent: he supported whom he needed, whom he needed to push heads against each other. He took into account the tribal specifics: where he appointed “kings”, where he transformed the aristocratic elite into a “senate”, somewhere traditional tribal leaders and their entourage remained in favor. To make his life easier, he used the ancient practice of the Gauls, when weaker tribes became “clients” of stronger ones: in particular, the Aedui and Remus were proclaimed such guardians. There will be someone to look after - after all, these are old Roman friends.

In his worries and concerns about the conquered regions, Caesar always remembered the main thing - Rome. And there fateful events unfolded. Having served a joint consulate with Pompey in 55 BC, Crassus went to serve as governor in Syria. There he imagined the laurels of Alexander the Great - he planned to conquer the Parthian kingdom. And next in line are Bactria and India...

But the Parthians treated the conquerors like Kutuzov. After the successes of 54 BC, when a number of cities were captured, Crassus set out on a new campaign, deciding how he had planned it. Together with him at the head of the detachment of horsemen was his son, Publius Crassus, who had insignia for valor in Gaul, where he fought under the command of Caesar.

The Parthians habitually retreated into the waterless Mesopotamian steppes, Krassus rushed after them, rejoicing in the conquered spaces - and found himself trapped. At Carrhae, he was surrounded by clouds of beautiful horsemen and archers and began to exterminate the legionnaires from a safe distance. Crassus the Younger rushed at them with his detachment; it was difficult for the light Gallic cavalry to resist the Parthians protected by armor. In a desperate impulse, the Gauls jumped to the ground, ripping open the bellies of enemy horses - but this was dying courage. Their commander also died.

The army had to either die ingloriously or capitulate. During the negotiations for surrender, old Krass was treacherously killed. Few of the Romans survived - most of those who were not captured died on the way back. And during a feast, the Hellenistic educated Parthian ruler, while reading Euripides’ “The Bacchae,” showed the head of the unlucky conqueror of Asia to the enthusiastic courtiers.

Caesar's position became more complicated. Previously, he was like a connecting link between Crassus and Pompey, who often clashed. In addition, his daughter Julia, who was married to Pompey, unexpectedly died - both her father and her husband, and, it seems, the Roman plebs, sincerely loved her.

Caesar offered Pompey his great-niece (sister of the future Emperor Octavian Augustus) as his new wife, and he himself intended to marry his daughter. But he refused such a combination, and his wife became the daughter of Quintus Metellus Scipio, an obvious enemy of Caesar.

In 52 BC there was still trouble. Caesar's interests in Rome were effectively defended by a noble Roman, the favorite of the Roman crowd, Clodius. The Commonwealth was sweet. Once upon a time, Clodius, disguised as a woman, entered Caesar's house for a sacrament in honor of the Feast of the Good Goddess - seeking a meeting with his wife Pompeia. There was a trial for sacrilege - men were strictly forbidden to attend the sacrament. But Clodius was unexpectedly acquitted. Caesar himself, who already had great influence in Rome, spared him. Apparently, with a trained eye, the politician figured that a forgiven womanizer could be of great benefit. He did not forgive his wife, although he loved her, and there was no guilt on her. “Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion” - this is how the husband motivated his severity, and this is where this phrase came from, which is repeated from century to century, when necessary and when not necessary.

Clodius, indeed, began to faithfully defend the interests of Caesar and did this for about ten years. He even moved from the category of patricians to plebeians - so that it would be easier to sow trouble. In Rome at that time, every political group or simply influential person had numerous hordes of clients, freedmen, slaves and well-fed Roman punks serving them. There were also supporters of the monopoly power of the “strong hand”, and various * 38 * 38 * no-mask defenders of the decrepit republic (these included both nostalgic romantics and people who had made their bets on their own). These gangs constantly fought among themselves on the streets of Rome and had considerable weight in the balance of political forces. Clodius, an unscrupulous adventurer and idol of the mob, was like a duck to water in such a situation, and for Caesar a very valuable person. But suddenly he is killed in a random skirmish.

***

And so Caesar is distracted from such important concerns by matters closer and more terrible. Still, it flared.

The first sparks flew in 54 BC. That year was a lean year, and the proconsul stationed his legions throughout Gaul - this made it easier for them to feed themselves. Fifteen cohorts (one and a half legions) were stationed in the Aburon region (between the Meuse and the Rhine). But as soon as they settled in their camp, the Gauls attacked. The Romans recaptured it without difficulty. After this, the leader of the Ambiorix tribe came to the Roman commanders Sabinus and Cote and assured that he had nothing to do with it, that he personally owed a lot to Caesar. The tribe decided to attack without his knowledge. And he warned: soon the rest of the Gauls would join the uprising, and the Germans were already coming to the rescue. Therefore, he strongly advised me to join a larger force.

And he achieved his goal. At dawn the next day, the army set out from the camp in an extended column, weighed down by a huge baggage train - and became easy prey for the Gauls. The commanders died, the few survivors tried to strengthen themselves in the abandoned camp. They somehow held out until nightfall, but then every single one of them committed suicide. It was then that Caesar swore not to shave his beard.

Ambiorix did not waste time - he raised other tribes. The legion, commanded by Quintus Cicero, brother of the famous orator, was besieged in its camp. But this one did not succumb to any tricks and managed to let Caesar know about his plight. He did not keep himself waiting, and with a 7,000-strong detachment, with skillful actions, he defeated 60,000 Gauls.

Caesar strained all his diplomatic abilities, all his ability to persuade, just to prevent a chain reaction. To whom he made promises, to whom he intimidated. And let’s give him his due: he admitted that what happened was to be expected, that everything was to blame for the severity of Roman rule. But a harsh yoke had not yet been imposed on the Gauls; it seemed to them that way out of unaccustomment. s 4-2" Not *

***

The next year, 53 BC, Caesar decided to start with punitive expeditions. But at the beginning of spring, as usual, he convened a general Gallic congress at his headquarters. Seeing that some tribal leaders did not show up and, realizing that this was open disobedience, he moved the event to the (geographical) center of Gaul - to the Parisian city of Lutetia (Paris). This tribe did not participate in the uprising.

At the congress there were again persuasion and threats, after the congress there were again campaigns and battles. The Germans came to the aid of the Gauls, and the Romans again visited the Rhine over beautiful bridges built in a few days.

It is noteworthy: having invaded the country of the instigators of the Aburon rebellion, Caesar addressed all neighboring Gallic communities with a call: come and plunder. And they came, they came willingly. The devastation was terrible. The Aburons disappeared from history altogether.

At the next congress, which took place in the fall in Ducortor (Reims), an investigation was carried out to identify the main culprits of the outrage, and one of them, Accon, was subjected to painful execution.

It seems to have become quieter. Having secured food supplies for the army, Caesar went to Upper Italy (Cisalpine Gaul) for the winter. There he learned that the Senate had elected Pompey as consul, giving him extraordinary powers: he was given the opportunity to recruit military personnel throughout Italy. Caesar immediately recruits new legions in the Province, but he did not need them where he might have expected. The Gauls also heard about what was happening in Rome, they decided that Caesar had no time for them now, he would never return, and they became animated. They were wrong, and 52 BC became the bloodiest year in the Gallic epic.

It began in the region of the Carnauts - the spiritual center of the Gauls, where Druids from all over Gaul gathered every year. In the city of Tsenab (Orléans) all Roman citizens were mercilessly killed.

The Arverni tribe joined the uprising. This had a particularly great impact on the Gauls. The Arverni were the strongest and richest of all in southern Gaul, and still remained loyal to Rome - so their example was contagious. And most importantly, the young leader Vercingetorix emerged among the Arverni.

Of course, Gaulish names are very difficult, but it's worth remembering. Because its owner was able to raise Gaul to a nationwide * - significant 40 * uprising, and not to a rebellion of isolated tribes, albeit simultaneous (the German historian Mommsen expressed the idea that just as the Greeks realized their national unity only during the invasion of the Persians, so did the Gauls first imbued with it, rebelling together under the leadership of Vercingetorix). It was also a military talent commensurate with Caesar. Soon he was proclaimed king.

He didn't waste any time. He gathered the forces of twelve neighboring communities and sent them to the Province, while he himself went to raise other tribes.

But then Caesar suddenly appears with an army reinforced by new legions. He acts no less energetically than his rival: through seemingly impassable mountain snow drifts he makes his way to the territory of his native tribe.

He doesn't stay there for long - it's too risky. He moves against other rebel tribes, and success accompanies him everywhere. Tsenab (Orléans), where Roman citizens were exterminated, was punished cruelly: given over to soldiers for plunder and set on fire.

And then Vercingetorix chooses a new war strategy. Frontal battles with steely Roman cohorts must be avoided. The Gauls have superiority in cavalry - therefore, success must be sought in quick attacks on small detachments engaged in obtaining food and transporting it. Deprive the Romans of supplies, give them no rest with frequent raids, and bleed them out in small skirmishes.

And we must accustom ourselves to the idea that for the sake of the common good we have to sacrifice family and friends. If necessary, burn your villages and even cities - so that they do not become shelters and strongholds for the Romans.

All this is similar to the guerrilla war that the Britons waged against Caesar across the English Channel. But Vercingetorix was also able to adopt from the Romans the tactics of using quickly erected and well-fortified camps.

The Gallic leaders approved of his plan. In one day, twenty villages and cities of the Biturig tribe burned. But the Biturigs were able to reclaim their beauty and pride, the city of Avarica (Bourges): it was one of the most beautiful and richest cities in all of Gaul. They promised that they would never hand him over to the enemy.

Soon the opportunity presented itself to test the power of this oath - Caesar besieged the city. The siege was indeed very difficult for the Romans. The soldiers strained themselves while conducting siege work in the swampy area. Vercingetorix was nearby all the time, his flying troops were constantly disturbing.

But all the achievements of Roman engineering were used: shafts, covered galleries, movable towers, throwing machines. The besieged tried to get rid of this threat with a sudden night raid, but were repulsed, although the battle continued until the morning. The situation was becoming hopeless.

Caesar decided to attack. The city was taken, and no one was spared from the rushing soldiers - neither women, nor old people, nor children. Of the forty thousand inhabitants of the unfortunate city, no more than five hundred remained alive.

But the uprising did not wane after that; on the contrary, it flared up even more. And the authority of Vercingetorix only increased after the tragedy: the Gauls were convinced of the superiority of his plan over the strategy of large battles.

Another unpleasant surprise awaited Caesar: a civil war began to brew within the Aedui tribe, the most faithful Roman allies. Even in the Province it became restless. In search of additional forces, the proconsul sent messengers across the Rhine, to the newly subjugated Germanic tribes, asking for mounted troops and light infantry. And the Germans did not fail to rush to the smell of blood.

***

The denouement came at the city of Alesia, located on a high hill. Vercingetorix, who decided to defend the city, positioned his army not only inside the walls, but also around the hill. Recently, in a similar situation, he achieved success at Gergovia - there the Romans were forced to retreat.

The approaching legions began to build a line of siege fortifications 17 kilometers long. The Gauls interfered with the work with raids from their cavalry, and one day a large cavalry battle broke out. This was not the first time that German horsemen brought success to the Romans - the Gauls were unable to fight them.

Vercingetorix made a bold decision - he sent his mounted warriors to spread the call throughout Gaul to go to the rescue of the besieged city. Tell them that the 80,000-strong army locked there only has enough supplies left for a month, and if it dies, it will be a general disaster. The congress of leaders sent out orders to all communities about who should field how many soldiers. It was expected that at least 250 thousand people would arrive.

But Caesar, having learned about this, also makes an unusual decision: he orders the construction of a 20-kilometer outer line of defense against the militia threatening from outside.

In Alesia, indeed, supplies soon ran out and famine began. At the military council, a terrible proposal was made: to use all those unfit for defense to feed the defenders. But the majority did not like this, and a softer decision was made: send the extra ones out of the city.

And so a huge crowd of emaciated townspeople, who had recently given up their homes for a common cause, moved towards the Roman trenches. They begged to be turned into slaves - if only they would feed them. But Caesar was relentless and sent everyone back.

Finally, the general Gallic army arrived in sufficient numbers. The defenders took heart. Twice the Romans were hotly attacked from two sides, from the city and from outside, but they survived.

The third battle was decisive - the rivals understood that everything was at stake, doom or gloom. The pressure of the Gauls was desperate, Caesar himself rushed into the wheelhouse in a purple cloak at the head of mounted cohorts. The scales trembled, and then reinforcements arrived - but not to the Gauls, but to the Romans.

The victory was complete. The position of the besieged became hopeless, the militia pressing from outside began to scatter - it was too diverse and therefore not very stable.

The next day there was capitulation. Vercingetorix, in his best armor, on a smartly decorated horse, rode around the dais on which Caesar was sitting, tore off his weapons and sat down at his feet.

***

What awaited him? Six years of imprisonment in a damp Roman prison, waiting bitterly for Caesar to finally get around to celebrating his triumph.

Oh, this will be an unprecedented spectacle! Caesar celebrated four triumphs in a row: Gallic, Alexandrian, Pontic and African. His chariot was accompanied by forty huge elephants; the carts carried piles of gold and thousands of golden wreaths, mountains of other treasures, decorations made of precious wood, ivory, and tortoiseshell horn.

The triumphant was accompanied by his faithful comrades - his soldiers. They, as usual, sang cheerful, mocking songs: “Hey, Romans, hide your wives! We are bringing a bald womanizer!” The hero of the day really was greedy for love pleasures all his life, and many Roman matrons reciprocated his feelings - even Muttia, the wife of Gnaeus

Gaul had long accumulated strength to rebel against the conquerors. The revolt began in 54 and covered most of the Gallic governorship. However, its power was seriously reduced by the fact that the Gaul tribes acted separately and at different times, without a single leader in the person of a capable military leader. The most serious action of the Gauls was led by the tribal leader Ambiorix. He considered it a favorable opportunity that the Roman troops in the north of Gaul were stationed in not one, but eight fortified camps. Not far from the city of Aduatuca, the Gauls suddenly attacked a Roman garrison on the march in one of the camps commanded by Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Avrunculei Cotta. During the battle, the attackers killed all the Romans - one and a half legions (15 cohorts).

After this victory, the rebels besieged the fortified camp of Quintus Cicero, but they failed to take the Romans by surprise here. They repelled the attack successfully. Moreover, the governor of Gaul managed to send a letter asking for help. Having received such news, Gaius Julius Caesar, who was at that time in Central Gaul, having only 7 thousand legionnaires at hand, hastened to the rescue of Quintus Cicero. In the clash with the rebels, the governor won. Then, with a successful maneuver, the siege was lifted from the Roman camp. Realizing that he was now unable to fight the army of Ambiorix and other Gallic rebel leaders, Caesar retreated from the north of the country, but managed to gather his army together. By the spring of 53, there were already 10 legions under his command and he could begin to suppress the uprising in the governorship.

Without much difficulty, the Romans captured the rebellious cities of Vellaunodunum, Genabum, and Novidunum. The rebels retreated everywhere, waging a guerrilla war, devastating their own region so as not to give provisions and fodder to the enemy. Caesar, at the head of a 50,000-strong Roman army, besieged the city of Avericum (modern Bourges in France), the center of the rebel Gauls led by the leader Vercingetorix. The Romans were never able to take Avericum by storm; the Gauls repulsed all assaults. When the besieged ran out of food, the army of Gauls, led by their leader, secretly left the fortress. Only then were the Caesarian legions able to break into the city and kill its garrison along with its inhabitants.

In 52, the leader of Vercingetorix crossed arms with the Gallic governor. This happened under the walls of the city of Gergovia, which the Romans besieged, however, without any hope of success. Caesar decided to retreat as his army began to experience great difficulties in delivering food. But before leaving, he launched a final assault, which the Gauls repulsed. The Romans left more than 700 legionnaires and 46 centurions on the battlefield. In the same year, Caesar, at the head of the same 50,000-strong army, besieged the fortress city of Alesia, which stood on the top of Mount Auxois not far from the sources of the Seine. Alesia was defended by 90 thousand foot and 15 thousand horse Gauls under the command of Vercingetorix. The Romans surrounded the besieged fortress with two lines of fortifications, each of which reached a length of 22-23 kilometers. Now the rebels could neither escape from the siege ring nor receive outside help.

The Belgian tribes, having gathered a large army, decided to come to the aid of the besieged Alesia, but were defeated by the Roman legions in battle. The news of the Belgae's defeat demoralized the city's defenders so much that they capitulated the next day. The captured leader of the rebel Gauls was sent to Rome to participate in the military triumph of Gaius Julius Caesar, where Vercingetorix, after five years of imprisonment and daily humiliation, was executed as a rebel. After the fall of fortress Alesia and the surrender of the main forces of the rebel Gauls to the mercy of the winner, the Roman conquests of Gaul (on the territory of which modern France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Switzerland are located) ended. The last centers of the uprising of the Gallic tribes were extinguished in 50.

Gaius Julius Caesar told his descendants about his war against the rebellious Gauls, who outnumbered the Romans but did not have the ability to fight, in “Notes on the Gallic War,” written in the third person. Here is one excerpt from Caesar’s memoirs: “The situation was difficult, and there was no reinforcement. Then Caesar snatched the shield from one of the soldiers in the back ranks and rushed forward. He called the centurions by name and loudly encouraged the other soldiers, shouting at them to make their way forward in a chain (this would make it easier for them to use their swords). His example strengthened their spirit and gave them hope. Despite the danger, each of the soldiers tried to show their best side to their commander.” In 51, Gaul was finally pacified and became a Roman possession for at least half a millennium. The Eternal City has not known such a number of cheap slaves in the city slave markets for a long time. Victories over the Gauls contributed to the growth of the popularity of Gaius Julius Caesar in Ancient Rome.

Vercingetorix or Vercingetorix(Latin Vercingetorix) (c. 72 BC - 46 BC) - leader of the Celtic Arverni tribe in central Gaul, who opposed Julius Caesar in the Gallic War. His name in Gallic means "lord over" (ver-rix) "warriors" (cingetos). The son of the Arverni leader Keltillus, who was executed on charges of wanting to rule all of Gaul. According to some sources, he studied in Britain with the Druids. According to the testimony of Dio Cassius, he was a friend of Caesar. During the Gallic War, Vercingetorix led an uprising of the united Gallic tribes against Caesar, who actually conquered all of Gaul, in 52 BC. e.

Rome and Gaul

In the middle of the 1st century BC. e. The Romans attributed three territories to independent Gaul: Aquitaine, Belgium and Gaul proper. In the southern part of modern France in 121 BC. The Romans organized the province of Narbonese Gaul. This area was mainly inhabited by Celtic tribes who maintained close ties with their fellow tribesmen in the north. The lack of land in Italy pushed the Romans and Italics to develop the territories of Narbonen Gaul. Already by the 80s BC. e. The Romans were actively engaged in agriculture and livestock raising in the province, and by the 60s BC. e. It is known about their numerous confiscations of arable land and pastures. In addition, the Romans began to completely dominate the financial sphere of the province. In the spring of 58 BC. e. Gaius Julius Caesar became governor of Gaul (three provinces - Narbonese Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum). Caesar received from the Senate the right to military command for five years, the opportunity to recruit legions and appoint assistant legates of his choice. The ambitious politician gave Gaul a huge place in his plans, which was favored by the explosive situation that had developed here at that time.

"Turtle" from shields. The capture of a German fortification by attack is depicted. Based on the relief on the column of M. Aurelius Antoninus in Rome

Even before the start of the Gallic War, the Belgian-British alliance and the confederation led by the Arverni fought for influence among the tribes. The position of the Arverni was greatly shaken when in 121 BC. e. they were defeated by the Romans. The Aedui, who entered into an alliance with Rome, on the contrary, significantly strengthened their positions. Therefore, by the beginning of the Gallic War, the greatest political significance was the confrontation between the Aedui, allies of Rome, and the Sequani. Most other tribes had both supporters of rapprochement with the Aedui (and, accordingly, with Rome) and their opponents. However, almost all information about the political development of Gaul and the relations between the tribes is known only from Caesar’s “Notes on the Gallic War.” Around 63 BC e. The Aedui fought a war with the Sequani for a strategically important corridor leading from the Rhine valley to the upper reaches of the Rhone. The Sequani initially suffered defeats and recruited 15 thousand Germanic mercenaries from the Suebi tribe, led by Ariovistus, to participate in the war. Soon Ariovistus turned his arms against the Sequani who had called him and took away part of their territory, and called the Germans to the occupied lands. Soon their number here reached 120 thousand people. The Celts feared that Ariovistus might continue to seize Gallic territories, but could do nothing; according to one version, it was to expel Ariovist that the Helvetii were called upon. The Gauls were divided. One party, led by the Aedui leader Divitiacus, planned to turn to the Romans for protection. Another, led by Divitiac's brother Aedui Dumnorig, as well as Sequan Castic, proposed using the help of the Helvetii against the Germans. This powerful and wealthy Celtic tribe, living in the northwestern part of modern Switzerland, before the growing onslaught of the Germans, decided to leave their possessions and settle in the southwestern part of Aquitaine. For this purpose, the Helvetii collected large supplies of food and burned their cities and villages.

War of Rome with the Helvetii and Ariovistus

Since the shortest route to the places planned for settlements ran through the territory of the Narbonese province, the Helvetii turned to Rome with a request for free passage. The Romans, only in 62–61 BC. e. Having suppressed the Allobroges' uprising in the province, they feared renewed unrest and refused their request. The Helvetii tried to break through by force, but Caesar, already in the early spring of 58 BC. e. Hastened to leave for the province, he took a number of defensive measures here. Finding the path through the province blocked, the Helvetii moved around - through the areas of the Sequani and Aedui. Dumnorig obtained permission for them to pass freely. However, the violence that the Helvetii inflicted on the journey turned the Aedui in favor of Divitiac's party. As a Roman ally, he turned to Caesar asking for protection. Caesar hastened to seize a convenient pretext for military action. At the beginning of the summer, he transferred three legions from Cisalpine Gaul across the Alps in addition to the legion stationed in the territory of Narbonne. In addition, he recruited two more legions of volunteers. Now having an army of six legions, i.e. 25-30 thousand people, Caesar rushed after the Helvetii. June 6, 58 BC e. he attacked the Tigurins who were part of them during their crossing of the Arar. The surprise attack was successful: the Gauls were defeated and suffered heavy losses. Constantly pursuing the enemy, Caesar was able to force a decisive battle on the Helvetians a few days later somewhere near the Aedui capital Bibracte, possibly near modern Montmore.

Negotiations between Caesar and Divicon after the Battle of Arar. art by Karl Jauslin

At the beginning of the battle, the Helvetii were able to strongly push the Romans from their positions, but then military luck turned away from them. The battle ended in complete victory for the Romans. About 80 thousand Helvetii and their allies were killed on the battlefield, the survivors were forced to return to their places of initial settlement and rebuild previously destroyed settlements. After the victory over the Helvetii, Caesar convened a general Gallic meeting in Bibracte, at which representatives of the most influential tribes brought him a complaint about the actions of Ariovistus. Ariovist refused his invitation to come to headquarters, which confirmed the worst suspicions about him. Soon Caesar learned that the Garudas, who had recently arrived from beyond the Rhine, were devastating the border lands of the Aedui, and on the other side of the river were standing, waiting for the crossing, huge forces of the Sueves. In an effort to prevent their connection with the main forces of Ariovistus, Caesar set out on a campaign at the end of August of the same year. He managed to occupy the capital of the Sequani, Vesontion (Besançon), before the main forces of the Germans approached it. Ariovist awaited Caesar's approach at the "Burgundian Gate" near modern Belfort. The personal meeting of the military leaders was unsuccessful. Ariovistus refused to accept Caesar's mediation and rejected his demands to grant the Gauls freedom. For several days there were light skirmishes between the opponents. The decisive battle took place on September 10, 58 BC. e. At the beginning of the battle, the Germans managed to push back the Romans on one of the flanks, but Caesar promptly brought in reserves, which decided the outcome in his favor. About 80 thousand Germans died on the battlefield and during the flight to the banks of the Rhine. Ariovistus and a few associates managed to cross the river and escape. His further fate is unknown.

Caesar in Gaul

The Roman victory over the Helvetii and Ariovistus seriously changed the political situation in Gaul. The palm among the Gallic tribes passed into the hands of the Aedui and the pro-Roman party that stood behind them. The Belgae who lived in the north of Gaul were unhappy with these circumstances. They terminated the friendship agreement previously concluded with the Aedui and began to prepare for war. Caesar regarded the Belgae's preparations as a threat to the new order he had created. In the spring of 57 BC. e. he recruited two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul and, with all the forces that were with him, invaded Belgica. The Rems, who lived between the Aisne and the Marne, assured him of their support and offered help. The Levki (Tul), the Mediomatriki (Metz) and the Treveri who lived in the Moselle valley declared their neutrality. The frightened Belgae, one tribe after another, began to express their submission to him. The Nervii who tried to resist were defeated and completely destroyed in the Battle of the Sambre River. According to Caesar, out of 60 thousand men capable of bearing arms, only 500 survived, and out of the 600 most noble senators, only three survived. Their death forced the recognition of the Roman rule of the Atrebates (Artois) and the Veromandui (Vermandois). The Aduatuci, who tried to defend themselves at Namur, suffered a severe defeat. After this, 33 thousand of the vanquished were sold into slavery. At the same time with this campaign, Publius Licinius Crassus with one legion accepted the surrender of the Veneti, Osismi, Coriosolites, Esubians and Redons. So by the end of the summer of 57 BC. e. a significant part of Gaul recognized the dominance of Roman weapons. Simultaneously with this campaign, Publius Licinius Crassus with one legion accepted the surrender of the Veneti, Osismi, Coriosolites, Aesubii and Redoni. So by the end of the summer of 57 BC. e. a significant part of Gaul recognized the dominance of Roman weapons.

In the spring, the Veneti (Morbihan) came out against the Romans, joined by the coastal Armorian communities conquered last year. Caesar invaded Armorica with his main forces, and his legate Decimus Brutus, at the head of a newly built fleet, subdued the coast and defeated the ships of the Veneti at sea. As punishment for resistance, Caesar ordered the entire Veneti Senate to be executed and the prisoners sold into slavery. Caesar's legate Quintus Titurius Sabinus with three legions marched with fire and sword through the territory of Normandy right up to the banks of the Seine, and Publius Crassus with twelve cohorts subjugated the territory of Aquitaine from the Garonne to the foot of the Pyrenees. In the decisive battle, the Aquitanian militia suffered such losses that only a quarter of its 50 thousand people survived. In the autumn of 56 BC. e. Caesar himself went to Belgica against the Morini and Menapii, who lived along the Scheldt River and in the lower reaches of the Rhine. As he approached, the barbarians hastened to retreat into dense forests and swamps. Having limited himself to plundering homes and fields, Caesar gave the order to the troops to return to winter quarters. In the winter of 55 BC. e. The German tribes of the Usipetes and Tencteri, expelled from their homeland by the Suevi, crossed the Rhine in its lower reaches and found refuge in the lands of the Menapians. The refugees, who, according to Roman information, numbered 430 thousand, turned to Caesar with a request to give them land. Caesar sought to prevent future uncontrolled crossings of the Germans across the Rhine and therefore gave them only three days to return back. Then, using as a pretext an attack by a detachment of barbarians on his foragers, he ordered the German leaders who had come for negotiations to be detained, and ordered the soldiers to slaughter all the people who had accumulated in the huge camp. Many people died, including old people, women and children.

Gallic revolt

The uprising began in the Eburonean region. Ambiorix and his men attacked 15 cohorts wintering near Aduatuca (Tongeren), commanded by the legates Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculei Cotta. The attack came as a complete surprise to the Romans, but they managed to repulse the first assault of the rebels. Then Ambiorix, who had previously been considered a loyal ally of the Romans, summoned the legates to negotiations and promised them a free retreat to their own. When the Romans left the camp walls, the Gauls ambushed them on the march. The entire squad was destroyed. After this success, the rebels besieged the camp of Quintus Cicero on the Sambre. He barely managed to repel the first attack and held the camp until Caesar, who was wintering with three legions nearby in Samarobriva (Amiens), came to the rescue. In the ensuing battle, Caesar's 7 thousand Roman legionaries put 60 thousand Gauls to flight. Upon news of this defeat, the uprising began to decline. Indutiomarus, who with his trevians besieged the camp of Titus Labienus, allowed himself to be drawn into the battle before the approach of the Germans who had crossed the Rhine, was defeated and was killed. After this, the Germans returned to their home, and the Treveri submitted to Roman weapons. In the spring of 53 BC. e. Caesar made up for the loss of personnel by recruiting three new legions and receiving another from Pompey. With these forces, during the summer campaign, he brutally dealt with the rebel Eburones, again pacified Belgica and once again crossed the Rhine to fully punish the Germans. For the winter, two of his legions were stationed at the border of the Treveres, two at the Lingons, and the main group, which included six legions, at Agedinka (Sans), in the lands of the recently pacified Senones. Caesar himself went to Cisalpine Gaul to observe the course of events in Rome.

Vercingetorix

“This very influential young man, whose father once stood at the head of all of Gaul and was killed by his fellow citizens for his desire for royal power, gathered all his clients and easily set them on fire to revolt. Having learned about his plans, the Arverni grabbed their weapons. His uncle Gobannition and the other princes, who did not find it possible to try their luck now, opposed him, and he was expelled from the city of Gergovia. However, he did not abandon his intention and began to recruit poor people and all sorts of rabble from the villages. With this gang, he goes around the community and attracts supporters everywhere, calling to arms to fight for common freedom. Having thus gathered a large force, he expels from the country his opponents, who had recently expelled him. His followers proclaim him king. He sends embassies everywhere and implores the Gauls to remain faithful to their oath. Soon the Senones, Parisians, Pictons, Kadurki, Turons, Aulerci, Lemoviki, Andes and all other tribes on the Ocean shore entered into an alliance with him. By unanimous decision they gave him the main command. Invested with this power, he demands hostages from all these communities; orders to supply a certain number of soldiers as soon as possible; determines how many weapons each community must produce and by what time.” - Caesar. Notes on the Gallic War, book VII, 4.

The signal for the uprising was the attack of the Carnut tribe on Kenab (or Tsenab; modern Orleans) and the murder of all the Romans in it (mainly merchants) - the attackers hoped that the Roman Republic, gripped by a political crisis after the murder of the politician Publius Clodius Pulcher, would not be able to respond effectively . On a predetermined day, February 13, 52 BC. e. The Carnutes killed all the Romans who were there in Kenab. This massacre was supposed to serve as a signal for a general action. The total number of rebels was 80 thousand people. Vercingetorix, taking command of part of the allied forces, went to the region of the Bituriges, who then joined the uprising. Another army, led by Senon Drappet, was supposed to block Titus Labienus with his legions in Agedinka. Cadurc Lucterius with a third army invaded the region of the Rutheni, Arecomic Volcs and Tholosates, threatening the Narbonne province. It is believed that Vercingetorix not only became the rebel leader before the massacre at Kenab, but also planned the entire rebellion, including the unusual start of the war in winter, which forced Caesar, otherwise wintering south of the Alps, to make his way to the legions stationed in Gaul through the snow-capped mountains of the Cevennes. The Gallic leader's plan was to block the Roman legions in the north and invade Narbonese Gaul in the south; according to this plan, Caesar would have to devote all his forces to the defense of the Roman province, and Vercingetorix with the main army would have to operate unhindered in central Gaul.

Romans under the yoke art.Charles Gabriel Gleyre

Caesar besieged Avaricus and took the city after a difficult siege that lasted 25 days. As punishment for resistance, the soldiers killed all its inhabitants. Of the 40 thousand people, only 500 survived, managing to reach the Gallic camp. Having overestimated the significance of this victory, in April 52 BC. e. Caesar decided to go on the offensive, dividing his forces. Titus Labienus with four legions was sent to the lands of the Senones and Parisians to disrupt communication between the rebels and keep the Belgae in obedience. Caesar himself with six legions moved to the capital of the rebels, Gergovia. The city was located on a high hill, Vercingetorix blocked all approaches to the walls. While the siege of Gergovia continued, unrest began among the Aedui, who had remained loyal to Rome all these years. If the Aedui had joined the uprising, the troops of Labienus, who were besieging Lutetia (Paris) at that time, would have been cut off from their main forces. To prevent such a turn of events, Caesar was forced to lift the siege of Gergovia, making an unsuccessful assault attempt before leaving. The Romans were repulsed from the walls and suffered heavy losses. This defeat prompted the Aedui to enter into an alliance with Vercingetorix, since, among other trophies, hostages fell into his hands, ensuring the loyalty of their communities to the alliance with the Romans. After this, the uprising in Gaul became general.

Defeat at Alesia

After Vercingetorix forced the Romans to retreat from Gergovia, which they besieged, he was unanimously recognized as the supreme military leader at the all-Gallic congress in Bibract, the capital of the Aedui tribe, the last to go over to the side of the uprising; Only two tribes remained loyal to Rome (Lingones and Remes). At the congress in Bibracte, Vercingetorix also stated that the Gauls should continue to avoid a general battle by disrupting Caesar's communications and supply lines. It was decided to make Alesia (near modern Dijon; the exact location was determined as a result of excavations begun by order of Napoleon III) as a stronghold. The Celtic leader again expressed support for spreading the rebellion to Narbonese Gaul and began sending his troops there. However, when the rebels tried to enlist the support of the Celts of this province, the largest tribe of the Allobroges resolutely refused to cooperate with them, and the proconsul's cousin Lucius Julius Caesar soon recruited 22 cohorts of militia in the province and successfully resisted all attempts at invasion.

Despite their initial success, the rebels were eventually surrounded at the fortress of Alesia in central Gaul. Alesia was located on a steep hill in the middle of a valley and was well fortified. Vercingetorix probably hoped to repeat the scenario that worked at Gergovia, but the Romans began a systematic siege instead of attempting an assault. To do this, Caesar had to disperse his troops along the siege walls being built with a total length of 11 miles. The siege was also special because of the numerical superiority of the besieged over the besiegers: in Alesia, according to Caesar, 80 thousand soldiers took refuge. The Gallic commander tried to lift the siege by attacking the legionnaires who were building the fortifications, but the attack was repulsed. Part of the rebel cavalry managed to break through the ranks of the Romans and, on the instructions of Vercingetorix, spread the news of the siege throughout Gaul, calling on the tribes to gather a militia from all those capable of bearing arms and go to Alesia. Although Vercingetorix called on other Gallic tribes for help, Julius Caesar organized a double siege ring around Alesia, which allowed him to defeat the besieged and their allies who came to their rescue. After all attempts to break through the Roman fortifications failed, the rebels surrendered due to the famine that gripped Alesia. When food supplies were running low and the Gauls calculated that they would have enough food for a month, Vercingetorix ordered many women, children and old people to be taken out of the city, although the Gaul Critognatus allegedly offered to eat them. Most of those forced to leave Alesia belonged to the Mandubian tribe, who gave their city to Vercingetorix. Caesar ordered the gates not to be opened for them.

Reconstruction of Roman fortifications near Alesia

Although at the end of September a huge Gallic militia, led by Commius, Viridomarus, Eporedorix and Vercassivellaunus, approached Alesia, the first two attempts to break through the fortifications ended in favor of the Romans. On the third day, a 60,000-strong (according to Caesar) detachment of Gauls attacked the Roman fortifications in the northwest, which were the weakest due to the rugged terrain. This detachment was led by Vercassivelaunus, Vercingetorix's cousin. The remaining troops made diversionary attacks, preventing the proconsul from gathering all his forces to repel the main attack. The outcome of the battle at the northwestern fortifications was decided by the reserves directed and led by Caesar, pulled by Titus Labienus to the flank of 40 cohorts, as well as the cavalry that bypassed the enemy from the rear - the Gauls were defeated and fled. As a result, the next day Vercingetorix laid down his arms. Plutarch describes the details of the commander’s surrender as follows: “Vercingetorix, the leader of the entire war, wearing the most beautiful weapons and richly decorating his horse, rode out of the gate. Having ridden around the eminence on which Caesar was sitting, he jumped off his horse, tore off all his armor and, sitting down at Caesar’s feet, remained there until he was taken into custody to be preserved for triumph.” Vercingetorix was, among other trophies, taken to Rome, where he spent five years imprisoned in the Mamertine prison, awaiting the triumph of Caesar, and after participating in the triumphal procession in 46 BC. e. was strangled (according to other sources, died in prison).

Post-war structure of Gaul

Vercingetorix capitulates to Caesar. L. Royer

After the capture of Vercingetorix, the Gaul uprising sharply declined. In the winter of 52–51 BC. e. punitive expeditions were undertaken by the Romans against the Biturigi, Carnuti and Bellovaci. The Aremorian communities were conquered. Labienus devastated the regions of the Treveri and Eburones. The largest enterprise was the siege of Uxellodun (Puy d'Issolu), which was defended by Drappet and Lucterius. The city was captured only when the Romans deprived its defenders of water. By the spring of 50 BC. e. the last shoots of the Gallic opposition were strangled. Gaul paid dearly for its resistance. In his report to the Senate, Caesar reported that in nine years he had to fight three million people, of whom he exterminated one million, put one million to flight, and captured and sold one million. He destroyed 800 Gallic fortresses and conquered 300 tribes. The amount of gold captured by Caesar was so great that its price in Rome fell by a third. Only the Remes, Lingones and Aedui retained the status of Roman allies in conquered Gaul. The remaining tribes were obliged to hand over hostages and pay taxes. The uprisings that the Gauls raised were ruthlessly suppressed. In 22 BC. e. Augustus placed the province of Narbonne under the control of the Senate, and divided the rest of Gaul into three parts: Aquitaine, the Lugdunian province and Belgica, which were ruled by his legates. Lugdunum (Lyon) became the common capital of the Gallic provinces; representatives of 60 Gallic communities gathered here annually. The Romanization of the country proceeded so quickly that already in 16 BC. e. The Romans moved the troops stationed here to the Rhine line, entrusting their command to the governor of Germany. The only garrison on the territory of Gaul remained 1,200 warriors of the cohorts of the city guard of Lugdunum. And in 36, Emperor Claudius granted the Gauls the right to Latin citizenship.

Bagauds (lat. Bagaudae) - participants in the anti-Roman liberation movement that swept northwestern Gaul, and then northeastern Spain.

The life of peasants in the Roman Empire became harder and harder. Not a month passed without an imperial official or military leader coming to the village with new demands. In addition to the usual taxes, residents had to either supply grain and fodder for passing soldiers, or designate draft animals for transporting grain to a city or camp, or repair roads and build fortifications. Officials, compiling an inventory of land and people for the distribution of taxes, recorded: children - as adults, dead people - as living people, frail old people - as able-bodied men. Only large bribes could pay them off. But the peasants had no money. They were taken away by tax collectors long ago. Those who could not pay taxes or fulfill duties on time were brutally flogged. To avoid punishment, one had to bow to a rich neighbor and ask him to borrow money, grain or an ox. The neighbor gave, but demanded a huge percentage or collateral. If a colony, due to a bad harvest or other reasons, could not pay his owners, they still demanded payment and recorded the debt for him. From year to year the debts grew, and the colons could no longer leave the estate, since they were unable to pay off the debts. Peasants and colonists, complaining about their lot, sometimes wrote to the emperors. In their petitions they complained that officials and masters were ruining them and forcing them to work for themselves, as if they were their own slaves. They threatened to abandon the ground and leave. But the emperors were far away, and in retaliation for the complaint, the gentlemen and imperial officials oppressed the colons even more. Flight remained the only way to salvation, and the columns went into forests, deserts, and swampy river mouths. They also became robbers. Some, having crossed the borders of the empire, settled among tribes that did not know the cruel Roman slavery. And so gradually in Asia Minor, Egypt, Africa and Gaul, peasants, columns and slaves began to rise to battle. In Gaul the rebels called themselves Bagaudae. This is a Gaulish word meaning fighters."

The Bagaudians began to actively operate under Emperor Commodus during the Maternus rebellion. By that time, the situation of the Gallic rural population had become especially difficult. The province was gripped by an agrarian crisis, from which it could not emerge for 15-20 years. In addition, Gaul's agriculture was negatively affected by the empire's protracted wars and the plague. The Parthian and Marcomannic wars reduced the number of workers in the fields and plantations of Gaul. The plague brought from the East devastated Gaul. In similar conditions, Matern's uprising began. From Gaul the revolt spread to Spain. The Romans had to make considerable efforts to suppress the rebellion. In addition, the empire was torn apart by internal turmoil. First in one province or another, pretenders to the imperial throne appeared, gathering the dissatisfied around them. When the civil war between Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus began in 192, detachments of deserters, colons and slaves were active in Gaul. After the victory over Clodius, Severus defeated these troops as well. During the reign of the Severan dynasty, numerous bands of robbers appeared in Gaul, attacking the villas and fields of wealthy people. One inscription dating from approximately 213-215 speaks of sending troops against the rebels on the border with Germany, and a network of military posts was also created. Revolts of peasants and colonists raged in different parts of the empire. The rebels won victories in Africa, where they united with the Moorish tribes. African wrestlers were called agonists. The uprising of the agoists covered a large area. They were led by Faraxen, a Moor by origin. Colonians who lived in the lands of emperors and wealthy Romans joined the rebels. They managed to capture several large cities and impose tribute on the richest citizens. Many of the rich were killed or taken prisoner, and their property was seized. The government could hardly resist, since a significant part of the troops was sent from Africa to defend the Danube border. The local nobility organized the fight against the rebels on their own. Large landowners and city magistrates put together groups of wealthy youth. But the uprising continued.

In Gaul, the next wave of Bagaudian activity occurred during the crisis of the 3rd century. They gathered in detachments, plundered villages and sometimes tried to take cities. During the reign of the Gallic Emperor Tetrice I, the Bagaudian movement especially intensified. After a seven-month siege, they took the main city in the land of the Aedui tribe - Augustodun. The rich nobles who lived there partly fled, and partly were killed. Her property went to the rebels. Those sent to suppress the uprising of Sol-Time also went over to their side. Among them there were also many colons and peasants.
Tetricus, who at that time ruled Gaul, which had fallen away from Rome, and was himself the richest landowner, was at a loss. Gallic aristocrats, expelled from their estates by the Bagaudas, came running to him in the city of Burdigala (now Bordeaux). Especially many refugees came after the capture of Augustodun. Frightened by the Bagaudas, they were ready to submit to Rome again. They understood that only Roman troops would help them re-establish themselves in their estates and take their colons and slaves into their hands. Under their influence, Tetricus sent a secret letter to the Roman Emperor Aurelian, begging him to come to Gaul. He promised him to surrender along with his army, only for show taking it to the battlefield. “Free me, invincible, from these troubles,” he ended the letter. Aurelian willingly responded to Tetricus's call, and thus Gaul returned to Roman rule. After Tetricus betrayed his troops and surrendered to Aurelian, he brutally suppressed the Bagaudae.

But it was still not possible to “calm down” Gaul. Ten years later, in 283-286, a new, stronger uprising of the Bagauds began in Gaul. The main participants were rural slaves and colons, who were joined by ruined small free farmers. The uprising began in 283 under Emperor Carinus. However, he did not have time to suppress the uprising, since he was busy with the war with Diocletian. The German tribe of Franks became allies of the Bagauds. The Franks crossed the Rhine and captured more than sixty cities of Gaul. The Franks were joined by their fellow tribesmen, who had previously been captured and converted into colones.
The Bagauds managed to create a strong army. This army was led by Elian and Amand. They were proclaimed emperors and even minted their own coins. Elian and Amand fortified themselves on the peninsula at the confluence of the Seine and Marne rivers, where Julius Caesar built an almost impregnable fortress. Again the Bagaudas expelled the nobility from their estates and cities. Their army grew every day. The Bagauds organized their army according to the Roman model. Then Diocletian sent his co-ruler Maximian with a large army to Gaul. Not trusting the Solvremians stationed there, who were recruited from local residents who sympathized with the Bagaudas, he hastily called in troops from the East. But since there were many people among them who did not want to oppose the rebels, it was only through the most severe measures that Maximian was able to strengthen discipline among the troops. He carried out several decimations. Terrible persecution was brought upon Gaul. Villages suspected of sympathizing with the Bagaudas were given over to fire and sword. At the same time, hundreds of “unreliable soldiers” were exterminated in Roman camps. Finally, Maximian decided to meet with the rebel army. Several battles took place. The Bagauds were defeated and retreated to their fortress. Maximian had to besiege it for a long time, but finally it was taken. Maximian executed everyone he managed to capture, burned all the dwellings and destroyed the fortifications. But he failed to completely suppress this movement. The war with the Romans turned into a guerrilla battle for them.
From Gaul, Maximian moved against African fighters. In Africa he also had to endure a difficult battle. Under the blows of Roman troops, the rebels retreated further and further into the Atlas Mountains. Here, hiding behind inaccessible rocks, they defended every inch of land with desperate courage. The bloody battle lasted for several years. But the forces were unequal. Maximian's army was well trained and armed. Rich landowners from surrounding towns and villages supplied her with food in abundance. The rebels were cut off from the outside world and deprived of help. Step by step, Maximian pushed them further and further until the last refuges of the rebels were captured and their defenders were killed. The reprisal against the rebels was brutal. Thousands were killed or sold into slavery. But the people honored their memory, and a few decades later the peasants, colonists and slaves of Africa and Gaul again rose to fight. It is known that when Julian II the Apostate ruled Gaul, he punished the “arrogant robbers” who operated in many areas. However, a decade later, under Emperor Valentinian I, in 368-370, the Bagaudas again raised their heads. By the beginning of the 5th century there was a general impoverishment of Gaul due to taxes and the plight of small property owners. According to Prosper of Aquitaine, entire regions were “consecrated to the Bagaudae.” The first wave of Bagaudian uprisings in the 5th century occurred in 408-411. They covered almost all of Gaul. In one of the parts of Gaul - Armorica, the free population rebelled, whom the edicts of Emperor Honorius called Bagaudae, but it was pacified by 412. The second wave occurs in 435-437. At this time, all of Transalpine Gaul separated from Rome, and the leader of the uprising was a certain Tibato. Prosper says that “almost all the slaves of Gaul took up weapon and joined the Bagaudas.” The future fought against the rebels emperor Majorian. Only in 437 did the commander Flavius Aetius manage to capture Tibato and suppress the uprising for some time. There was another uprising in Armorica in 448, but by 451 it was also suppressed. By the middle of the 5th century, the Bagauda movement spread to northern Spain. Report from the chronicle of Idatius for the year 441: “Asturius, the commander of the military forces in Gaul, sent to Spain, beats many Tarragona Bagaudas.” Apparently Tarragona was the center of the rebellion. Another center was Araziola. Message from the chronicle of Idatius for the year 443: “To Asturius, the commander of both armies, his son-in-law Merobaudes is sent as a successor... In the short time of his power, he crushes the arrogance of the Aracellitan Bagaudas.” Powerless empire turned to the Visigoths for help, who in 454 defeated the Bagauda center of Tarragona.

However, even then the Spanish bagaudas still continued to operate. In 458-460 emperor Majorian made a trip to Spain, where he fought with the Bagaudas. Thirty years later, the Bagaudas of Tarragonia rebelled against the Visigothic king Alaric II. The suppression of the uprising was achieved at the cost of great effort, but the Visigoths managed to capture the Bagauda leader Burdunell. Burdunell was brought to Toulouse, where he was executed in 498. Since then, chronicles have not mentioned the Bagaudas.