Features of the structure of the pharynx in children. The structure of the human throat, larynx and pharynx, their anatomical features, functions, possible diseases and injuries

The formation of the tracheopulmonary system begins at the 3-4th week of embryonic development. Already by the 5th-6th week of embryo development, second-order branches appear and the formation of three lobes of the right lung and two lobes of the left lung is predetermined. During this period, the trunk of the pulmonary artery is formed, growing into the lungs along the primary bronchi.

In the embryo, at the 6-8th week of development, the main arterial and venous collectors of the lungs are formed. Within 3 months, the bronchial tree grows, segmental and subsegmental bronchi appear.

During the 11-12th week of development, areas of lung tissue are already present. They, together with the segmental bronchi, arteries and veins, form the embryonic segments of the lungs.

Between the 4th and 6th months, rapid growth of the pulmonary vascular system is observed.

In fetuses at 7 months, the lung tissue acquires the features of a porous canal structure; the future air spaces are filled with fluid, which is secreted by the cells lining the bronchi.

At 8-9 months of the intrauterine period, further development of the functional units of the lungs occurs.

The birth of a child requires the immediate functioning of the lungs; during this period, with the onset of breathing, significant changes occur in the airways, especially the respiratory part of the lungs. The formation of the respiratory surface in individual parts of the lungs occurs unevenly. For the management of the respiratory apparatus of the lungs, the condition and readiness of the surfactant film lining the lung surface are of great importance. Violation of the surface tension of the surfactant system leads to serious illnesses in young children.

In the first months of life, the child maintains the ratio of the length and width of the airways, like a fetus, when the trachea and bronchi are shorter and wider than in adults, and the small bronchi are narrower.

The pleura covering the lungs in a newborn baby is thicker, looser, contains villi and outgrowths, especially in the interlobar grooves. Pathological foci appear in these areas. Before the birth of a child, the lungs are prepared to perform the respiratory function, but individual components are in the development stage, the formation and maturation of the alveoli is rapidly proceeding, the small lumen of the muscular arteries is being reconstructed and the barrier function is being eliminated.

After three months of age, period II is distinguished.

1. period of intensive growth of the pulmonary lobes (from 3 months to 3 years).
2. final differentiation of the entire bronchopulmonary system (from 3 to 7 years).

Intensive growth of the trachea and bronchi occurs in the 1st–2nd year of life, which slows down in subsequent years, and the small bronchi grow intensively, and the branching angles of the bronchi also increase. The diameter of the alveoli increases, and the respiratory surface of the lungs doubles with age. In children under 8 months, the diameter of the alveoli is 0.06 mm, in 2 years - 0.12 mm, in 6 years - 0.2 mm, in 12 years - 0.25 mm.

In the first years of life, growth and differentiation of lung tissue elements and blood vessels occur. The ratio of the volumes of shares in individual segments is equalized. Already at 6-7 years of age, the lungs are a fully formed organ and are indistinguishable from the lungs of adults.

Features of the child's respiratory tract

The respiratory tract is divided into upper, which includes the nose, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, Eustachian tubes, and lower, which includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi.

The main function of breathing is to conduct air into the lungs, cleanse it of dust particles, and protect the lungs from the harmful effects of bacteria, viruses, and foreign particles. In addition, the airways warm and humidify the inhaled air.

The lungs are represented by small sacs that contain air. They connect with each other. The main function of the lungs is to absorb oxygen from the atmospheric air and release gases into the atmosphere, primarily acid coal.

Breathing mechanism. When inhaling, the diaphragm and chest muscles contract. Exhalation in older age occurs passively under the influence of elastic traction of the lungs. With bronchial obstruction, emphysema, and also in newborns, active inhalation occurs.

Normally, breathing is established at a frequency at which the volume of breathing is performed due to the minimum energy expenditure of the respiratory muscles. In newborn children, the respiratory rate is 30-40, in adults - 16-20 per minute.

The main carrier of oxygen is hemoglobin. In the pulmonary capillaries, oxygen binds to hemoglobin, forming oxyhemoglobin. In newborns, fetal hemoglobin predominates. On the first day of life, it is contained in the body about 70%, by the end of the 2nd week - 50%. Fetal hemoglobin has the ability to easily bind oxygen and difficult to release it to tissues. This helps the child in the presence of oxygen starvation.

Transport of carbon dioxide occurs in dissolved form; blood saturation with oxygen affects the content of carbon dioxide.

The respiratory function is closely related to the pulmonary circulation. This is a complex process.

During breathing, autoregulation is noted. When the lung stretches during inhalation, the inhalation center is inhibited, and exhalation is stimulated during exhalation. Deep breathing or forced inflation of the lungs leads to a reflex expansion of the bronchi and increases the tone of the respiratory muscles. When the lungs collapse and are compressed, the bronchi become narrowed.

The medulla oblongata contains the respiratory center, from where commands are sent to the respiratory muscles. The bronchi lengthen when you inhale, and shorten and narrow when you exhale.

The relationship between the functions of breathing and blood circulation appears from the moment the lungs expand during the first breath of a newborn, when both the alveoli and blood vessels expand.

With respiratory diseases in children, respiratory dysfunction and respiratory failure may occur.

Features of the structure of a child's nose

In young children, the nasal passages are short, the nose is flattened due to an insufficiently developed facial skeleton. The nasal passages are narrower, the conchae are thickened. The nasal passages are fully formed only by the age of 4 years. The nasal cavity is relatively small in size. The mucous membrane is very loose and well supplied with blood vessels. The inflammatory process leads to the development of edema and, as a result, a reduction in the lumen of the nasal passages. Mucus often stagnates in the nasal passages. It can dry out, forming crusts.

When the nasal passages close, shortness of breath may occur; during this period, the child cannot suckle at the breast, becomes anxious, abandons the breast, and remains hungry. Children, due to difficulty in nasal breathing, begin to breathe through their mouths, their warming of the incoming air is disrupted and their susceptibility to colds increases.

If nasal breathing is impaired, there is a lack of discrimination of odors. This leads to a disturbance in appetite, as well as a disturbance in the understanding of the external environment. Breathing through the nose is physiological, breathing through the mouth is a sign of nasal disease.

Accessory nasal cavities. The paranasal cavities, or sinuses, as they are called, are limited spaces filled with air. The maxillary (maxillary) sinuses are formed by the age of 7. Ethmoidal - by the age of 12, the frontal is fully formed by the age of 19.

Features of the nasolacrimal duct. The nasolacrimal duct is shorter than in adults, its valves are not sufficiently developed, and the outlet is located close to the corner of the eyelids. Due to these features, the infection quickly spreads from the nose to the conjunctival sac.

Features of the pharynxbaby

The pharynx in young children is relatively wide, the palatine tonsils are poorly developed, which explains the rare cases of sore throat in the first year of life. The tonsils are fully developed by the age of 4-5 years. By the end of the first year of life, almond tissue hyperplasias. But its barrier function at this age is very low. Overgrown almond tissue can be susceptible to infection, which is why diseases such as tonsillitis and adenoiditis occur.

The Eustachian tubes open into the nasopharynx and connect it to the middle ear. If an infection travels from the nasopharynx to the middle ear, otitis media occurs.

Features of the larynxbaby

The larynx in children is funnel-shaped and is an extension of the pharynx. In children, it is located higher than in adults, and has a narrowing in the area of ​​the cricoid cartilage, where the subglottic space is located. The glottis is formed by the vocal cords. They are short and thin, this is the reason for the child’s high, sonorous voice. The diameter of the larynx in a newborn in the area of ​​the subglottic space is 4 mm, at 5-7 years old - 6-7 mm, by 14 years old - 1 cm. Features of the larynx in children are: its narrow lumen, many nerve receptors, easily occurring swelling of the submucosal layer, which can lead to severe breathing problems.

The thyroid cartilages form a more acute angle in boys over 3 years of age; from the age of 10, a typical male larynx is formed.

Features of the tracheababy

The trachea is a continuation of the larynx. It is wide and short, the tracheal frame consists of 14-16 cartilaginous rings, which are connected by a fibrous membrane instead of an elastic end plate in adults. The presence of a large number of muscle fibers in the membrane contributes to changes in its lumen.

Anatomically, the trachea of ​​a newborn is located at the level of the IV cervical vertebra, and in an adult - at the level of the VI-VII cervical vertebra. In children, it gradually descends, as does its bifurcation, which is located in a newborn at the level of the third thoracic vertebra, in children 12 years old - at the level of the V-VI thoracic vertebra.

During physiological breathing, the lumen of the trachea changes. During coughing, it decreases by 1/3 of its transverse and longitudinal dimensions. The mucous membrane of the trachea is rich in glands that secrete a secretion that covers the surface of the trachea with a layer 5 microns thick.

The ciliated epithelium promotes the movement of mucus at a speed of 10-15 mm/min from the inside to the outside.

Features of the trachea in children contribute to the development of its inflammation - tracheitis, which is accompanied by a rough, low-timbre cough, reminiscent of a cough “like in a barrel”.

Features of the child's bronchial tree

The bronchi in children are formed at birth. Their mucous membrane is richly supplied with blood vessels and is covered with a layer of mucus, which moves at a speed of 0.25-1 cm/min. A feature of the bronchi in children is that elastic and muscle fibers are poorly developed.

The bronchial tree branches to the bronchi of the 21st order. With age, the number of branches and their distribution remain constant. The size of the bronchi changes rapidly in the first year of life and during puberty. They are based on cartilaginous semirings in early childhood. Bronchial cartilage is very elastic, pliable, soft and easily displaced. The right bronchus is wider than the left and is a continuation of the trachea, so foreign bodies are more often found in it.

After the birth of a child, a columnar epithelium with a ciliated apparatus is formed in the bronchi. With hyperemia of the bronchi and their swelling, their lumen sharply decreases (up to its complete closure).

Underdevelopment of the respiratory muscles contributes to a weak cough impulse in a small child, which can lead to blockage of small bronchi with mucus, and this, in turn, leads to infection of the lung tissue and disruption of the cleansing drainage function of the bronchi.

With age, as the bronchi grow, wide lumens of the bronchi appear, and the bronchial glands produce less viscous secretions, acute diseases of the bronchopulmonary system are less common compared to younger children.

Features of the lungsin children

The lungs in children, as in adults, are divided into lobes, and lobes into segments. The lungs have a lobular structure, the segments in the lungs are separated from each other by narrow grooves and partitions of connective tissue. The main structural unit is the alveoli. Their number in a newborn is 3 times less than in an adult. Alveoli begin to develop from 4-6 weeks of age, their formation occurs up to 8 years. After 8 years, children’s lungs increase due to their linear size, and at the same time, the respiratory surface of the lungs increases.

The following periods can be distinguished in the development of the lungs:

1) from birth to 2 years, when intensive growth of the alveoli occurs;

2) from 2 to 5 years, when elastic tissue intensively develops, bronchi with peribronchial inclusions of lung tissue are formed;

3) from 5 to 7 years, the functional abilities of the lungs are finally formed;

4) from 7 to 12 years, when a further increase in lung mass occurs due to the maturation of lung tissue.

Anatomically, the right lung consists of three lobes (upper, middle and lower). By 2 years, the sizes of the individual lobes correspond to each other, like in an adult.

In addition to the lobar division, segmental division is distinguished in the lungs: in the right lung there are 10 segments, in the left - 9.

The main function of the lungs is breathing. It is believed that 10,000 liters of air pass through the lungs daily. Oxygen absorbed from the inhaled air ensures the functioning of many organs and systems; the lungs take part in all types of metabolism.

The respiratory function of the lungs is carried out with the help of a biologically active substance - surfactant, which also has a bactericidal effect, preventing fluid from entering the pulmonary alveoli.

The lungs remove waste gases from the body.

A feature of the lungs in children is the immaturity of the alveoli; they have a small volume. This is compensated by increased breathing: the younger the child, the more shallow his breathing. The respiratory rate in a newborn is 60, in a teenager it is already 16-18 respiratory movements per minute. Lung development is completed by age 20.

A variety of diseases can impair the vital function of breathing in children. Due to the characteristics of aeration, drainage function and evacuation of secretions from the lungs, the inflammatory process is often localized in the lower lobe. This occurs in a supine state in infants due to insufficient drainage function. Paravisceral pneumonia most often occurs in the second segment of the upper lobe, as well as in the basal-posterior segment of the lower lobe. The middle lobe of the right lung may often be affected.

The following studies are of greatest diagnostic importance: X-ray, bronchological, determination of blood gas composition, blood pH, study of external respiration function, study of bronchial secretions, computed tomography.

By the frequency of breathing and its relationship with the pulse, the presence or absence of respiratory failure is judged (see Table 14).

Lymphatic pharyngeal ring(Waldeyer-Pirogov ring), consisting

consisting of pharyngeal, 2 tubal, 2 palatine, lingual tonsils and lymphoid

tissue of the posterior pharyngeal wall, before birth and in the first months after birth

poorly developed. In the postnatal period, the tonsils undergo a number of changes

In newborns tonsils are underdeveloped and functionally inactive. Sky

tonsils are not yet fully developed, they reveal emerging

follicles, and development takes a long time.

The main part of the lymphoid ring of the pharynx consists of 2-4 thin folds

mucous membrane of the anterior part of the tonsils, running in the sagittal plane

bones, and 6 in the back, shorter and slightly curved anteriorly,

located in the frontal plane. Presented at birth in

in the form of small spherical clusters of lymphocytes. "Reactive Centers"

CHILDREN'S OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY

Chapter 4

they occur in the first 2-3 months of life. Final development of the follicle

fishing ends in the first 6 months of a child’s life, and sometimes by the end of the 1st year.

The normal average size of the pharyngeal tonsil in newborns is

7x4x2 mm.

In infants active development of the lymphoid ring begins.

Differentiation of the follicles of the palatine tonsils occurs earlier, at the 5th-6th

month of life, since after birth the body immediately begins to undergo

protect against the action of bacteria and toxic substances that stimulate the formation of

tion of follicles.

Adenoids are formed more actively than other tonsils. Folds of mucous membrane

the lobes thicken, lengthen, taking on the appearance of rollers, between which

the grooves are clearly visible. Average size of tonsil: after 3 months 10x7x4 mm

and after 1 year 11x8x5 mm, the tonsil reaches full development by 2 - 3 years.

In children of the 1st year of life, the nasopharyngeal cavity is low and acute-angled, in

due to which even a slight increase in the pharyngeal tonsil can significantly

significantly disrupt nasal breathing.

Microscopic structure of the tonsils in fetuses, newborns and children

infancy is different.

U fruits cover epithelium of the mucous membrane multirow cylinder

ric. IN subepithelial layer, lymphoid tissue is located in the form

a thin strip consisting mainly of lymphoblasts, small and medium

lymphocytes. The reticular stroma is quite well defined. Krovenos

These vessels are filled with blood.

U newborns cover epithelium multirow cylindrical. Bo

There are few spores, they are shallow. IN underlying tissue diffusely located

lymphatic cellular elements such as small and medium lymphocytes, many

blood vessels and mucous glands.

Development tonsil begins with the formation of folds of the mucosa

membranes that are penetrated by lymphatic tissue.

Lingual tonsil develops due to the accumulation of lymphatic tissue in

root of the tongue.

After birth, the tonsil tissue is in a state of constant

irritation.

U children in the first half of life well-defined

follicles with clear boundaries; integumentary epithelium of the tonsils multilayered

ny flat, with sections of multi-row cylindrical.

U children over 6 months in subepithelial tissue is observed relatively

many mature lymphoid follicles of various sizes and shapes with good

sho pronounced “reactive centers”. They are usually located about

circle of furrows Among lymphatic cells and in connective tissue tissue

many blood vessels.

IN At an early age, the pharyngeal tonsil is covered with multi-row cylinders

ciliated epithelium, in older children and adults -

flat epithelium.

Palatine tonsils reach full development in the 2nd year of life. Lakush

palatine tonsils in young children are deep, narrow at the mouth, dense in

curly, often extending to the capsule. Gaps do not always guide -

V

no

Diseases of the pharynx

extending into the depths of the tonsils, sometimes they turn sharply and go under the cover

ny epithelium; the narrow passages of individual lacunae end in expansions.

All this contributes to the occurrence of the inflammatory process.

In children over 5 years of age, hyperplasia of the follicles is observed, which is often

they appear to be separated from the surrounding lymphatic tissue.

Tubal tonsils reach their greatest development in childhood.

Children have less lymphatic tissue in the area of ​​the tongue root than adults;

crypts lingual tonsil smaller and less branched.

In young children, between the prevertebral aponeurosis and the muscle

from the pharynx from the roof of the nasopharynx to the entrance to the esophagus between the two layers

aponeurosis arranged in a chain retropharyngeal lymph nodes And

loose connective tissue on both sides of the spine. These nodes are

are regional for the posterior parts of the nose, nasopharynx and tympanic

loss. Their suppuration leads to the formation of a retropharyngeal abscess.

In the area of ​​the nasopharynx, the retropharyngeal space is divided into two by a ligament

half, so retropharyngeal abscesses in the upper parts of the pharynx are more common

Ut one-way.

After 4-5 years, these lymph nodes atrophy, and therefore in children

In older age and adults, retropharyngeal lymphadenitis does not occur.

Young children are characterized by hypertrophy (age evolution

tion) lymphatic tissue. Enlarged tonsils are caused by hypertrophy

lymphoid follicles, as well as an increase in their number.

Tonsils reach their greatest size by 5-7 years. In this age

Children have the highest infectious morbidity and increased

need for protection against infections. IN At the same age, children spend the most

a greater number of preventive vaccinations that mobilize the entire lymphatic system

foid tissue for the production of immunity. Hypertrophy of lymphatic tissue

due to the intensive formation of active immunity with local

the production of antibodies during the endo- or exogenous route of infection

tion agent into the lymphoid tissue of the pharynx.

As antibodies accumulate in the body and the immune system improves,

system after 9-10 years the child begins age-related involution of lymphoid

fabrics with its partial degeneration and replacement with fibrous, connective.

The size of the tonsils decreases, and by the age of 16-20 they are usually not retained.

large remnants, sometimes they completely disappear due to lymphoid atrophy

fabrics. During this period, a thin peripheral belt of mature ligaments appears

phocytes, the number of reticular cells in the center of the tonsils increases.

CONGENAL ANOMALIES OF THE PHARYNGE

Etiology. If fetal development is disrupted, individual elements form

that form the pharynx and face, fuse incompletely or do not fuse at all. Possible

We have a partial absence of the soft or hard palate, clefts in the palatine arches

or soft palate, splitting of the uvula in the midline. In the pear area

prominent pockets; less commonly, diverti may develop in the area of ​​the palatine tonsils

lumps and cysts.

CHILDREN'S OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY

Chapter 4

Classification.

1. Congenital choanal atresia.

2. Cleft lip (“cleft lip”):

Defect one- And bilateral (on both sides of the embryonic intermaxillary

thin bone);

Defect partial (incomplete cleft of the upper lip in the form of a notch)

or full (gap in the entire thickness of the upper lip to the nose on the side of the middle lip

Research Institute), isolated or in combination with a cleft palate (“cleft palate”).

3. Double upper lip (ridge in the middle part of the upper lip).

4. Hypertrophy of the lips due to the proliferation of connective tissue and lymph

fovenous stasis.

5. Microstoma (narrowing of the mouth opening).

6. Language anomalies:

Small or large tongue (microglossia, macroglossia);

Cleft tongue (double or additional tongue);

Bridle that is too short or long;

Complete absence of language;

Retention of the ectopic lobule of the thyroid gland in the root area

7. Congenital cysts and fistulas of the neck:

- midline cysts and neck swishes are located along the midline of the neck on

level of the hyoid bone, closely connected with its periosteum;

- lateral cysts located anterior to the sternocleidomastoid

Clinical characteristic. At congenital atresia Joan maybe so

closing the mouth of the auditory tube. This developmental anomaly is usually accompanied by

there is a high palate, a short tongue, often fused from the back wall

what a throat.

The most common anomalies include congenital deformity of the upper

lips (“cleft lip”). This is the result of a non-closure of the nasal sulcus.

(went between the middle nasal and maxillary processes of the embryo!.

Unilateral clefts are more often observed on the left and are more common

bilateral.

Usually, at the same time as the cleft lip, a cleft forms between

lateral incisor and canine, which may be limited to the edge of the alveolar

process or spread to the hard and soft palate, forming ""<шм

fall." This pathology has the following clinical manifestations.

Dysphagia syndrome causes choking and reflux of food into the cavity

nose when swallowing, a pronounced nasal sound subsequently leads to

speech formation disorder.

Difficulties arise when the baby sucks the breast. Usually when sucking

the soft palate descends and closes the oral cavity at the back, and the cavity at the front

mouth closed action t. orbicularis oris, lengthening baby's lips, coverage

sucking nipple. With a “cleft lip” the integrity t. orbicularis oris is violated

sucking becomes difficult or impossible. Children are spoon fed

or using a zoid. Aspiration syndrome leads to the development of reciprocal

dividing pneumonia.

Diseases of the pharynx

During puberty ectopic part of the thyroid gland V

area of ​​the tongue root can cause swallowing problems (dysphagia) and

breathing (stenosis).

The child may develop articulation abnormalities due to protrusion

her (prognathia) or lower (progenia) jaw. Causes affecting ano

The human body is unique, each organ has its own function, the failure of one of them leads to disruption of the functions of most, and in some cases, all anatomical structures. The work of organs can be compared to the mechanism of a watch; one tiny part breaks and the watch stops running, which is why the human body works on the same principle. One of the organs responsible for two vital processes in the body at once is the pharynx. Its main functions are respiratory and digestive functions.

Structure of the pharynx

The pharynx has a simple structure; it is a funnel-shaped tube that originates from the cervical vertebra and descends down to the esophagus to the 5-7 vertebrae. The size of the pharynx varies from 12 to 16 centimeters. The organ consists of muscles, mucous membrane and lymphoid tissue. The cylindrical tube is separated from the vertebra by soft tissue, which allows the organ to be mobile. The main features of the structure of the pharynx are that while the swallowing function is not activated, the airways are open, and at the moment of swallowing food, the larynx blocks breathing so that the food is directed into the esophagus and not the lungs.

In addition, the pharynx has a lot of lymphoid tissue, which allowed it to form tonsils in the mouth. The tonsils serve as so-called guardians at the entrance to the pharynx; they have immune cells that block the entry of microbes into the larynx and down the respiratory tract.

The structure of the pharynx has three sections:

• The nasopharynx is the section that is connected between the nose, mouth and larynx;
• The oropharynx is a continuation of the nasopharynx. This section is separated from the oral cavity by the soft palate, palatine arches and dorsum of the tongue;
• laryngopharynx, this department originates approximately in the area of ​​4 vertebrae (age-related features may be noted). The larynx is located in this section, consists almost entirely of muscles and is a conductor of food to the esophagus.

The structure of the organ implies age-related changes. So, in an infant, the length of the pharynx is about three centimeters; in the first two years of life, the size doubles, and in an adult this parameter is 12-16 centimeters. Also, the lower edge of the organ, due to the increase in size, moves downward. In a newborn, the end of the pharynx is located in the region of the 3-4 cervical vertebrae, and by adolescence, the lower edge is located at the level of 6-7 vertebrae. Age-related changes also occur in the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube. In childhood it has the shape of a slit, and during the period of growing up it acquires an oval shape. Due to this age-related feature, children are more susceptible to stenosis and the development of asphyxia, since the lumen of their larynx is very narrow; any inflammatory process in the organ leads to swelling and blockage of the lumen, which is accompanied by impaired respiratory function.

Tonsils also undergo age-related changes, with their peak growth occurring before the age of two years. In the period of 12-14 years, reverse development occurs, that is, the lymphoid tissue decreases slightly in size. After this period, age-related changes in the tonsils no longer occur.

Functions

So, respiratory and digestive functions have been said, but in addition to these two important processes, there are
more. The speech function, the ability to pronounce sounds in a person, appears thanks to the vocal cords located in the middle part of the larynx, and the soft palate also participates in this process. Due to the muscle layer and mobility, the anatomical structure allows for the correct distribution of air flow, while creating the timbre of the voice. If the soft palate has some anatomical changes in its structure, this leads to impaired vocal function.

And the pharynx has one more function - protective. The process is made possible thanks to lymphoid tissue, which contains immune agents and a specific mucosal coating on the posterior wall. This wall is covered with mucus with tiny villi, which in turn also trap incoming dust and bacteria so that they do not spread to the larynx and further. That is why quite often inflammatory processes occur in the throat; the infection lingers here, without going lower, and causes symptoms of a cold.

Diseases of the pharynx and larynx

There are a number of pathological processes that can cause problems in the functioning of the larynx and pharynx. The main diseases of this organ include:

The pharynx is an important organ in the human body that undergoes age-related changes throughout life and performs its unique and vital functions, such as breathing, swallowing, speech and defense. The organ is susceptible to various diseases that negatively affect its functions, and therefore require attention from medical personnel and appropriate treatment. For any changes in the normal functioning of the larynx or pharynx, you should consult a doctor and not self-medicate, otherwise even a minor illness can cause serious complications.

The nasopharynx is one of the important organs of the human body. Its structure is simple, but its functions are endless. Every day more than 10,000 liters of air pass through this organ; its main task is to protect the body from the penetration of viruses and various infections. The structure of the nasopharynx is such that all the voids located in the skull are interconnected.

Structure

The anatomical diagram of this cavity is divided into the following parts: laryngeal, nasal and oral. The functioning of many organs and health depends on the correct structure of the human nasopharynx. This cavity is small in size, and its walls consist of small fibers that diverge in different directions. The upper part is covered with epithelium.

The structure of the nasopharynx consists of the following parts:

• mucous membranes;
• tonsils;
• cleaning surfaces;
• pharyngeal openings;
• smell receptors.

The most important part is the tonsils, which protect the body from viruses and infections. The nasopharyngeal organ is represented by the following diagram:

• Adenoids are an unpaired tonsil located above.
• Palatine tonsils, located in pairs on the side.
• Lingual tonsil, located below.

These tonsils create a protective ring that prevents infections from penetrating into a person’s lungs, preventing the development of diseases. With diagnoses of the upper respiratory tract, their size increases and cannot fully perform its basic functions.

The anatomy of the nasopharynx in medicine is discussed in the section of the pharynx, which is considered the beginning of the digestive tract and the upper part of the respiratory tract. This is an easy part of the larynx to study and is small in size.

Functions

The structure of this organ is such that it performs several functions. Not all people understand how important this cavity is and what people need for a full life. The functions of the nasopharynx include the following:

1. Olfactory. A person perceives odors after the reaction of receptors located in the nasopharynx. After this, the brain processes the incoming signals and it can perceive tastes and smells.


2. Connective. The oral cavity connects to the nasal sinuses, so a person can breathe through both the mouth and nose.
3. Warming. The air entering the body passes through the nasopharynx and reaches the lungs through the warmed mucous membranes. This is an important function that allows you to avoid many diseases.
4. Moisturizing. Necessary to moisturize mucous membranes.
5. Protective. When viruses enter the body, they settle in the nasopharynx and do not penetrate further throughout the body, preventing complications.

All functions of the nasopharynx are very important and without this cavity a person would not be able to continue to exist even for one day. They are carried out due to the structure of the mucous membranes of the nose. Therefore, it is important to treat cavity diseases as soon as they occur.

Source: GorloUhoNos.ru

Human structure

The upper part of the pharynx is conventionally divided into the following subsections:

• upper;
• intermediate;
• lower.

For convenience, anatomists and otorhinolaryngologists distinguish the organs of the oropharynx, nasopharynx and pharynx itself.

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Anatomy of the nasopharynx

It is connected to the passages of the nose through small oval openings - the choana. The structure of the nasopharynx is such that the upper wall is in contact with the sphenoid bone and the occipital bone. The back of the nasopharynx borders the vertebrae of the neck (1 and 2). In the lateral ones there are openings of the auditory (Eustachian) tubes. The middle ear connects to the nasopharynx through the auditory tubes.

The muscles of the nasopharynx are represented by small branched bundles. The nasal mucosa contains glands and goblet cells that are responsible for producing mucus and humidifying the inhaled air. The structure also determines that there are many vessels here that help warm the cold air. The mucosa also contains olfactory receptors.

The anatomy of the nasopharynx in newborns differs from that in adults. In a newborn baby, this organ is not fully formed. The sinuses grow quickly and become the usual oval shape by the age of 2 years. All departments have been preserved, but the implementation of some functions is impossible at this moment. The muscles of the nasopharynx in children are less developed.

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Oropharynx

The oropharynx is located at the level of the 3rd and 4th vertebrae of the neck, limited only by two walls: the lateral and the posterior. It is designed in such a way that it is at this point that the respiratory and digestive systems intersect. The soft palate is separated from the oral cavity by the root of the tongue and the arches of the soft palate. A special mucous fold serves as a “flap” that isolates the nasopharynx during the act of swallowing and speech.

The pharynx has tonsils on its surfaces (upper and lateral). This accumulation of lymphoid tissue is called: pharyngeal and tubal tonsils. Below is a cross-section of the pharynx, which will help you better imagine what it looks like.

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Facial sinuses

The structure of the skull is such that in the front part there are sinuses (special cavities filled with air). The mucous membrane differs little in structure from the mucous cavity, but it is thinner. Histological examination does not reveal cavernous tissue, while the nasal cavity contains it. The average person's sinuses are filled with air. Highlight:

• maxillary (maxillary);
• frontal;
• ethmoid bone (ethmoid sinuses);
• sphenoid sinuses.

At birth, not all sinuses are formed. By 12 months, the last sinuses, the frontal ones, finish forming. The maxillary sinuses are the largest. These are paired sinuses. They are located in the upper jaw. Their structure is such that they communicate with the passages of the nose through an exit under the lower passage.

The frontal bone has sinuses, the location of which determines their name. The frontal sinuses communicate with the nasal passages through the nasofrontal canal. They are paired. The sinuses of the ethmoid bone are represented by cells that are separated by bone plates. Vascular bundles and nerves pass through these cells. There are 2 such sinuses. Behind the superior concha of the nose, the sphenoid sinus is located. It is also called the main one. It opens into a wedge-ethmoid recess. She is not a couple. The table shows the functions performed by the paranasal sinuses.

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Functions

The function of the nasopharynx is to bring air from the environment to the lungs.

The structure of the nasopharynx determines its functions:

1. The main function of the nasopharynx is to conduct air from the environment to the lungs.
2. Performs an olfactory function. It generates a signal about the arrival of the smell in the nasal part, the formation of an impulse and its conduction to the brain thanks to the receptors that are localized here.
3. It performs a protective function due to the structural features of the mucous membrane. The presence of mucus, hairs and a rich blood network helps clean and warm the air, protecting the lower respiratory tract. Tonsils play an important role in protecting the body from pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
4. It also implements a resonator function. The sinuses and vocal cords, located in the pharynx, create sound with a different timbre, which makes each individual unique.
5. Maintaining pressure in the cranium. By connecting the ear to the external environment, the nasopharynx allows you to maintain the necessary pressure.

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Possible diseases

It is susceptible to various diseases due to its location and its functions. All diseases can be divided into groups:

• inflammatory;
• allergic;
• oncological;
• injuries.

Table of diseases.

Diseases	Symptoms	Predisposing factors
Inflammatory	1. Deterioration of general condition, malaise, weakness, fever.	1. Hypothermia.
	2. Sore throat.	2. Reduced immunity.
	3. Redness of the throat, enlarged tonsils.	3. Contact with sick people.
	4. Sore throat.	4. Being in a large crowd of people during the high morbidity season.
	5. Congestion, nasal discharge.
Allergic	1. Itching.	1. Contact with an allergen.
	2. Redness.	2. Burdened heredity.
	3. Nasal discharge.	3. History of allergic reactions.
	4. Sore throat.	4. Flowering season.
	5. Watery eyes.
Oncological	1. Presence of a neoplasm.	1. Burdened heredity.
	2. Difficulty breathing.	2 Smoking.
	3. Difficulty swallowing.	3. Contact with a source of gamma radiation (work in an X-ray room, etc.).
	4. Drastic weight loss of more than 7-10 kg per month.
	5. General malaise, weakness, enlarged tonsils and lymph nodes.
	6. Temperature around 37°C for more than 2 weeks.
Injury	1. Sharp pain.	1. History of trauma.
	2. Bleeding.
	3. Crepitation of bones.
	4. Swelling of the affected area.
	5. Redness of the affected area.

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Treatment and prevention

The doctor makes prescriptions depending on the nosology. If this is an inflammatory disease, then the treatment looks like this:

• to reduce temperature “Aspirin”, “Paracetamol”;
• antiseptics: “Septefril”, “Septolete”;
• gargling: “Chlorphilipt”, soda with iodine;
• nasal drops (“Galazolin”, “Aquamaris”);
• if necessary, antibiotics;
• probiotics (Linex).

Hypothermia is contraindicated. It is worth keeping your immune system in good shape, and during the “dangerous” seasons (autumn, spring) to stay in large crowds as little as possible. If this is an allergic disease, then you should take the following medications:

• antiallergic (“Citrine”, “Laratodin”);
• nasal drops (“Galazolin”).

Prevention is to take antiallergic medications during the flowering season and avoid contact with allergens.

If it is oncology, then self-medication is contraindicated and an urgent consultation with an oncologist is needed. Only he will prescribe the correct therapy and determine the prognosis of the disease. Prevention of cancer is considered to be quitting smoking, maintaining a healthy lifestyle, and avoiding stress as much as possible.

The injury is treated as follows:

• cold on the injured area of ​​the body;
• anesthesia;
• in case of bleeding - tamponade, drug control of bleeding (hemostatic therapy, transfusion of blood substitutes);
• Further assistance will only be provided in a hospital.

Return to contents

Diagnostics

Depends on the type of pathology and includes

• patient interview;
• inspection;
• analysis of blood, urine, nasal discharge;
• swab from the nose, oropharyngeal ring;
• X-ray of the sinuses and bones of the skull;
• endoscopic research methods.

Source: InfoGorlo.ru

The structure of the nasopharyngeal apparatus in adults and young children is very different, which is explained by its formation during life. The structural features of the pharynx in children can explain why the body of a child under three years of age requires an attentive, careful attitude that does not allow numerous negative factors to influence it. Delays or abnormalities in the development of the nasopharynx often cause the development of some complex diseases.

The structural features of the pharynx in children mainly concern such a section as the tonsils. This section is very important for immunity, but in the first few years of a child’s life, prerequisites often arise for the removal of some of them. One of the myths is that there are two tonsils. This is not true, since the lymphatic pharyngeal ring consists of one pharyngeal, two tubal, two palatine, and one lingual tonsils. This section of the baby’s pharynx is finally formed in the first months after birth, and undergoes a number of significant changes.

Newborn children do not have developed palatine tonsils; they only represent follicles - the rudiments of future organs. The formation of palatine tonsils from follicles occurs around six months; development is stimulated due to bacteria and toxic substances continuously attacking the baby’s body. Parents need to know the structural features of the pharynx in children, since if there is abnormal development of this area, they should immediately consult a doctor and begin to monitor its further development.

For example, it is important to know that adenoids can cause difficulty in a baby’s nasal breathing, which will affect his development, sleep, and digestion. These paired organs develop much more actively than other tonsils, and are finally formed at about two and a half years. After three months, the average size of the adenoids should be approximately 7x4x4 millimeters, and after a year they increase to sizes of 11x8x5 millimeters. The average size of the pharyngeal tonsil should normally be 7x4x2 millimeters. Larger or smaller sizes indicate difficulties in the development of the child’s body.

The structural features of the pharynx in children under one year of age are due to the unusual shape of the nasopharynx cavity for an adult - it will be low and acute-angled. If the pharyngeal tonsil is greatly enlarged, then, as with abnormally sized adenoids, the child will have difficulty breathing. The palatine tonsils finally mature in the second year of life. The lacunae of the palatine tonsils in children under two years of age are deep, narrow, and branched, which is a prerequisite for the development of an inflammatory process in these places.

Often, an ENT doctor has to diagnose suppuration of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes (or retropharyngeal lymphadenitis), which are located between the nasopharynx and the entrance to the esophagus. The fact is that these nodes are regional to the tympanic cavity and the back of the nasopharynx, therefore, during infectious attacks, these nodes are the first to suffer. After five years, these lymph nodes atrophy, as a result of which this diagnosis is not given to children older than this age.

The peculiarity of the structure of the pharynx in children is also that it reaches its maximum development by the age of five to seven years. It is at this age that an increased incidence of illness in children is observed, and the maximum number of vaccinations is given, which mobilizes all lymphoid tissue to develop increased protection against infections. Because these tissues are hypertrophied at this age, they intensively form active immunity with local production of antibodies that fight endogenous and exogenous penetration of pathogenic microorganisms.

The nasopharynx is one of the sections of the human respiratory tract. It is a kind of channel that connects the nasal cavity with the upper part of the pharynx and serves to conduct air.
The nasopharynx area is separated from the oral cavity by the soft palate, which, during the respiratory process, fits tightly to the root of the tongue.

Air enters the nasopharynx from the nasal cavity through the so-called choanae - the internal nasal openings.
The nasopharynx is not an organ as such, rather it is the space where the palatine tonsils are located, as well as mucous, olfactory and cleansing surfaces. It is part of the system responsible for conducting air into the alveoli of the lungs.

Although the nasopharynx is an empty area, this does not prevent it from performing important functions, including:

• Connective. We are talking about connecting the continuation of the oral cavity, that is, the pharynx, with the nasal sinuses. This makes it possible to carry out the respiratory process not only through the nasal passages, but also through the mouth;
• Warming. The structure of the nasopharynx determines the presence of mucous surfaces in its cavity, which contribute to an increase in the temperature of the air inhaled by a person. This allows the body to normally perceive the incoming air, without irritation of the respiratory tract;
• Olfactory. In the cavity of the nasopharynx there are special mucous surfaces that are exceptionally sensitive and capable of capturing and recognizing odors that come with the inhaled air;
• Protective. Moist mucous membranes in the nasopharynx trap dust and various microbes that enter the cavity with air.

The performance of these functions is due to the fact that the anatomy of the human nasopharynx has a number of characteristic features.

The nasopharynx in medicine is considered as the highest, complex part of the pharynx. It is a small cavity, the apex of which is located between the temples, approximately at the level of the root of the nose. The upper part of the human nasopharynx is connected to the occipital bone, and its posterior wall is adjacent to the first two vertebrae of the upper spinal column.

The walls of the nasopharynx are small bundles of branched muscle fibers. The lower part of the nasopharynx passes into the oral (or middle) part of the pharynx. On the lateral walls of the nasopharynx there are openings of the auditory tubes, which are called pharyngeal openings. They are surrounded on all sides by cartilaginous tissue, which determined the connection of the nasal part with the tympanic cavities. Such a message allows you to maintain a stable and uniform pressure level, which becomes the key to the transmission of sound vibrations.

On the roof of the nasopharynx and its side walls there are accumulations of lymphoid tissues that can trap infections and viruses that enter the body. These clusters are known as tonsils. It is the tonsils, being part of the body's lymphatic system, that play an important role in protecting the body from viruses and bacteria that can penetrate with incoming air.

This section contains the unpaired pharyngeal tonsil, paired palatine tonsils and lingual tonsil. They form a kind of ring that is involved in maintaining the body’s defenses.

In the case of inflammatory damage to the tonsils, the infectious process can significantly accelerate, affecting other human organs. In some cases (for example, with an enlarged pharyngeal tonsil), inflammation of the tonsils can significantly impede breathing. The growth of the nasopharyngeal tonsil can develop under the influence of various factors, including genetic characteristics.

Structure in newborns

In newborns, the structure of the nasopharynx has a number of features, since it is not fully formed and there is still a period of transformation ahead. In particular, in infants the nasopharynx is not high and does not yet form a semblance of a semicircular arch, as in an adult. The width of the cavity is also small. The internal nasal openings (choanae), connecting the nasal cavity with the oral cavity, as well as the pharynx, have a round or triangular shape. Choanae are characterized by rapid growth: by the second year of life they double in size, and their shape gradually becomes oval.

Many people have no idea what the nasopharynx is. This organ consists of cavities that connect the nasal passages and the middle part of the pharynx.

On the surface of the mucous membranes there are goblet cells that produce mucus. They maintain a certain humidity necessary for the normal functioning of the body. Next, we will take a closer look at how the human nasopharynx works.

What parts does the nasopharynx consist of?

Thanks to the large number of vessels, this organ warms the air, which subsequently enters the human lungs. With the help of olfactory receptors, the patient can detect various compounds that are present in the air.

First you need to understand where the nasopharynx is located and what parts this organ consists of. The nasal, oral and laryngeal regions can be distinguished.

Moreover, the pharynx is not only the upper part of the respiratory tract. This organ is the beginning of the digestive tract. Cold air constantly enters the nasopharynx, which can contain dangerous bacteria. Low temperature weakens the body and can cause inflammation.

To understand the causes of diseases, you need to know the cross-sectional structure of the human nasopharynx. When considering the diagram, you can determine the composition of this body.

The nasal part of the pharynx consists of small bundles of muscle fibers that are covered with a layer of epithelium. It includes several types of walls:

1. The upper wall (arch) adjoins the occipital part.
2. Bottom part The nasopharynx is located next to the soft palate. During swallowing, it blocks the oral cavity.
3. Back wall located next to the cervical vertebrae. It is separated only by a layer of connective tissue.
4. Anterior part of the pharynx adjacent to the nasal cavity, in which there are openings (choanae). With their help, air enters the human nasopharynx. You can understand how this process occurs in the photo, which clearly shows the holes in the nasopharynx.

It is most convenient for users to study the structure of the nasopharynx and larynx in pictures. Thanks to the visual representation, you can quickly figure out where the occipital or lower part of the organ is located.

Holes in the side wall lead to the auditory tubes. In this way the environment is connected to the middle ear. Sound waves hit the eardrums and cause vibrations.

The nasopharynx is a unique organ that unites almost all the voids in the human skull.

The tonsils are adjacent to the upper wall of a person. They consist of tissues of the lymphatic system and take part in the formation of the patient’s immunity. A detailed diagram of the structure of the nasopharynx helps people understand its composition and functions.

The nasopharyngeal tonsils include:

• adenoids;
• palatal formations, which are located on both sides;
• lingual tonsil.

This structure serves to protect the pharynx from the penetration of pathogenic microorganisms. In infants, cavities in the bones of the skull are at the stage of formation.

The choanae are smaller in size than those of an adult. On an x-ray you can see that they have a triangular shape.

At the age of 2 years, children experience a change in the configuration of the nasal passages. They take on a round shape. It is the choanae that provide access of air from the environment to the nasopharynx.

Functions

The main task of the nasopharynx is to ensure a constant supply of air to the lungs.

With the help of special receptors, a person can distinguish different odors.

There are a large number of hairs in the nasal passages. They trap harmful bacteria that can lead to infection of the nasopharynx. The protective function of the nasopharynx prevents the proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms on the mucous membranes.

Thanks to the abundance of blood vessels, the air warms up quickly. This mechanism allows you to avoid colds. The secretion of mucus is necessary for timely cleansing of the nose from pathogenic bacteria.

The upper vault serves to maintain pressure in the cranium. Pathological changes occurring in this organ can cause constant headaches.

Features of the structure of the nasopharynx of infants

Unlike adults, in newborns this organ is not yet fully formed. Anatomy The nasopharynx may vary greatly among patients. This is due to the individual characteristics of the body.

The sinuses gradually develop and by the age of 2 years they take on an oval shape.

The peculiarity of children's bodies is that they have weaker muscles.

What diseases can occur in the nasopharynx

If symptoms of nasopharyngeal diseases appear, you should consult an otolaryngologist. The doctor understands the smallest details that can help the patient.

When examined, the following diseases may be detected in a person:

• laryngitis;
• angina;
• pharyngitis;
• paratonsillitis;
• inflammation of the adenoids.

With laryngitis, the patient begins to experience inflammation of the pharyngeal mucosa. A bacterial infection can trigger the development of acute sore throat. A sign of pharyngitis is inflammation of the throat mucosa.

Conclusion

The nasopharynx is constantly in contact with air that comes from the human nasal passages. Danger to people is posed by dangerous microorganisms that can get on mucous membranes.

Structure of the larynx

To prevent infection, there are large quantities of villi in the nasal passages. They trap harmful bacteria and help avoid various diseases.

During the process of vital activity, mucus is formed in the nasal sinuses, which constantly removes harmful components. They reach the surface of human mucous membranes from the air.

Cold air can cause colds. The temperature can be increased due to the vessels that nourish the mucous tissues. The nasopharynx contains an extensive network of capillaries that nourish the cells.

On the surface of this organ there are receptors designed to detect smell. The cavities in the skull connect to the hearing organs. When hit by sound waves, a person can determine the timbre, rhythm and volume of the sound.

The tonsils are located on the lateral walls of the nasopharynx. They are composed of lymphoid tissue and consist of the adenoids, palatine and lingual parts. Tonsils are directly involved in the formation of human immunity.

The cavity that connects the nasal passages and the middle part of the pharynx is the nasopharynx. Anatomists simultaneously attribute it to the upper respiratory tract and the beginning of the digestive tract. Because of this location, it is indispensable in the body and is often susceptible to various diseases.

Human structure

The upper part of the pharynx is conventionally divided into the following subsections:

• upper;
• intermediate;
• lower.

For convenience, anatomists and otorhinolaryngologists distinguish the organs of the oropharynx, nasopharynx and pharynx itself.

Anatomy of the nasopharynx

It is connected to the passages of the nose through small oval openings - the choana. The structure of the nasopharynx is such that the upper wall is in contact with the sphenoid bone and the occipital bone. The back of the nasopharynx borders the vertebrae of the neck (1 and 2). In the lateral ones there are openings of the auditory (Eustachian) tubes. The middle ear connects to the nasopharynx through the auditory tubes.

The muscles of the nasopharynx are represented by small branched bundles. The nasal mucosa contains glands and goblet cells that are responsible for producing mucus and humidifying the inhaled air. The structure also determines that there are many vessels here that help warm the cold air. The mucosa also contains olfactory receptors.

The anatomy of the nasopharynx in newborns differs from that in adults. In a newborn baby, this organ is not fully formed. The sinuses grow quickly and become the usual oval shape by the age of 2 years. All departments have been preserved, but the implementation of some functions is impossible at this moment. The muscles of the nasopharynx in children are less developed.

Oropharynx

The oropharynx is located at the level of the 3rd and 4th vertebrae of the neck, limited only by two walls: the lateral and the posterior. It is designed in such a way that it is at this point that the respiratory and digestive systems intersect. The soft palate is separated from the oral cavity by the root of the tongue and the arches of the soft palate. A special mucous fold serves as a “flap” that isolates the nasopharynx during the act of swallowing and speech.

The pharynx has tonsils on its surfaces (upper and lateral). This accumulation of lymphoid tissue is called: pharyngeal and tubal tonsils. Below is a cross-section of the pharynx, which will help you better imagine what it looks like.

Facial sinuses

The structure of the skull is such that in the front part there are sinuses (special cavities filled with air). The mucous membrane differs little in structure from the mucous cavity, but it is thinner. Histological examination does not reveal cavernous tissue, while the nasal cavity contains it. The average person's sinuses are filled with air. Highlight:

• maxillary (maxillary);
• frontal;
• ethmoid bone (ethmoid sinuses);
• sphenoid sinuses.

At birth, not all sinuses are formed. By 12 months, the last sinuses, the frontal ones, finish forming. The maxillary sinuses are the largest. These are paired sinuses. They are located in the upper jaw. Their structure is such that they communicate with the passages of the nose through an exit under the lower passage.

The frontal bone has sinuses, the location of which determines their name. The frontal sinuses communicate with the nasal passages through the nasofrontal canal. They are paired. The sinuses of the ethmoid bone are represented by cells that are separated by bone plates. Vascular bundles and nerves pass through these cells. There are 2 such sinuses. Behind the superior concha of the nose, the sphenoid sinus is located. It is also called the main one. It opens into a wedge-ethmoid recess. She is not a couple. The table shows the functions performed by the paranasal sinuses.

Functions

The function of the nasopharynx is to bring air from the environment to the lungs.

The structure of the nasopharynx determines its functions:

1. The main function of the nasopharynx is to conduct air from the environment to the lungs.
2. Performs an olfactory function. It generates a signal about the arrival of the smell in the nasal part, the formation of an impulse and its conduction to the brain thanks to the receptors that are localized here.
3. It performs a protective function due to the structural features of the mucous membrane. The presence of mucus, hairs and a rich blood network helps clean and warm the air, protecting the lower respiratory tract. Tonsils play an important role in protecting the body from pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
4. It also implements a resonator function. The sinuses and vocal cords, located in the pharynx, create sound with a different timbre, which makes each individual unique.
5. Maintaining pressure in the cranium. By connecting the ear to the external environment, the nasopharynx allows you to maintain the necessary pressure.

Possible diseases

It is susceptible to various diseases due to its location and its functions. All diseases can be divided into groups:

• inflammatory;
• allergic;
• oncological;
• injuries.

Table of diseases.

Diseases	Symptoms	Predisposing factors
Inflammatory	1. Deterioration of general condition, malaise, weakness, fever.	1. Hypothermia.
	2. Sore throat.	2. Reduced immunity.
	3. Redness of the throat, enlarged tonsils.	3. Contact with sick people.
	4. Sore throat.	4. Being in a large crowd of people during the high morbidity season.
	5. Congestion, nasal discharge.
Allergic	1. Itching.	1. Contact with an allergen.
	2. Redness.	2. Burdened heredity.
	3. Nasal discharge.	3. History of allergic reactions.
	4. Sore throat.	4. Flowering season.
	5. Watery eyes.
Oncological	1. Presence of a neoplasm.	1. Burdened heredity.
	2. Difficulty breathing.	2 Smoking.
	3. Difficulty swallowing.	3. Contact with a source of gamma radiation (work in an X-ray room, etc.).
	4. Drastic weight loss of more than 7-10 kg per month.
	5. General malaise, weakness, enlarged tonsils and lymph nodes.
	6. Temperature around 37°C for more than 2 weeks.
Injury	1. Sharp pain.	1. History of trauma.
	2. Bleeding.
	3. Crepitation of bones.
	4. Swelling of the affected area.
	5. Redness of the affected area.

Treatment and prevention

The doctor makes prescriptions depending on the nosology. If this is an inflammatory disease, then the treatment looks like this:

• to reduce temperature “Aspirin”, “Paracetamol”;
• antiseptics: “Septefril”, “Septolete”;
• gargling: “Chlorphilipt”, soda with iodine;
• nasal drops (“Galazolin”, “Aquamaris”);
• if necessary, antibiotics;
• probiotics (Linex).

Hypothermia is contraindicated. It is worth keeping your immune system in good shape, and during the “dangerous” seasons (autumn, spring) to stay in large crowds as little as possible. If this is an allergic disease, then you should take the following medications:

• antiallergic (“Citrine”, “Laratodin”);
• nasal drops (“Galazolin”).

Prevention is to take antiallergic medications during the flowering season and avoid contact with allergens.

If it is oncology, then self-medication is contraindicated and an urgent consultation with an oncologist is needed. Only he will prescribe the correct therapy and determine the prognosis of the disease. Prevention of cancer is considered to be quitting smoking, maintaining a healthy lifestyle, and avoiding stress as much as possible.

The injury is treated as follows:

• cold on the injured area of ​​the body;
• anesthesia;
• in case of bleeding - tamponade, drug control of bleeding (hemostatic therapy, transfusion of blood substitutes);
• Further assistance will only be provided in a hospital.

Diagnostics

Depends on the type of pathology and includes

• patient interview;
• inspection;
• analysis of blood, urine, nasal discharge;
• swab from the nose, oropharyngeal ring;
• X-ray of the sinuses and bones of the skull;
• endoscopic research methods.