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What language norms exist. Language norm

Linguistic norms, especially the norms of such a developed literary language as the Russian language, are a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, reflecting both social and aesthetic views on the word, and internal, independent of the taste and desire of the speakers, patterns of the language system in its continuous development and improvement.

At the same time, the culture of speech presupposes compliance with these norms with varying degrees of obligatoryness and severity; fluctuations in norms are noted, which is reflected in the assessment of speech, which occurs on a scale correct/acceptable/wrong. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish between two types of norms: imperative (mandatory) and dispositive (complementary). Violations of imperative and dispositive norms can be conceptualized as rude and non-rude.

Imperative norms in a language are rules that are mandatory for implementation and reflect the patterns of language functioning. An example of imperative norms are the rules of conjugation, declension, agreement, etc. Such norms do not allow variations (non-variant norms), and any other implementations are regarded as incorrect and unacceptable. For example: alphabet ( Not alphabet), accepted (did not accept), chicken ( Not chicken), thanks what ( Not thanks to which).

Linguists note that variation in the norm is an objective and inevitable consequence of linguistic evolution. The presence of variation, i.e. the stage of coexistence of old and new quality, from their point of view, is even useful and expedient: options allow you to get used to the new form, make a change in the norm less noticeable and painful (for example , waves - waves, sparkling - sparkling, herbal - herbal). These options cover different levels of the language: there are variants of the orthoepic norm ( everyday and everyday), morphological and word-formation ( spasm husband. family and spasm wives genus, play a prank And play pranks), variants of grammatical forms ( tea And tea, caplet And drips), syntactic options ( filled with something And full of something, I'm waiting for a letter And I'm waiting for a letter).

Variation of form is not a constant property of specific linguistic units. The oscillation continues for a more or less long period, after which the options diverge in meaning, acquiring the status of independent words. For example, in the past of an uneducated person (ignoramus) could be calledignorant.(In I.A. Krylov: The ignorant judge exactly this way. If they don’t understand the point, it’s all a trifle. ) In another case, a productive option completely displaces its competitor (this happened, for example, with optionsturner and normative in the 18th–19th centuries. turner ).

The transformation of complete, redundant variants into incomplete ones, differing from each other in stylistic or emotional coloring, is a clear indicator of the improvement of the Russian literary language.

What is taken into account when choosing one of the options as preferable, correct?

Recognition of the normativity (correctness) of a linguistic fact is usually based on the indispensable presence of three main features:

1) regular use (reproducibility) of this method of expression;

2) compliance of this method of expression with the capabilities of the literary language system (taking into account its historical restructuring);

3) public approval of a regularly reproduced method of expression (and the role of a judge in this case usually falls to the lot of writers, scientists, and the educated part of society).

The norm is characterized by consistency and connection with the structure of the language, stability, historical and social conditioning and, at the same time, dynamism and variability.

Thus, a norm can be strictly mandatory (not allow options) or not strictly mandatory. In this case, there can be three possible relationships between the norm and the option:

    the norm is obligatory, and the option is prohibited (outside the literary language);

    the norm is mandatory, but the option is acceptable;

    the norm and the option are equal.

We will proceed from the belief that the Russian literary language includes two different system formations: a codified literary language and colloquial speech, which only the power of tradition prevents from being called a colloquial language. Spoken speech, as already said, is spontaneous; it, unlike texts of a codified literary language, primarily written ones, is not prepared in advance and is not thought out. And therefore, from the point of view of the culture of language proficiency, colloquial speech is a special object. The difficulty of studying colloquial speech in terms of speech culture is that its spontaneous implementation, the lack of control over execution, which is common when communicating in a codified literary language, leads to an inevitable certain percentage of errors and shortcomings, which must be delimited from the norms of colloquial speech, in in turn, in a codified literary language they are rightly classified as non-normative phenomena.

Why exactly spelling standards are most often violated in speech and why do people pay attention to these errors in the first place?

Orthoepia (from Greek. orthos – correct and epos - speech) is a set of norms of the national language that ensure the unity of its sound design, the uniformity of which helps facilitate verbal communication.

The peculiarity of orthoepic norms is that they relate exclusively to oral speech. Within the framework of orthoepic norms, pronunciation and stress norms are considered, i.e., specific phenomena of oral speech that are usually not reflected in writing.

In the field of orthoepy, the language system entirely determines the norm, for example: the phonetic alternation of “o” under stress with the unstressed “a”, deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants, etc., which society should be guided by.

Stress norms regulate the choice of placement and movement of a stressed syllable among unstressed ones. Can quarter, it is forbidden quarter. The norms of modern Russian stress in the literary language are closely related to the morphological properties of parts of speech and turn out to be one of their formal indicators. The mobility and diversity of stress cause difficulties in mastering accentological norms.

In the modern Russian language there are more than 5,000 commonly used words in which fluctuations in stress are recorded. Combinations of sounds present difficulties for speakers [CHN], [SHN], [WHAT], [SHTO], pronunciation of foreign and borrowed words, semantic and form-distinguishing stress.

Knowledge and compliance with orthoepic norms in the Russian language is very important, since word stress is a very sensitive instrument that performs several functions. The general cultural function is manifested in the pronunciation of words (especially proper names) related to the history and culture of a particular people ( Mussorgsky, Ivanov, Peshkov, Picasso). The semantic distinguishing function is realized in the use of homonyms ( CHAOS - CHAOS, happily - happily, language - language, busy - busy etc.).

Lexical norms include the use of a word in strict accordance with its dictionary meaning, as well as norms regarding the use of words in combination with other words.

Let us give an example of typical violations of lexical norms of this kind (hereinafter examples from the book by M.V. Gorbanevsky, Yu.N. Karaulov, V.M. Shaklein “Don’t speak in rough language: about violations of literary speech norms in electronic and print media”) :

We hoped to have an answer to these dangers. Dangers require no response. Therefore, a completely different word was meant: questions, warnings, threats.

Thus, if you know the lexical meanings of each word used, then it is difficult to make a mistake associated with the use of a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.

The second case of lexical errors is associated with a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility of words.

Violation of the norms of lexical compatibility, associated with the fact that the words used cannot complement each other, can be illustrated by the following examples:

She told everythinghis autobiography. An autobiography is written or told only by the author himself, so you cannot tell someone’s autobiography (you can only biography). Or: It will be for everyonedressed company shoes... In Russian shoes being put on, A clothes are put on, so this combination wearing shoes cannot be called correct.

The correctness of speech is often disrupted in stable combinations that cannot be unjustifiably broken up without loss of meaning, for example: is of great importance(there is a phraseological unit be of great importance, But occupy value- wrong). Or: In this situation we wanted to flex our muscles(usually they say wave your fists).

Another type of lexical compatibility norms is associated with words that require a mandatory distributor with them. For example, go (where?) on vacation, to the country, to college etc. In oral speech we can sometimes say "I went", but at the same time, usually within the framework of a given situation, the distributor (where exactly he went) becomes clear from the context, and in written speech, semantic incompleteness and incompleteness of the structure are most often felt. Many words require this kind of distributors: know (who? what?), understand (who? what?), do (who? what?), diploma (who?), founder (of what?) etc.

Thus, in order to comply with lexical norms, it is not enough just to know the lexical meaning of the word used; you also need to have information about its lexical compatibility.

Word formation norms regulate the choice of morphemes, the rules for their placement and combination as part of a new word.

In the modern Russian language, the following violations of word-formation norms occur:

Errors associated with violation of the word-formation structure of words in the Russian language, the use of forms that are absent in the language. For example, there are no 1st person singular forms for verbs vacuum(it is forbidden vacuuming or vacuuming) And win(it is forbidden I'll win or I'll run) etc.

Artificially formed words - for example, admirer(instead of fan), courteous(instead of courteous), traditional(instead of traditional), stabilize situation (instead of stabilize), cancellation(instead of cancellation), charming(instead of charm), hospitality(instead of hospitality), etc.

Morphological norms regulate the choice of variants of the morphological form of a word and variants of its coupling with others: can be used officers , engineers , it is forbidden - officerA , engineerA ; Can too much to do, no room and it’s impossible - a lot to doov , no placesov .

Violations of morphological norms are manifested:

in the formation of gender forms of a noun: delicious cocoa(instead of delicious cocoa) etc.;

in the use of number forms of a noun: preparationsAnd for exams (instead of preparingA for exams), without finances support (instead of without financeOuch support) etc.;

in the use of case forms of nouns: what time is itI (need to what time is iteni ), speck in the eyee (need to speck in the eyeat ), choiceA (need to choices ) , chauffeurA (need to chauffeurs ) , birthdaye (need to birthdayI ) , with peopleI mi(need to with peopleb mi), etc.

There are common mistakes when changing verbs: andG no(instead of andand no), wantut (instead of hotyat ), lie(instead of put it down or luggage), go, go, go(instead of go), played(instead of played), come out(instead of get out) etc.

A lot of violations of norms occur when declension of numerals, using forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.

Thus, violation of morphological norms is primarily due to poor knowledge of the rules and requirements recorded in textbooks and dictionaries, and the low general cultural level of the speaker or writer.

Syntactic norms determine the correct construction and use of all syntactic structures.

The main violations of syntactic norms are associated with errors in the following cases:

    when using the phrase with management. For example: review about what ( Not for what); review what ( Not about what); characteristic whom ( Not to whom); report what And about what; note, explain What(Not about what); state What ( Not about what);

    with incorrect word order. For example: He loved and was passionate about football(Right: he loved football and was passionate about it);

    when missing words. For example: They read different books written by one of the authors;

    with unmotivated duplication of the subject by a pronoun. For example: The goods that were supposed to be delivered were in the warehouse(Right: The goods that were supposed to be delivered were in the warehouse);

    when using participial and participial phrases. For example: He is the main person who came to the presentation... (Right: He is the main person who came to the presentation...) After watching the film, the writer became even closer and dearer to me(Right: When I watched the film, the writer became even closer and dearer to me).

Thus, syntactic norms dictate the need to know the features of syntactic structures and the ability to use them correctly in speech.

Therefore, caring about the correctness of speech is a concern not only about preserving the language, but also about ensuring that a communicative error does not arise as a result of a language error, and that the listener (reader) correctly understands everything that the author of the speech says (writes) .

Grammar errors

There are three linguistic units in speech: word, phrase, sentence. There may be an error in the structure of each of them.

Common grammatical errors include:
I. Errors in word structure:
1) when forming words (for example: fidget instead of fidget; thoughtful look instead of pensive; nobility instead of nobility, mock instead of mock, slip instead of slip, etc.);
2) when forming word forms:
a) a noun (for example: clouds, rails, with jam, without boots, etc.);
b) adjective name (for example: more beautiful, more beautiful, etc.);
c) the name of a numeral (for example: with five hundred rubles, with both friends, etc.);
d) pronouns (for example: theirs, something, near him, to their dacha, etc.);
e) verb (for example: rides, wants, waiting, lays down, waves, remaining ruble, rope with a bitten end).
II. Errors in the structure of the phrase:
1) in agreement (for example: angry dog, herbal shampoo;
2) in management (for example: I am surprised by his strength, thirst for glory, avoid certain death, gain strength, return from Minsk, act according to the order, store manager).
III. Errors in sentence structure:
1) violation of the sentence boundary (for example: The dogs attacked the trail of a hare. And they began to chase him through the clearing, He was good. Because he helped everyone);
2) a violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate (for example: The triumph of happiness overwhelmed the bird. But neither youth nor summer last forever. The novel “Days of the Turbins” was written by M. Bulgakov);
3) errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members (for example: The girl was rosy-cheeked and had her hair smoothly combed. This book taught me honesty, courage and respect for my friends);
4) in a sentence with a participial phrase (for example: The trees created a shadow, already covered with quite dense foliage. The narrow path was covered with falling snow underfoot);
5) in a sentence with an adverbial phrase (for example: Flying over the raging ocean, the swift’s strength has dried up. The picture shows a boy with his legs spread wide and his hands resting on his knees);
6) mixing of tense forms of the verb (for example: When Pugachev left the hut and got into the carriage, Grinev looked after him for a long time);
7) in a complex sentence (for example: When the wind gets stronger, and the crowns of the trees rustle under its gusts. The train was approaching the platform when an elderly man looked into the compartment door. He is ready to agree even with Khlestakov’s ridiculous remark when he said that Zemlyanika was yesterday shorter);
8) mixing direct and indirect speech (for example: Onegin said that this does not bother me. Belinsky wrote that I do not agree with Pisarev);
9) omission of words in a sentence (for example: The boy quickly did his homework and rushed to football);
10) unfortunate word order in a sentence (for example: He came in a bad mood);
11) doubling (duplication) of the subject (for example: Nobles, they hated Pugachev).

Literary norms in Russian

In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
o 1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;
o 2) norms of written speech;
o 3) norms of oral speech.
1. The norms common to oral and written speech include:
o lexical norms;
o grammatical norms;
o stylistic norms.
2. Special norms of written speech are:
o spelling standards;
o punctuation standards.
3. Applicable only to oral speech:
o pronunciation standards;
o stress norms;
o intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types (examples of errors from the essays of applicants):
o incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion of paronyms, inaccurate choice of synonym, incorrect choice of a unit of the semantic field (bone type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
o violation of the norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, has gone through all stages of human development);
o the contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional and evaluative connotations of the word (Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an enormous contribution to the development of Russia);
o the use of anachronisms (Lomonosov entered the institute, Raskolnikov studied at the university);
o mixing of linguistic and cultural realities (Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
o incorrect use of phraseological units (Youth was flowing out of him; We must bring him out into fresh water).
Grammar rules are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic. Grammatical norms are described in "Russian Grammar" (M.: 1980, vol. 1-2), prepared by the Academy of Sciences, in Russian language textbooks and grammatical reference books.
Word formation norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words.
A word-formation error is the use of non-existent derivative words instead of existing derivative words with other affixes, for example, character description, salesmanship, hopelessness, the writer’s works are distinguished by their depth and truthfulness.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context (analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear the following phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms is found in the following examples: while reading it, a question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Having married his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Stylistic norms determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style and, more broadly, with the purpose and conditions of communication.
Unmotivated use of words of a different stylistic connotation in the text causes stylistic errors. Stylistic norms are recorded in explanatory dictionaries as special notes, and are commented on in textbooks on the stylistics of the Russian language and speech culture.
Stylistic errors consist of violating stylistic norms, including units in the text that do not correspond to the style and genre of the text.
The most common stylistic mistakes are:
o stylistic inappropriateness (goes in cycles, royal lawlessness, doesn’t care, the love conflict is depicted in all its glory - in the text of an essay, in a business document, in an analytical article);
o the use of cumbersome, unsuccessful metaphors (Pushkin and Lermontov - two rays of light in the dark kingdom; These flowers - the messengers of nature - do not know what kind of violent heart beats in the chest under the stone slabs; Did he have the right to cut off this thread of life that he did not hang ?);
o lexical insufficiency (I am deeply concerned about this issue);
o lexical redundancy (He wakes them up so that they wake up; We must turn to the period of their life, that is, the period of time when they lived; Pushkin is a poet with a capital P of the word);
o ambiguity (While Oblomov was sleeping, many were preparing for his awakening; Oblomov’s only entertainment is Zakhar; Yesenin, preserving traditions, but somehow does not love the fair female sex so much; All actions and relationships between Olga and Oblomov were incomplete) .
Spelling standards - these are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations.
Punctuation standards determine the use of punctuation marks.
Punctuation tools have the following functions:
o delimitation in a written text of one syntactic structure (or its element) from another;
o fixation in the text of the left and right boundaries of a syntactic structure or its element;
o combining several syntactic structures into one whole in the text.
The norms of spelling and punctuation are enshrined in the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” (M, 1956), the only most complete and officially approved set of spelling rules. Based on these rules, various reference books on spelling and punctuation have been compiled, the most authoritative among which is considered to be the “Handbook of Spelling and Punctuation” by D. E. Rosenthal, which has been republished several times, in contrast to the official set of rules itself, published twice - in 1956 and 1962.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with spelling norms is an important part of speech culture, because their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents. Intonation norms are described in “Russian Grammar” (M.: 1980) and Russian language textbooks.

The concept of language norm

Every cultured person should be able to correctly pronounce and write words, place punctuation marks, and not make mistakes when forming word forms, constructing phrases and sentences.

The concept of linguistic norm is closely related to the concept of correct speech.

Language norm – This is the generally accepted use of linguistic means: sounds, stress, intonation, words, syntactic structures.

Basic properties of the language norm:

    objectivity – the norm is not invented by scientists or prescribed by them;

    mandatory for all native speakers;

    sustainability - if the norms were not stable, easily subject to various influences, the connection between generations would be broken; the stability of norms ensures the continuity of the cultural traditions of the people and the development of national literature;

    historical variability - as the language develops, language norms gradually change under the influence of colloquial speech, various social and professional groups of the population, borrowings, etc.

Changes in language result in variations of some words. For example, the options are absolutely equal tunnel - tunnel, galoshes - galoshes, cottage cheese - cottage cheese

However, more often the options receive different assessments: the main option is considered to be the one that can be used in all styles of speech and has a broader meaning; An option whose use is limited is considered secondary. For example, in all speech styles the option agreement, while the form agreement has a conversational tone. Form phenomenon can be used in all meanings of the word, and the colloquial version phenomenon used only in the sense of "a person with unusual abilities."

Many forms that have a vernacular coloring are outside the boundaries of the literary language: rings, got it, put it down etc.

The admissibility of traditional and new pronunciation gives rise to the idea of ​​two types of norms - “senior” and “younger”: senior - recommended, more strict; the only one possible in stage and announcer speech; the younger one is acceptable, more free, characteristic of everyday speech.

Society consciously cares about preserving language norms, which is reflected in the process codification– streamlining of language norms. The most important means of codification are linguistic dictionaries, reference books, and teaching aids, from which we can glean information about the correct use of language units.

In relation to the literary norm, several types of speech are distinguished, for example:

    elite speech, which is characterized by compliance with all literary norms, mastery of all functional styles of the Russian language, transition from one style to another depending on the sphere of communication, compliance with ethical standards of communication, respect for a partner;

    average-level literary speech, which most of the intelligentsia speaks;

    literary and colloquial speech;

    conversational-familiar type of speech (usually speech at the level of the family, relatives);

    colloquial speech (speech of uneducated people);

    professional speech.

Types of language norms

The most important quality of good speech – correctness – is based on compliance with various language norms. The types of language norms reflect the hierarchical structure of the language - each language level has its own set of language norms.

Orthoepic norms – it is a set of rules that establish uniform pronunciation. Orthoepy in the proper sense of the word indicates how certain sounds should be pronounced in certain phonetic positions, in certain combinations with other sounds, as well as in certain grammatical forms and groups of words or even individual words, if these forms and words have their own pronunciation features.

Let us give some examples of mandatory spelling norms (pronunciation of consonants).

1. The plosive sound [g] at the end of the word is deafened and [k] is pronounced in its place; pronunciation of the fricative [γ] is allowed in the words: God, Lord, good.

2. Voiced consonants, except for sonorant ones [r], [l], [m], [n], at the end of words and before voiceless consonants are deafened, and voiceless consonants before voiced ones, except for sonorant ones, are voiced: [teeth] - [zup] , [kas'it'] – [kaz'ba].

3. All consonants, except [zh], [sh], [ts], before vowels [i], [e] become soft. However, in some borrowed words the consonants before [e] remain hard: chalk[m'el], shadow[t'en'], but pace[tempo].

4. At the junction of morphemes, the consonants [z] and [zh], [z] and [sh], [s] and [sh], [s] and [zh], [z] and [h'] are pronounced as long hissing sounds: sew[shshyt’], compress[burn’].

5. Combination Thu in words what, to, nothing pronounced [pcs].

No less important for orthoepy is the question of stress placement. As noted by K.S. Gorbachevich, “correct placement of stress is a necessary sign of cultural, literate speech. There are many words, the pronunciation of which serves as a litmus test for the level of speech culture. It is often enough to hear from a stranger the wrong emphasis in a word (such as: youth, store, invention, newborn, tool, document, percentage, whooping cough, beets, athlete, self-interest, associate professor, briefcase, condolences, transferred, transported, make it easier, people, etc. .p.) in order to form a not too flattering opinion about his education, the degree of general culture, so to speak, the level of intelligence. Therefore, there is no need to prove how important it is to master the correct stress” [K.S. Gorbachevich. Norms of modern Russian literary language. M., 1981].

Issues of pronunciation of words are discussed in detail in orthoepic dictionaries, for example: Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms / edited by R.I. Avanesova. M., 1995 (and other editions)

Lexical norms- these are the rules for using words in accordance with their meanings and compatibility possibilities.

Is it possible to name the exhibition vernissage? The seagull on the curtain is mascot Art theater or its emblem? Is the use of words the same? thanks to– because of, become – stand up, place – place? Is it possible to use expressions a cavalcade of buses, a memorial monument, a forecast for the future? Answers to these questions can be found in lectures no. 7, № 8, № 10.

Like other types of norms, lexical norms are subject to historical changes. For example, it is interesting to trace how the norm of using the word has changed applicant. In the 30s and 40s, both those who graduated from high school and those who entered a university were called applicants, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. In the post-war years, the word was assigned to those graduating from high school graduate, A applicant in this meaning has fallen out of use. Applicants began to be called those who pass entrance exams at universities and technical schools.

The following dictionaries are devoted to the description of lexical norms of the Russian language: V.N. Vakurov, L.I. Rakhmanova, I.V. Tolstoy, N.I. Formanovskaya. Difficulties of the Russian language: Dictionary-reference book. M., 1993; Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language. M., 1999; Belchikov Yu.A., Panyusheva M.S. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language. M., 2002, etc.

Morphological norms- these are the rules for the formation of words and word forms.

Morphological norms are numerous and relate to the use of forms of different parts of speech. These norms are reflected in grammars and reference books.

For example, in the nominative plural of nouns, most words, according to the traditional norms of the literary language, correspond to the ending -s , -And : mechanics, bakers, turners, searchlights. However, in a number of words there is an ending -A . Forms with ending -A usually have a conversational or professional tone. Only some words have an ending -A corresponds to the literary norm, for example: addresses, shore, side, board, century, bill of exchange, director, doctor, jacket, master, passport, cook, cellar, professor, class, watchman, paramedic, cadet, anchor, sail, cold.

Variant forms, forms corresponding to the literary norm, are described in detail in the book: T.F. Efremova, V.G. Kostomarov. Dictionary of grammatical difficulties of the Russian language. M., 2000.

Syntactic norms- these are the rules for constructing phrases and sentences.

For example, choosing the right form of control is perhaps the most difficult thing in modern oral and written speech. How to say: dissertation review or for a dissertation, production control or for production,capable of sacrifices or to the victims,monument to Pushkin or Pushkin, control destinies or fate?

The book will help answer these questions: Rosenthal D.E. Handbook of the Russian language. Management in Russian. M., 2002.

Stylistic norms– these are the rules for choosing linguistic means in accordance with the communication situation.

Many words in the Russian language have a certain stylistic connotation - bookish, colloquial, colloquial, which determines the characteristics of their use in speech.

For example, the word dwell has a bookish character, so it should not be used in combination with words that are stylistically reduced, evoking ideas of a reduced nature. This is why it is incorrect: I went to the barn wherethere were pigs...

Mixing vocabulary of different stylistic colors can be used for artistic purposes, for example, to create a comic effect: The forest owner loves to feast on polydrupes and angiosperms... And when the siverko blows, how the dashing bad weather makes fun - the overall metabolism of Toptygin sharply slows down, the tone of the gastrointestinal tract decreases with a concomitant increase in the lipid layer. Yes, the minus range is not scary for Mikhailo Ivanovich: no matter how much hair there is, and the epidermis is notable...(T. Tolstaya).

Of course, we should not forget about spelling norms, which are given the most attention in the school Russian language course. These include spelling standards– rules for writing words and punctuation norms– rules for placing punctuation marks.

After studying this topic, you

you will know:

Areas of use of variants of the language norm;

be able to:

Competently use the rich resources of the Russian literary language in your speech practice;

Correctly pronounce accentologically difficult words, for example, moveA sacrament, providee judgment, condemnatione ny, dogO r etc.);

Use words in speech in accordance with their meaning (for example, paronyms: submit - provide, business traveler – business traveler etc.);

Form words correctly (for example, agreements, rectors, directorA, respectth Chancellor Angela Merkel, concentratorO read etc.) ;

Form phrases correctly (for example, according to the orderat , upon returnAnd from a business trip etc.), sentences with participial and participial phrases;

Work with dictionaries of the Russian literary language;

When studying this topic, you need to focus on the following concepts:

Language norm;

Variants of the language norm;

Types of norms of the Russian literary language;

Orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language;

Accentological norms of the Russian literary language;

Lexical norms of the Russian literary language;

Morphological norms of the Russian literary language;

Syntactic norms of the Russian literary language.

Topic questions:

1. The concept of language norm. Types of norms of the Russian literary language.

2. Orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language.

3. Accentological norms of the Russian literary language.

4. Lexical norms of the Russian literary language.

5. Morphological norms of the Russian literary language.

6. Syntactic norms of the Russian literary language.

A linguistic norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication.

A norm, as a set of stable and unified linguistic means and rules for their use, consciously fixed and cultivated by society, is a specific feature literary language, since it is the norms that make the literary language generally understandable and accessible to the public, and contribute to its stabilization.

The question of the norm arises when the language offers a choice for codification (see p. 10 about this), and this choice is far from unambiguous. Currently infrequent, but still possible to hear kilometer, although in any spelling dictionary such a pronunciation is accompanied by the mark simple, those. is colloquial, and therefore is outside the norms of the Russian literary language. In this case, the stress on the 3rd syllable is considered normative - kilometer Sounds much more often agreement Thirty years ago such an emphasis was prohibited, now it is no longer categorically prohibited, it is considered acceptable in the colloquial speech of managers, although the emphasis on the 3rd syllable remains normative for the Russian literary language - agreement This indicates that the modern Russian literary language does not remain unchanged. He constantly needs rationing. If you follow the established norms once and for all, then there is a danger that society will simply stop taking them into account and will spontaneously establish its own norms.



Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena that happened and are happening in the language and are supported by the speech practice of native speakers of the literary language. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical writers and some modern writers, the language of announcers on Central Television, the mass press, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm indicates their communicative expediency. What is the main task of language norms?

As noted above, norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. In addition, the norms reflect what has developed historically in the language: the desire of speakers and writers to consciously preserve traditions in the use of linguistic means provides a unique opportunity for subsequent generations to understand the language of the “fathers” and more distant generations. This is an important task of the norms - the task of protecting the literary language.

However, the linguistic norm is a socio-historical category in nature, but dynamic in the nature of its functioning and development. It is stable and systemic and at the same time changeable and mobile. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century, and even 15–20 years ago, today may become a deviation from it. For example, the word bankrupt was borrowed in the 18th century. from the Dutch language and originally in Russian it sounded like bankrut. Its derivatives also had a similar pronunciation: bankrutstvo, bankrutsky, go bankrupt. During the time of Pushkin, a pronunciation variant with “o” appeared along with “u”. You could say bankrupt and bankrupt. By the end of the 19th century. finally won bankrupt, bankruptcy, bankrupt, go bankrupt. This has become the norm. Another example. In modern Russian, train in the nominative plural has the ending -a, while in the 19th century. was the norm. “Railway trains are stopped for four days due to heavy snowfall,” wrote N.G. Chernyshevsky (1855).

The norms of accents also change. So, at the end of the 90s, both variants of pronunciation were acceptable: m s thinking and thinking e tion. In the modern dictionary (2005) only one form is given - thought e tion. Or another example. Let's compare the pronunciation in the 40s. XX century and today the following words:

So, the historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, and the emergence of new traditions lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

Highlight:

· orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language;

· accentological norms of the Russian literary language;

· lexical norms of the Russian literary language;

· morphological norms of the Russian literary language,

· syntactic norms of the Russian literary language.

The morphological and syntactic norms of the Russian literary language are called by the general term grammatical norms. Let us consider in more detail the main types of language norms.

Question 2. ORTHOEPIC NORS OF MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE: TRADITIONS AND NEW TRENDS

Orthoepia (from the Greek orthos - "correct" and epos - "speech") is the science of correct literary pronunciation. Orthoepic norms - these are the rules for pronunciation of vowels and consonants.

The pronunciation norms of the modern Russian literary language have evolved over centuries, changing. So, for example, in Ancient Rus' the entire population who spoke Russian was Okala, i.e. pronounced the sound [o] not only under stress, but also in unstressed syllables (similar to how this happens today in the dialects of the North and Siberia: v[o]da, dr[o]va, p[o]du etc.). However, okanye did not become the norm of the national Russian literary language. What prevented this? Changes in the composition of the Moscow population. Moscow in the 16th–18th centuries. accepted many people from the southern provinces and absorbed features of southern Russian pronunciation, in particular akanya: v[a]da, dr[a]va, p[a]du. And this happened just at the time when the solid foundations of a single literary language were being laid .

Since Moscow and subsequently St. Petersburg were the capitals of the Russian state, centers of economic, political and cultural life in Russia, it so happened that the literary pronunciation was based on Moscow pronunciation, on which some features of St. Petersburg were subsequently “layered.”

Deviation from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture. Working on your own pronunciation and improving your pronunciation culture requires a person to have certain knowledge in the field of orthoepy. Since pronunciation is largely an automated aspect of speech, a person “hears” himself worse than others, controls his pronunciation insufficiently or does not control it at all. As a rule, we are uncritical in assessing our own pronunciation and are sensitive to comments in this area. The rules and recommendations for spelling, reflected in manuals, dictionaries and reference books, seem to many to be overly categorical, different from the usual speech practice, and common spelling errors, on the contrary, are very harmless. However, this is not true. It is unlikely that incorrect pronunciation (for example: guardianship, [te]rmin) will contribute to the creation of a positive image of a person.

To successfully master orthoepic norms you need:

1) learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;

2) learn to listen to your speech and the speech of others;

3) listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which should be mastered by radio and television announcers, masters of literary expression;

4) consciously compare your pronunciation with the exemplary one, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;

5) correct mistakes through constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.

Studying the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with differentiation and awareness two main pronunciation styles: full recommended for public speaking, and incomplete(colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The complete style is characterized by 1) compliance with the requirements of orthoepic standards, 2) clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, 3) correct placement of verbal and logical stress, 4) moderate tempo, 5) correct speech pauses, 6) neutral intonation. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is 1) excessive reduction of words, loss of consonants and entire syllables, for example: right now(Now), thousand(thousand), kilogram of tomato(kilograms of tomatoes), etc., 2) unclear pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, 3) confused tempo of speech, unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.

Literary language is usually called strictly standardized form national language.

Literary norm is a set of rules for the use of words, their pronunciation, spelling, formation, modification, combination of words and construction of sentences. Literary norms permeate all levels of language and affect all units of language (see table on p. 6), that is, literary norms are characterized by systematicity and connection with the structure of the language. A literary norm is a uniform, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language during a certain period of its development.

Literary norms are a historical phenomenon. They express, on the one hand, the desire of the language for stability and universality, and on the other hand, the desire for change and instability. Norms develop over certain periods of language development approximately as follows: from variants simultaneously existing in the language ( cities - cities, trains - trains etc.) one is gradually selected, the most commonly used in the speech of the educated layer of the population, it is supported by fiction, recognized by society as ideal for communication, protected by the state and entered into dictionaries and reference books, becoming mandatory. This last stage of developing norms is called codification, therefore literary norms are codified norms, i.e., listed in dictionaries and reference books. Norms are not invented by linguists, but are created by the speech practice of the most educated strata of society and are processed “under the pen” of writers, publicists, politicians, and scientists; as a result of the efforts of speakers, artists, in texts of a wide variety of contents and purposes, in the media, in various genres of public and stage speech. Thus, we can name the following main sources of norms:

1) classical fiction (from A.S. Pushkin to A.I. Solzhenitsyn), the classical language of theater (in modern theatrical productions, unfortunately, deviations from the norms are often allowed);

2) the language of the media, uncontaminated with vulgarisms (in modern conditions this is mainly the language of information programs on radio and television, programs of the TV channel “Culture”, the language of information newspaper genres);

3) oral and written speech of educated people, representatives of the intelligentsia not in the first generation;

4) data from questionnaire surveys of the population, scientific research by linguists.

The literary norm should be stable, but it can change over time. This quality of literary norm is usually called relative stability norms. The norm is twofold: it both regulates speech practice and, in fact, is extracted from it. A change in the norm is usually preceded by the appearance of variants (see above), and this change occurs under the influence of the following sources, which can be called sources of norm change:

a) colloquial speech (for example, plural forms of nouns ending in – a: tractor, doctor, professor, city, train etc.);

b) local dialects (for example, they were dialectal, but the words became literary borrowing, kneading, arable land, plowing, frying pan, grip etc.);

c) professional jargon ( conductor, cruiser, huntsman and so on);

d) vernacular (for example, in modern dictionaries it is allowed to use the word coffee as a neuter noun);

e) other languages ​​(for example, the norm of pronunciation of the word alcohol at the beginning of the twentieth century. there was an emphasis on the first syllable under the influence of the German language in the mid-twentieth century. the emphasis in it moved to the last syllable under the influence of the French language; the norm of pronunciation of the word college back in the second half of the twentieth century. there was an emphasis on the last syllable and the dictionaries indicated “not college,” but at the turn of the millennium, under the influence of the English language, the pronunciation “college” also became standard).

The process of changing norms can affect not only individual units of language, but also entire language levels. So, in the 15th century. In Moscow, rounded pronunciation was widespread, and by the end of the 16th century. As a result of the large influx of the southern Russian population, Okanye was replaced by Akanye. In Moscow, which became the capital of the centralized Russian state, all-Russian pronunciation standards were gradually formed, which, through democratic fiction and business language, spread to the rest of the territory. That is why in the modern Russian literary language, with the “okay” (Old Russian) spelling, the norm of pronunciation is a moderate akan (in place of the unstressed / O/ a sound is pronounced, in between / O/ And / A/): d/\horns, k/\rowa, m/\roses.

The most important role of literary norms is that they “cement” the speech of the entire society and resist dialect and individual diversity. The norm is one of the most important conditions for the stability, unity and identity of the national language.

The norm is characterized by: 1) relative stability, 2) prevalence throughout the country, 3) common use, 4) universal obligatory nature, 5) compliance with the capabilities of the language system.

According to the degree of normativity, it is customary to distinguish the following types of norms:

1. Strict (mandatory) norm (1st degree norm) - in this case, the dictionaries provide the only correct option: alphabet, mu/z`/Ey, pio/n`/Er. Sometimes there are prohibitive marks “not”, “not recommended”, “wrong”, for example: It's calling, wrong. * It's ringing.

2. Neutral the norm (2nd degree norm) presupposes the presence of two equal options, indicated without dictionary marks: loop - loop, rust – rust.

3. Movable norm (norm of the 3rd degree) contains two unequal options, the first of which is preferable , and the second may have the marks “colloquial”, “special”, “professional”, “additional”: on vacation - decomposition on vacation; compass – specialist, prof. compass; coffee- husband. gender, additional Wed genus. This normative-stylistic options (differ in style). The first option was called the “senior norm”, i.e. recommended, more strict, the only one possible in stage and announcer speech. The second (reduced) option is called the “junior norm”, i.e. acceptable, freer, usually characteristic of colloquial speech. Label "obsolete." characterizes normative-chronological options that differ in time of use: angle- outdated cancerUrs; slates- outdated stylus; Now- outdated now. Since the norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees contain options (equal or unequal), they are called variant norms.

Thus, the development of a literary language is essentially the formation, development and improvement of its norms in accordance with the needs of society and due to the internal laws of linguistic development.

CHAPTER 2. STYLISTIC SYSTEM

MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE

2.1. General characteristics of functional styles

modern Russian literary language

The word “style” arose from the Latin stilus (pointed writing stick) and has many meanings, the most common of which is the manner of writing, a set of techniques for using linguistic means ( Pushkin's style, Gogol's style, solemn style, fable style and so on). In understanding the term “functional style,” the first word is of great importance; it emphasizes that varieties of literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function (role) that the language performs in each specific case.

In the most general form, it is customary to consider three language functions:

Communicative, i.e. the function of direct communication;

Informative, i.e. the function of storing and transmitting information;

Influential, i.e. the function of influencing the addressee.

The following are distinguished: spheres of communication(areas of language application): scientific, journalistic, official business, artistic and everyday.

In accordance with the functions of language and areas of communication, five functional styles have been identified in the modern Russian literary language (see Fig. 2).

and n



Rice. 2. The structure of the literary language

Functional style is a type of language characterized by the selection and combination of linguistic means in connection with the functions of the language, in accordance with the tasks of communication, depending on the content of the statement, the situation (official or informal) and the sphere of communication.

The differences between functional styles are due to the following circumstances.

Firstly, with language functions: the scientific style serves the informative function of the language, the colloquial style serves the communicative function, some styles combine different functions, for example, journalistic - the function of influencing and communicating information, official business - the same functions, but with a predominance of information, and artistic (the most complex) In addition to the three mentioned, style performs its own special functions, for example, aesthetic.

Secondly, functional styles are used in different areas of communication, which also gives rise to differences in the content of communication, for example, scientific communication about everyday facts or everyday communication about problems of cosmogony or elementary particles is unlikely. Vocabulary is most dependent on the content of speech, hence the lexical differences in different functional styles, indicated by the dictionary marks “special..”, “med.”, “physical.”, “tech.”, “colloquial.”, “poet.”, “ bran." etc.

Thirdly, the differences are related to form of speech, so the conversational style, predominantly realized in oral form, is opposed to all the others (bookish), the main form of existence of which is written speech, hence the immediacy of communication in the conversational style and the indirectness of communication in the bookish style.

Fourthly, with types of leaks(monologue, dialogue, polylogue). Book styles are monologue speech, while conversational style usually manifests itself in dialogue or polylogue.

Fifthly, with a degree formality and personality of communication Everyday communication takes place in an unofficial setting and with obligatory personality, i.e., addressing a specific interlocutor (conversational style); for other styles, formality is obligatory (official business and journalistic styles) or probable (scientific style). Personal communication is impossible for a journalistic style and is unlikely for scientific and official business styles. The artistic style in this regard is very original and variable depending on the author and genre.

Each functional style is characterized by a set of features, some of which are uniquely repeated in other styles, but their specific combination distinguishes one linguistic style from another.

Within each style we can distinguish substyles(varieties), for example, within the scientific style there are strictly scientific (academic), scientific-educational, popular science, scientific and technical substyles, within the official-business style - legislative, diplomatic and administrative-clerical substyles, etc.

With all their individual characteristics, functional styles do not form closed systems; they can interact, that is, elements of one style can be used in another style. Yes, most open for the penetration of elements of other styles is the artistic style (the language of fiction), the most closed, closed is considered an official business style, but it also creates hybrid genres, in which the official business style is combined with the journalistic style, for example: program documents of political parties, the President's New Year's speech, a note of protest, etc. The journalistic style is even more indicative, since in its informative genres (news column in a newspaper, information broadcasts on radio and television, etc.) signs of scientific and official business styles are manifested, in the interview genre - features of conversational style and slang-slang speech, in the genre of feuilleton, humoresque - features of the artistic style.

Mastery of functional styles of literary language is a necessary element of the speech culture of any specialist (company manager, politician, lawyer, etc.).