Angina

Games of the 9th Olympiad. Argentina Summer Youth Olympic Games Schedule

In 1925, Pierre de Coubertin announced his resignation. Fairly disappointed, he published a “sports testament”, in which, once again, he outlined his concept regarding the essence of sport: “Professionalism, that’s the enemy!” On May 28, 1925, at a session in Prague, the International Olympic Committee elected a new president - the Belgian diplomat Comte de Bayeux-Latour, who served in office until 1942, until his death. To host the 1928 Games, the IOC received only one application - from Amsterdam. So Amsterdam received the right to host the Olympic Games without any struggle. The founder of the Games, Pierre de Coubertin, was not present at the Summer Olympics in the Netherlands for the first time: he was seriously ill. In general, the Olympics were a routine affair. And although the number of participating countries increased, the number of athletes was somewhat smaller, and the competition program was reduced.
A tradition arose in Amsterdam, which was subsequently never broken: during the Games, a fire was lit in Olympia from the sun using a mirror. The runners carried it to Amsterdam, passing it to each other like a relay race. They crossed Greece, Yugoslavia, Austria, Germany and the Netherlands.
Lighting of the Olympic flame. July 28, 1928.

Arrival of the Uruguay national team in Amsterdam

Arrival of the French national ice hockey team at Amsterdam Central Station

After a 16-year break, the German team entered the Olympic start, and, I must say, entered with a solid composition - 233 people. Athletes from Malta, Panama and Rhodesia took part in the Olympics for the first time.
German athletes wearing white skirts, black jackets and white caps pose for the camera before the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games on July 28, 1928.

Greek Olympic team participating in the 1928 Olympics

For the first time, the Olympic program included competitions among women in athletics - 100 and 800 meters, 4 x 100 meter relay, high jump, discus throw - and gymnastics. The most striking event was the performance of the track and field athletes. Each type of program was marked by a world record.
Argentine national football team during the Olympic Games

American Betty Robinson won the 100-meter race, and she also won a silver medal in the 4 x 100-meter relay. The 16-year-old student didn't know she was a good runner until her teacher saw her run after training. She began running competitively just four months before the 1928 Olympics. In her first outdoor performance, she set a world record in the 100 meters. At the Amsterdam Olympics, Betty won by half a meter in the 100m final, competing for only the fourth time in this event. Three years after her Olympic triumph, Elizabeth was in a plane crash. The man who found her even thought she was dead, carried her into the trunk of his car and took her to the funeral home. She was unconscious for seven weeks and couldn't walk properly for another two years, but she survived. Betty Robinson wanted to return to the sport and compete in sprints. But her leg could no longer fully bend at the knee, which prevented the athlete from taking the correct starting position. However, she could run in relay races. And in 1936, Betty Robinson won her second gold medal in the 4x100 meter relay as part of the American team.
Athletes from Czechoslovakia at the stadium

The 800 m race was won by Lina Radke-Batschauer from Germany, the 4x100 m relay was won by Canada (Fanny Rosenfeld was among the winners), and their compatriot Ethel Catherwood won the high jump. Percy Williams from Canada received two gold medals in the 100 and 200 m.
The Estonian Olympic team before the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games on July 28, 1928.

Interestingly, the inclusion of the 800-meter distance in the women's program caused great controversy. During 800-meter races, young women fell exhausted onto the track. It was decided to exclude this distance from the Olympic program in 1932, and again it appeared only at the XVII Games, in 1960, where the USSR athlete Lyudmila Shevtsova won. Her result was 12.5 seconds higher than Lina Radke's result.
Canadian athletes prepare to take part in the opening ceremony of the 1928 Olympic Games

But, in general, the fight was exciting and interesting. As at previous Games, Finnish track and field athletes performed well. They won five gold, five silver and four bronze medals and won the 1500m, 5000m, 3000m steeplechase and 10,000m. At the last distance, the first to finish was the legendary Paavo Nurmi. This was his 9th Olympic gold medal!
The Australian Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928

As for American athletes, they won nine gold, eight silver and eight bronze medals in Amsterdam. An interesting fight took place in the long jump sector between the American Eduard Hemm and the Haitian athlete Silvio Cator. In 1928, it was they who led the main fight for the championship. The American came to the Olympics as a world record holder (7.90 m). The persistent struggle for Olympic gold also brought him victory with an Olympic record (7.73 m). However, the ambitious Kator still took revenge on the Olympic champion, winning the world championship with a new world record (7.93 m).
Argentina's Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928

Marathon running brought an unexpected victory to France. The hero of the marathon was the little Algerian Bougera El Kafi, a laborer from the Renault factories in Billancourt. His run in Amsterdam was a masterpiece of tactics, caution, and ability to persevere. After the first ten kilometers he was 2 minutes 30 seconds behind the leaders. The leaders - Japanese and Finnish - seemed much more active. The Japanese K. Yamada, small but surprisingly sinewy and strong, made a breakthrough at the twenty-fifth kilometer. His mistake was that he went ahead very early. This mistake by Yamada became a trump card for El Kafi, who, picking up speed, saw rivals on his road who were exhausted in the fight with the Japanese. When the second hour of the race struck, he was already passing the Japanese runner. But three kilometers before the finish line, another danger awaited him - the Chilean Miguel Reyes Plaza rushed forward. But he overestimated his strength, and one and a half kilometers before the finish, El Kafi was already confident of his success. And he became an Olympic champion.
The Belgian Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928

In Amsterdam, the first victories were won by representatives of Japan: Mikio Oda in the triple jump and Ishiuki Tsuruta in the 200-meter breaststroke. The Post Office of the Land of the Rising Sun also celebrated the first Olympic award for Japanese athletes. The first silver was won by Kinue Hitomi in the 800 meters. She lost less than a second to world record holder German runner Caroline Radke. Kinue Hitome exceeded the old German world record by as much as 2 seconds, but this was not enough. In a bitter struggle, Caroline Radke set a new world record (2:16.8) and rightfully became an Olympic champion.
The British Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928

As for swimming, it was in this sport that the Hero of the 1928 Olympics appeared. It rightfully became the American Johnny Weissmuller. Weissmuller competed in the 100-meter freestyle and the 4 x 200-meter relay, ultimately winning two gold medals. Johnny Weissmuller performed brilliantly in swimming pools in America and Europe for about ten years. His collection includes five gold Olympic medals. Twice he became the Olympic champion in the most prestigious swimming distance - 100 meters freestyle. At the same distance, Weissmuller was the first to break the minute and brought the world record to 57.4 seconds by 1924. In the pre- and post-war years, the screens of the world were filled with numerous episodes of the American action movie “Tarzan”. Of particular success were those episodes in the film where Tarzan demonstrated amazing athletic qualities: a breathtaking competition with a crocodile, breathtaking stunts in the jungle, and the hero’s long underwater journeys. The excellent athletic abilities of the performer in the role of Tarzan are undeniable. This is not surprising: after all, five-time Olympic champion Johnny Weissmuller starred in the role of Tarzan.
The German Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928.

At the Amsterdam Olympics, the winner of the weightlifting competition was for the first time determined by the sum of the classical triathlon: bench press, snatch, and clean and jerk. Weightlifters competed in five weight categories, and Olympic and world records were broken in all categories.
The Danish Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928

The field hockey competition brought together 9 teams. For the first time, Indian hockey players took part in the Olympics. The debut brought them gold medals. From then until 1960 they were undefeated, and only in Rome did they have worthy opponents in the Pakistani team.
The Canadian Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928

The football tournament attracted 17 teams. This tournament was a great success among the spectators, who numbered more than 250 thousand. The final was South American: Uruguay played Argentina. To determine the champion, two matches had to be played. The first ended in a draw - 1:1. And only in the additional second match were the Uruguayans able to win - 2:1. In the match for third place, the Italian team defeated the Egyptian team with a score of 11:3.
The Finnish Olympic team during the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. July 28, 1928

Italians and French competed in fencing competitions with foils and epees. And if the first in both cases won as a team, then in the individual competition the veteran, Frenchman Lucien Gaudin, excelled. Thus ended the career of this outstanding fencer, who had been fighting for the Olympic title for twenty-five years, brilliantly. The Hungarians proved to be the strongest saber fencers, winning the championship in both the individual and team competitions. It was their first of seven consecutive gold medals they would win at the Olympics.
Cars parked near the Olympic Stadium

At the 1928 Games, the brilliant career of the German Helena Mayer began. Mayer became one of the strongest foil fencers of her time. At the Olympic Games she won gold (1928) and silver (1936) medals; 3-time world champion (1929, 1931, 1937), 6-time German champion, 9-time US champion. In 1923, at the age of 13, she won the German championship for the first time, playing for the Offenbach fencing club. In 1928, in addition to the Olympics, she won the Italian Championship. In 1932 she moved to the USA to study at the university. In 1933, after the Nazis came to power in Germany, for some time it was one of the sports symbols of Nazi propaganda. Later, her half-Jewish origin came to light, and she was even expelled from her native fencing club in Offenbach. However, Helena Mayer was included in the German Olympic team in 1936. After the 1936 Olympic Games, she finally emigrated to the USA.
The head of security at the Olympic Games with a collection of confiscated photographic equipment

In aristocratic equestrian sport, 2 gold medals (individual and team dressage competitions) were won by Karl Friedrich von Langen-Parow, baron, German aristocrat. In equestrian sports, Czechoslovakian athlete František Ventura won the individual jumping competition on Eliot. Without receiving a single penalty point, he defeated 46 of the world's best athletes from 16 countries in a dispute.
Ladies from the Olympic medical staff

In freestyle wrestling, which was called freestyle wrestling in those years, US athletes were noticeably displaced by Europeans, and primarily by Finns and Swedes. Only in the featherweight division the title of Olympic champion went to an American.
Crowd near the Olympic Stadium

Queue to check tickets for the stadium.

A cameraman from an Italian film company during a match.

Press areas

Tribunes of the Olympic Stadium

American swimmers pose for photographers

Lord David Burley of England won the 400m steeplechase, Olympic Stadium

Akiless Jarvinen during the decathlon competition. He won silver

Sprinters test start

August J. Scheffer (from London), 3rd place in weightlifting (middleweight)

Al Morrison, Olympic champion in freestyle wrestling

American takes an autograph

Argentine cyclist Saavedra during a race

Boxing, Lambert Bep Van Klaveren (right) featherweight. Olympic gold medalist

Gymnastics team from France

Select city

Two cities competed to host the 1928 Summer Olympics: Amsterdam and Los Angeles. Preference was given to the capital of the Netherlands. 14 IOC members voted for this decision, with four against and one abstention. A series of subsequent discussions and repeated votes did not change the results of the first vote. Los Angeles held .

Preparation for the Games

The 1928 Olympic Games were the first to be held without Pierre de Coubertin as IOC president. In 1925, the 62-year-old founder of the Olympic movement announced his retirement for health reasons. Before leaving, Coubertin, partly disillusioned with the Olympic movement, published a “sports testament”, in which he once again outlined his concept regarding the essence of sport: “Professionalism, that’s the enemy!” His “testament” ended with the following optimistic conclusion: “Despite some disappointments that in an instant destroyed my best hopes, I believe in the peace-loving and moral qualities of sport.”

A tradition arose in Amsterdam, which was subsequently never broken: during the Games, a fire was lit in Olympia from the sun using a mirror. The runners carried it to Amsterdam, passing it to each other like a relay race. They crossed Greece, Yugoslavia, Austria, Germany and the Netherlands.

Starting from this Olympics, sponsorship cooperation between the IOC and the famous Coca-Cola concern began.

A stall selling Coca-Cola at the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam

Symbolism

Posters for the IX Summer Olympic Games were designed by artist Joseph Rovers.

Two of them are considered the main ones. One shows a marathon runner holding a laurel branch, a symbol of victory and the Olympic spirit. The three wavy lines at the bottom of the poster - red, white and blue - symbolize the national flag of the Netherlands.

In another, an athlete runs through the stadium, while the Olympic flag with five rings flutters in the distance.

Participating countries

After a 16-year break, German athletes were allowed to participate in the Games. Athletes from Malta, Panama and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) took part in the Olympics for the first time. The USSR national team did not take part in the 1928 Games.

All countries participating in the 1928 Summer Olympics: Australia, Austria, Argentina, Belgium, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Hungary, Germany, Greece, Haiti, Denmark, Egypt, India, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Canada, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes , Cuba, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Poland, Portugal, Rhodesia, Romania, USA, Turkey, Uruguay, Philippines, Finland, France, Czechoslovakia, Chile, Sweden, Switzerland, Estonia, South Africa, Japan.

A total of 2,883 athletes from 46 countries took part in the Games.

Athletes from the USA won with a clear advantage. But at the same time, the Americans won medals in only 9 sports out of 20, while the athletes of the German team, which was second in the overall standings, achieved success in 16 sports.

Opening ceremony

Traditionally, the Olympic Games were to be opened by the head of state. However, Queen Wilhemina of the Netherlands, a true Christian, resolutely refused to take part in the ceremony, because she considered the Olympics to be “pagan games.” The games were opened by her husband, Prince Hendrik of Orange. The Queen was not present at the Olympic events at all.

Amsterdam Olympic Stadium. Opening ceremony of the 1928 Games

At the opening ceremony, a traditional parade of athletes took place, and Harry Denis, a Dutch football player, pronounced the Olympic oath on behalf of the athletes.

The Estonian national team before the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games on July 28, 1928

Team Denmark at the opening ceremony of the Games

Team Great Britain at the parade of participating countries

Cars parked near the Olympic Stadium

Olympic medical staff

Press box at the IX Summer Olympic Games in Amsterdam

The head of the security service with a collection of photographic equipment confiscated from visitors. Photography was permitted only to accredited photographers

Before the opening ceremony, competitions in hockey (May 17-26) and football (May 27-June 15) were held. Therefore, the official start date of the Games is May 17.

Scandals of the IX Summer Olympic Games

On the eve of the opening of the Games, French athletes, led by the Secretary General of the French Athletics Federation, Paul Mericamp, went to the Amsterdam stadium to familiarize themselves with the venue of the competition. The guard tried to keep the French out, although a few minutes earlier German athletes had entered the stadium.

During the ensuing argument, Paul Mericamp pushed the watchman, who responded by hitting the Frenchman in the face with a bunch of keys. The athletes beat the guard. As a result, we spent several hours in the police station.

The next day the same watchman again refused to let the French into the stadium. The French team regarded what was happening as a provocation. To resolve the situation, the intervention of the Dutch Foreign Ministry was required. After which the organizing committee of the Games made an official apology to the French team.

In Moscow, in response to the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan; his position was supported by 64 countries. And this is not the first time that the Olympics have been a field for the expression of political orientations.

Paris, 1924

Germany and its allies in the First World War, including Soviet Russia, which was subject to a political boycott in the West, were not invited to the 1920 Olympics, which was held in Antwerp, Belgium.

Four years later, the Soviet Union refused to go to the Olympics, although the Supreme Council of Physical Culture under the Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR received an official invitation from France. There were two reasons for such a gesture. Firstly, the USSR thus supported Germany, which was still not invited to the Olympics, commemorating the First World War. Secondly, the charter of the Red Sport International, of which the Soviet Union was a member, obliged its members to fight bourgeois sports organizations, and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) was first on this list. The USSR boycotted the Olympic competitions, holding proletarian Spartakiads instead, until 1952.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Berlin, 1936

The prospect of holding the XI Summer Olympic Games in Nazi Germany did not please the countries that planned to take part in them. At a conference in defense of the Olympic Ideas, which took place in Paris in June 1936, all “men of good will and friends of the Olympic Ideas” were called upon to boycott the games in the Third Reich. Instead, it was proposed to hold the People's Olympics in Barcelona. This should have been achieved by the Council of Struggle for the postponement of the Olympics from Berlin. At the same time, the IOC sent experts to Berlin who did not notice anything contrary to the Olympic principles in the capital of Nazi Germany.

As a result, on July 19, Hitler solemnly opened the Games, but it was not possible to hold the People's Olympics in Barcelona in parallel - in the same month, the Francoists rebelled against the Republican government of Spain.

The athletes had to compete under the swastika flags that covered Berlin. The Swiss Paul Martin, who was married to a Jewish woman, was excluded from the participants.

The Nazis carefully studied the American and European teams for the purity of Aryan blood, thinking ahead of time about the generation of “children of the Olympics.” Despite this, the triumph of racist ideology did not come out of the games - ten African Americans took six gold, three silver and two bronze medals, and black sprinter Jesse Owens was recognized as the best athlete of the Olympics.

Only after World War II did the IOC publicly admit that its decision not to change the venue of the 1936 Olympics was wrong.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Melbourne, 1956

Among the countries that boycotted the 1956 Summer Olympics (held in November - December), three groups stand out. For the first - Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon and Cambodia - the demarche was a reaction to the Suez crisis and the aggression of France, Great Britain and Israel towards Egypt.

The second - Spain, Switzerland and the Netherlands - did not go to the Games in protest against the Soviet suppression of the uprising in Hungary a month earlier. The Hungarian athletes themselves, dissatisfied with the new pro-Soviet government, refused to compete under the flag of the Hungarian People's Republic and appeared at the Olympics under the 1918 Hungarian flag. Some of them did not return to their homeland after the completion of the competition.

The People's Republic of China also had a separate reason for boycotting the Olympics, which protested against the invitation of the Taiwanese team as an independent state.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Tokyo, 1964

South Africa was denied an invitation to the capital of Japan in 1964 because of the apartheid policy pursued by the country's leadership and the life sentence of the future first black president, Nelson Mandela. South Africa was able to return to the sports community only in 1992.

Meanwhile, Asia was developing its own drama: in 1962, the IV Asian Games were held in Jakarta, to which the teams of Israel and Taiwan were not allowed to attend (they were denied visas). The IOC stripped the Indonesian Olympic Committee of its powers due to racial discrimination in that country, and in retaliation it announced that it would hold its own Games for the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO). In 1963, 50 countries took part in the first competition. Then the IOC banned GANEFO participants from competing at the Olympics. Therefore, Indonesia decided to boycott the Games, and the DPRK supported it.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Montreal, 1976

The Olympic Games in Montreal were boycotted by 26 African countries, which failed to obtain a ban on participation in the games for New Zealand, which participated in rugby competitions in South Africa, despite sanctions imposed against that country. The IOC justified itself by saying that rugby is not part of the Olympic program. Iraq and Guyana joined the protest of African countries.

The Taiwanese team did not go to Montreal because Canada did not want to recognize the island's independence. In 1975, Canada threatened to exclude Taiwanese athletes who intended to compete under the flag of the partially recognized Republic of China from the Olympics, despite the IOC recognizing its National Olympic Committee. According to one version, Canada made this decision under pressure from Beijing, since China was the country's largest trading partner.

The IOC threatened to ban the Olympics in Montreal, then Canada invited Taiwan to use its flag and anthem, but refused to recognize the Republic of China as an independent state, so the Taiwanese delegation did not go to Montreal. The PRC, in turn, did not take part in the Games in protest against the fact that the IOC recognized Taiwan as an independent state.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Moscow, 1980

Following the United States, all NATO member countries and some allies of the United States and Great Britain spoke out against the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan. In addition to the 64 states that officially declared their intention to boycott the Olympics, another 16 limited themselves to not recommending that their athletes take part in it.

The national teams of Australia, Holland, Italy, France, Great Britain and some other countries competed not under state flags, but under the flag of the IOC. In the event of their victory, not the national anthem, but the Olympic anthem was played.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Los Angeles, 1984

At the next Olympic Games, the socialist countries accused the United States of “fanning anti-Soviet hysteria” and almost completely boycotted Los Angeles. The only exceptions were Yugoslavia and China, which took part in the Olympics for the first time. Romanian athletes competed at the Games privately.

“With the direct connivance of the American authorities, various kinds of extremist organizations and groups have sharply intensified, openly setting as their goal the creation of “unbearable conditions” for the stay of the USSR delegation and the performances of Soviet athletes. Political demonstrations hostile to the USSR are being prepared; overt threats of physical violence are being made against the USSR NOC, Soviet athletes and officials. The leaders of anti-Soviet, anti-socialist organizations are received by representatives of the US administration, their activities are widely advertised by the media. To justify this campaign, the US authorities and the Olympic organizers make constant references to various kinds of legislative acts,” read the statement of the USSR National Olympic Committee on May 8, 1984.

In addition to the countries of victorious socialism, the Games were boycotted by Libya and Iran, dissatisfied with Israel's participation in them.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Seoul, 1988

This time, the boycott was initiated by North Korea, which wanted to hold part of the competition on its territory, but did not receive IOC approval. Then the DPRK completely refused to participate in the Games, in which it was supported by Cuba, Nicaragua and Ethiopia. Teams from Albania, Seychelles and Madagascar did not come to Seoul, but these countries did not declare an official boycott. The socialist states did not support North Korea, since the USSR did not dare to miss two Olympics in a row.
How the Olympics were boycotted

Sochi, 2014

The idea to boycott the Olympics first appeared in 2008 during the Russian-Georgian war. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili called on the international community to do this. At the same time, American newspapers called for an American-European boycott of the Winter Olympics.

Last summer, when many had forgotten about the conflict of 08.08.08, the world community reacted painfully to the adoption by the State Duma of a law banning the propaganda of homosexuality. One of the first to call for a boycott of the Sochi Olympics was the British actor, writer, playwright and openly gay man Stephen Fry. “In the overall interests of the humanity proclaimed by the Olympic movement, the IOC is obliged to say a firm no to the barbaric, fascist law adopted by the Duma at the instigation of Putin,” Fry wrote in his blog. He compared the actions of the Russian authorities towards gays with the discriminatory policies of the Third Reich towards Jews and expressed fears that gay athletes could be in danger in Russia. Fry's position was shared by his compatriot, actor Rupert Everett.

Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Railway Transport

State educational institution of higher, professional education

Irkutsk State Transport University

Faculty of Transportation Process Management

Department of Physical Culture

Abstract on the topic: “History of the development of the 9th Olympic Games”

Completed by: Markelova A.M. gr. T-09-2

Checked by: Osipova E. F.

Irkutsk 2010

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..p. 3

History of the development of the 9th Olympic Games……………………………….pages 4-5

Types of sports. Famous athletes…………………………..pp.5-9

Medal of the IX Summer Olympic Games 1928………………………p. 10

Olympic Stadium in 1928……………………………………..page 10

Participating countries……………………………………………………….page 11

Medal standings………………………………………………………page 12

Conclusion…………………………………………………………….page 13

List of references………………………………………………………page 14

Introduction

Each Olympic Games turned into a holiday for the people, a kind of congress for rulers and philosophers, a competition for sculptors and poets.

The days of Olympic celebrations are days of universal peace. For the ancient Hellenes, games were a tool of peace, facilitating negotiations between cities, promoting mutual understanding and communication between states.

The Olympics exalted man, because the Olympics reflected a worldview, the cornerstone of which was the cult of perfection of spirit and body, the idealization of a harmoniously developed person - a thinker and an athlete. The Olympionist - the winner of the games - was given the honors bestowed upon the gods by his compatriots; monuments were created in their honor during his lifetime, odes of praise were composed, and feasts were held. The Olympic hero entered his hometown in a chariot, dressed in purple, crowned with a wreath, and entered not through the usual gates, but through a gap in the wall, which was sealed that same day so that the Olympic victory would enter the city and never leave it.

History of the development of the 9th Olympic Games

In 1925, Pierre de Coubertin announced his resignation. Fairly disappointed, he published a “sports testament”, in which, once again, he outlined his concept regarding the essence of sport: “Professionalism, that’s the enemy!” - he concludes: “Despite some disappointments that in an instant destroyed my best hopes, I believe in the peaceful and moral qualities of sport.”

On May 28, 1925, at a session in Prague, the International Olympic Committee elected a new president - the Belgian diplomat Comte de Bayeux-Latour, who served in office until 1942, until his death. To host the 1928 Games, the IOC received only one application - from Amsterdam. So Amsterdam received the right to host the Olympic Games without any struggle. The founder of the Games, Pierre de Coubertin, was not present at the Summer Olympics in the Netherlands for the first time: he was seriously ill. In general, the Olympics were a routine affair. And although the number of participating countries increased, the number of athletes was somewhat smaller, and the competition program was reduced.

On the eve of the opening of the Games there was a big scandal. The French athletes decided to get acquainted with the Olympic complex, which consisted of a football field bordered by a ring intended for athletics competitions. Around this ring there was another one made of cement for bicycle racing. All this was surrounded by cozy stands with forty thousand seats, above which rose a tower that looked like a windmill. A group of French athletes, led by the Secretary General of the French Athletics Federation, Paul Mericamp, approached the stadium and came across a guard who forbade them to enter. Just a few minutes earlier, the German team had entered the stadium, and the fury of the French was hard to describe. Mericamp tried to push the watchman aside, but in defense he hit the French leader in the face with a key. A fight broke out, and after a while the French left. The organizing committee immediately apologized to them, and this would have been the end of the incident. But the next day, the French bus was stopped before entering the stadium because they did not have a pass. The athletes got off the bus and walked towards the stadium. And then an exact repetition of yesterday’s incident occurred: the same guard who knocked out Mericamp again stood in the way of the French delegation. It was too much! Considering this a provocation, the French got on the bus and left the parade. The Minister of Foreign Affairs had to intervene. If we consider what happened with the French delegation to be a misunderstanding, everything else went fine, without much noise, quietly and somehow non-festively, everyday.

After a 16-year break, the German team entered the Olympic start, and, I must say, entered with a solid composition - 233 people. Athletes from Malta, Panama and Rhodesia took part in the Olympics for the first time.

For the first time, the Olympic program included competitions among women in athletics - 100 and 800 meter running, 4 x 100 meter relay, high jump, discus throw - and gymnastics.

Types of sports. Famous athletes

· Athletics (27)

· Cycling (6)

· Diving (4)

· Equestrian (6)

· Fencing (7)

· Football (1)

· Gymnastics (8)

· Field hockey (1)

· Modern pentathlon (1)

Rowing (7)

· Sailing (3)

· Pool (11)

· Water polo (1)

· Weightlifting (5)

· Wrestling (13)

For the first time, the Olympic program included competitions among women in athletics - 100 and 800 meters, 4 x 100 meter relay, high jump, discus throw - and gymnastics. The most striking event was the performance of the track and field athletes. Each type of program was marked by a world record.

American Betty Robinson won the 100-meter race, and she also won a silver medal in the 4 x 100-meter relay. The 16-year-old student didn't know she was a good runner until her teacher saw her run after training. She began running competitively just four months before the 1928 Olympics. In her first outdoor performance, she set a world record in the 100 meters. At the Amsterdam Olympics, Betty won by half a meter in the 100m final, competing for only the fourth time in this event. Three years after her Olympic triumph, Elizabeth was in a plane crash. The man who found her even thought she was dead, carried her into the trunk of his car and took her to the funeral home. She was unconscious for seven weeks and couldn't walk properly for another two years, but she survived. Betty Robinson wanted to return to the sport and compete in sprints. But her leg could no longer fully bend at the knee, which prevented the athlete from taking the correct starting position. However, she could run in relay races. And in 1936, Betty Robinson won her second gold medal in the 4x100 meter relay as part of the American team.

The 800 m race was won by Lina Radke-Batschauer from Germany, the 4x100 m relay was won by Canada (Fanny Rosenfeld was among the winners), and their compatriot Ethel Catherwood won the high jump. Percy Williams from Canada received two gold medals in the 100 and 200 m.

Interestingly, the inclusion of the 800-meter distance in the women's program caused great controversy. During 800-meter races, young women fell exhausted onto the track. It was decided to exclude this distance from the Olympic program in 1932, and again it appeared only at the XVII Games, in 1960, where the USSR athlete Lyudmila Shevtsova won. Her result was 12.5 seconds higher than Lina Radke's result.

But overall the fight was exciting and interesting. As at previous Games, Finnish track and field athletes performed well. They won five gold, five silver and four bronze medals and won the 1500m, 5000m, 3000m steeplechase and 10,000m. At the last distance, the first to finish was the legendary Paavo Nurmi. This was his 9th Olympic gold medal!

As for American athletes, they won nine gold, eight silver and eight bronze medals in Amsterdam. An interesting fight took place in the long jump sector between the American Eduard Hemm and the Haitian athlete Silvio Cator. In 1928, it was they who led the main fight for the championship. The American came to the Olympics as a world record holder (7.90 m). The persistent struggle for Olympic gold also brought him victory with an Olympic record (7.73 m). However, the ambitious Kator still took revenge on the Olympic champion, winning the world championship with a new world record (7.93 m).

The admission of women to athletics competitions caused one incident: during the 800-meter race, young women fell exhausted onto the track. Since 1932, this distance was excluded from the Olympic program, and it appeared again only at the XVII Games, in 1960.

Marathon running brought an unexpected victory to France. The hero of the marathon was the little Algerian Bougera El Kafi, a laborer from the Renault factories in Billancourt. His run in Amsterdam was a masterpiece of tactics, caution, and ability to persevere. After the first ten kilometers he was 2 minutes 30 seconds behind the leaders. The leaders - Japanese and Finnish - seemed much more active. The Japanese K. Yamada, small but surprisingly sinewy and strong, made a breakthrough at the twenty-fifth kilometer. His mistake was that he went ahead very early. This mistake by Yamada became a trump card for El Kafi, who, picking up speed, saw rivals on his road who were exhausted in the fight with the Japanese. When the second hour of the race struck, he was already passing the Japanese runner. But three kilometers before the finish line, another danger awaited him - the Chilean Miguel Reyes Plaza rushed forward. But he overestimated his strength, and one and a half kilometers before the finish, El Kafi was already confident of his success. And he became an Olympic champion.

In Amsterdam, the first victories were won by representatives of Japan: Mikio Oda in the triple jump and Ishiuki Tsuruta in the 200-meter breaststroke. The Post Office of the Land of the Rising Sun also celebrated the first Olympic award for Japanese athletes. The first silver was won by Kinue Hitomi in the 800 meters. She lost less than a second to world record holder German runner Caroline Radke. Kinue Hitome exceeded the old German world record by as much as 2 seconds, but this was not enough. In a bitter struggle, Caroline Radke set a new world record (2:16.8) and rightfully became an Olympic champion.

As for swimming, it was this sport that produced the Hero of the 1928 Olympics. It was rightfully the American Johnny Weissmuller. Weissmuller competed in the 100-meter freestyle and in the 4 x 200-meter relay, ultimately winning two gold medals.

Johnny Weissmuller performed brilliantly in swimming pools in America and Europe for about ten years. His collection includes five gold Olympic medals. Twice he became the Olympic champion in the most prestigious swimming distance - 100 meters freestyle. At the same distance, Weissmuller was the first to break the minute and brought the world record to 57.4 seconds by 1924. In the pre- and post-war years, the screens of the world were filled with numerous episodes of the American action movie “Tarzan”. Of particular success were those episodes in the film where Tarzan demonstrated amazing athletic qualities: a breathtaking competition with a crocodile, breathtaking stunts in the jungle, and the hero’s long underwater journeys. The excellent athletic abilities of the performer in the role of Tarzan are undeniable. This is not surprising: after all, five-time Olympic champion Johnny Weissmuller starred in the role of Tarzan.

Weissmuller and his coach carefully, bit by bit, selected the best from the world's outstanding swimmers. They studied and selected only the most important thing: the manner of performing this or that element. And only after a detailed analysis was a decision made: how, in what form and to what extent this could be used for Johnny, taking into account his great ability to work and his excellent physical characteristics by that time. In a word, Bachrach adapted the technique of outstanding swimmers to the individual characteristics of his talented student. Johnny Weissmuller became famous for his victories in Olympic swimming pools, for his records: for ten years no one could come close to his record in the 100-meter dash. But his most important merit is that he gave the world’s swimmers an example of a thoughtful, creative attitude to swimming technique, to training methods, and showed how much a well-thought-out training system and preparation for competitions means.

At the Amsterdam Olympics, the winner of the weightlifting competition was for the first time determined by the sum of the classical triathlon: bench press, snatch, and clean and jerk. Weightlifters competed in five weight categories, and Olympic and world records were broken in all categories.

In freestyle wrestling, which was called freestyle wrestling in those years, US athletes were noticeably displaced by Europeans, and primarily by Finns and Swedes. Only in the featherweight division the title of Olympic champion went to an American.

The field hockey competition brought together 9 teams. For the first time, Indian hockey players took part in the Olympics. The debut brought them gold medals. From then until 1960 they were undefeated, and only in Rome did they have worthy opponents in the Pakistani team.

In Amsterdam, the first victories were won by representatives of the Land of the Rising Sun: Mikio Oda in the triple jump and Ishiuki Tsuruta in the 200-meter breaststroke.

Italians and French competed in fencing competitions with foils and epees. And if the first in both cases won as a team, then in the individual competition the veteran, Frenchman Lucien Gaudin, excelled. Thus ended the career of this outstanding fencer, who had been fighting for the Olympic title for twenty-five years, brilliantly. The Hungarians proved to be the strongest saber fencers, winning the championship in both the individual and team competitions. It was their first of seven consecutive gold medals they would win at the Olympics.

At the 1928 Games, the brilliant career of the German Helena Mayer began. Mayer became one of the strongest foil fencers of her time. At the Olympic Games she won gold (1928) and silver (1936) medals; 3-time world champion (1929, 1931, 1937), 6-time German champion, 9-time US champion. In 1923, at the age of 13, she won the German championship for the first time, playing for the Offenbach fencing club. In 1928, in addition to the Olympics, she won the Italian Championship. In 1932 she moved to the USA to study at the university. In 1933, after the Nazis came to power in Germany, for some time it was one of the sports symbols of Nazi propaganda. Later, her half-Jewish origin came to light and she was even expelled from her native fencing club in Offenbach. However, Helena Mayer was included in the German Olympic team in 1936. After the 1936 Olympic Games, she finally emigrated to the USA.

In aristocratic equestrian sport, 2 gold medals (individual and team dressage competitions) were won by Karl Friedrich von Langen-Parow, baron, German aristocrat. In equestrian sports, Czechoslovakian athlete František Ventura won the individual jumping competition on Eliot. Without receiving a single penalty point, he defeated 46 of the world's best athletes from 16 countries in a dispute.

46 countries. 3014 athletes (290 women). 14 sports. Leaders in the unofficial team competition: 1. USA (22-18-16); 2. Germany (10-7-14); 3. Finland (8-8-9)

Medal of the IX Summer Olympic Games 1928

Olympic Stadium in 1928

Participating countries

Medal count

rank	Nation	Gold	Silver	Bronze	Total
1	United States	22	18	16	56
2	Germany	10	7	14	31
3	Finland	8	8	9	25
4	Sweden	7	6	12	25
5	Italy	7	5	7	19
6	Switzerland	7	4	4	15
7	France	6	10	5	21
8	Netherlands	6	9	4	19
9	Hungary	4	5	0	9
10	Canada	4	4	7	15

Conclusion

Since ancient times, the Olympic Games have been the main sporting event of all times. During the days of the Olympics, harmony and reconciliation reigned throughout the entire world. Wars stopped and all strong and worthy people competed in a fair fight for the title of the best.

Over many centuries, the Olympic movement has overcome many obstacles, oblivion and alienation. But despite everything, the Olympic Games are still alive today. Of course, these are no longer the same competitions in which naked young men took part and the winner of which entered the city through a hole in the wall. These days, the Olympics are one of the biggest events in the world. The games are equipped with the latest technology - the results are monitored by computers and television cameras, the time is determined with an accuracy of thousandths of a second, the athletes and their results largely depend on the technical equipment.

Thanks to the media, there is not a single person left in the civilized world. Which I didn’t know what the Olympics were or wouldn’t have seen the competition on TV.

In recent years, the Olympic movement has acquired enormous proportions, and the capitals of the Games become the capitals of the world during the Games. Sport is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives!

List of used literature:

· B. Bazunov “Olympic Torch Relay”; Moscow 1990.

· V. Barvinsky, S. Vilinsky “Born by the Olympics”; Moscow 1985.

· L. Kuhn “General History of Physical Culture and Sports”; Moscow 1987.

· Yu. Shanin “From the Hellenes to the present day”; Moscow 1975.

They take (begin) their history from 776. BC They were held in honor of the conclusion of a truce between Hellas and Sparta. Competitions were held in different places in Greece - in Olympia (Olympic Games), in Delphi (Pythian Games), etc.

The ancient Olympic Games were held until 394. BC in total there were 293 of them. The games were held in Olympia on the banks of the Alpheus River.

Only free-born Greeks could participate in the Olympic Games. Slaves and women, as well as barbarians (foreigners) were not allowed to participate in competitions. The name of the winners was engraved on a marble column. The first winner, Korab from Hellas, is a cook.

The modern Summer Olympic Games arose at the end of the 19th century. In 1894, 1500 years after the ban, at the suggestion of the Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin;

(1863 - 1937), which convened the International Sports Congress, the International Olympic Committee was created, whose president was Coubertin (1895 - 1925). At the congress, the text of the oath of the Olympic Charter was approved. The motto of the Olympic Games is “Faster, higher, stronger.” The emblem of the games is 5 intertwined rings - the unity of continents.

In 1914 In Paris, in honor of the twentieth anniversary of the games, the Olympic flag was raised for the first time.

At the first games there were 13 countries competing in 9 sports. There were already 20 countries and 18 sports at the II Games.

Russian athletes first took part in the Games (IV) in London in 1908. In total there were 5 people in the delegation. Three won medals. Panin is gold. figure skating, wrestlers Orlov, Petrov - silver.

Soviet athletes first took part in the games in 1952.

Principles, rules and regulations of the Olympic Games

The principles, rules and regulations of the Olympic Games are determined by the Olympic Charter, the foundations of which were approved by the International Sports Congress in Paris in 1894, which, at the proposal of the French educator and public figure Pierre de Coubertin, decided to organize the Games on the model of the ancient ones and to create the International Olympic Committee (IOC). According to the charter, the Olympic Games “... unite amateur athletes from all countries in fair and equal competition. There shall be no discrimination against countries or individuals on racial, religious or political grounds...” The Games are held in the first year of the 4-year (Olympic) cycle. The Olympiads have been counted since 1896, when the first Olympic Games took place (I Olympiad - 1896-99). The Summer Olympics also receives its number in cases where the games are not held (for example, VI - in 1916-19, XII - 1940-43, XIII - 1944-47). In the numbering of the Winter Olympics, missed games are not taken into account (the IV Games of 1936 were followed by the V Games of 1948). The symbol of the Olympic Games is five fastened rings, symbolizing the unification of the five parts of the world in the Olympic movement, the so-called. Olympic rings. The color of the rings in the top row is blue for Europe, black for Africa, red for America, in the bottom row - yellow for Asia, green for Australia. In addition to Olympic sports, the organizing committee has the right to choose to include in the program exhibition competitions in 1-2 sports that are not recognized by the IOC. In the same year as the Olympics, the Winter Olympic Games have been held since 1924, which have their own numbering. Since 1994, the dates of the Winter Olympic Games have been shifted by 2 years relative to the summer ones. The location of the Olympics is chosen by the IOC; the right to organize them is granted to the city, not the country. The duration of the Games is on average 16-18 days. Taking into account the climatic characteristics of different countries, the Summer Games can be held not only in the “summer months”. Thus, the XXVII Summer Olympic Games in 2000 in Sydney (Australia), due to Australia’s location in the Southern Hemisphere, where summer begins in winter, were held in September, that is, in the spring. The Olympic movement has its own emblem and flag, approved by the IOC at the suggestion of Coubertin in 1913. The emblem is the Olympic rings. The motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius (Latin for “faster, higher, stronger”). The flag is a white cloth with the Olympic rings, and has been flown at all Games since 1920. Among the traditional rituals of the Games (in the order in which they are held):

Grandiose and colorful opening and closing ceremonies of the Games. From year to year, the best of the best from all over the world are involved in developing the scripts for these spectacles: screenwriters, organizers of mass shows, special effects specialists, etc. Many famous singers, actors and other important people strive to take part in this spectacle. Broadcasts of these events break records of viewership every time. Each country organizing the Olympics strives to surpass all previous ceremonies in the scope and beauty of these ceremonies. Ceremony scripts are kept in the strictest confidence until they begin. The ceremonies take place in large central stadiums, where athletics competitions are held.

The opening and closing begins with a theatrical performance, which should present to the audience the appearance of the country and city, and introduce them to their history and culture.

The ceremonial passage of athletes and members of delegations through the central stadium. Athletes from each country go in a separate group. Traditionally, the delegation of athletes from Greece, the parent country of the Games, goes first. Other groups are in order corresponding to the alphabetical order of the names of countries in the language of the host country of the Games. (Or in the official IOC language - French or English). At the front of each group is a representative of the host country, carrying a sign with the name of the respective country in the language of the host country of the Games and in the official languages of the IOC. Behind him at the head of the group is a standard bearer - usually an athlete participating in the games, carrying the flag of his country. The right to carry the flag is highly honorable for athletes. As a rule, this right is trusted to the most titled and respected athletes.

Delivery of welcoming speeches by the IOC President (mandatory), the head or official representative of the state in which the Games are taking place, sometimes the mayor of the city or the Chairman of the Organizing Committee. The latter, at the end of the speech, must utter the words: “(serial number of games) Summer (Winter) Olympic Games I declare open.” After which, as a rule, a gun salvo and many volleys of fireworks and fireworks are fired.

Raising the flag of Greece as the parent country of the Games with the performance of its national anthem.

Raising the flag of the host country of the Games with the performance of its national anthem.

The pronouncement by one of the outstanding athletes of the country in which the Olympics are taking place, the Olympic oath on behalf of all participants in the games about fair fight in accordance with the rules and principles of sport and the Olympic spirit (in recent years, words have also been spoken about the non-use of prohibited drugs - doping);

An oath of impartial judging by several judges on behalf of all judges;

Raising the Olympic flag with the performance of the official Olympic anthem.

Sometimes - raising the flag of Peace (a blue cloth depicting a white dove holding an olive branch in its beak - two traditional symbols of Peace), symbolizing the tradition of stopping all armed conflicts during the Games.

The opening ceremony culminates with the lighting of the Olympic flame. The fire is lit from the sun's rays in Olympia (Greece) in the Temple of the pagan Greek god Apollo (in Ancient Greece, Apollo was considered the patron saint of the Games). The “High Priestess” of Hera says a prayer with the following content: “Apollo, god of the sun and the idea of light, send your rays and light the sacred torch for the hospitable city ... (name of the city).” “The Olympic torch relay took place all over the world until 2007. Now, for the purposes of the anti-terrorism campaign, the torch is carried only in the country in which the games are taking place. From country to country, the torch is delivered by plane, and in each country an athlete or other figure from that country runs his part The relay is of great interest in all countries through which the Olympic flame passes. The first part of the relay passes through the cities of the host country of the Games. to the host city. The athletes of this country deliver the torch to the central stadium at the very end of the ceremony. At the stadium, the torch is carried around the circle several times, passing from hand to hand, until it is given to the athlete who is entrusted with the right to light the Olympic flame. This right is the most honorable. The fire is lit in a special bowl, the design of which is unique for each Olympics. Also, the organizers always try to come up with an original and interesting way of lighting. The bowl is located high above the stadium. The fire must burn throughout the Olympics and is extinguished at the end of the closing ceremony.

Presentation of medals to the winners and prize-winners of the competition on a special podium with the raising of national flags and the playing of the national anthem in honor of the winners.

During the closing ceremony there are also: a theatrical performance - farewell to the Olympics, the passage of participants, a speech by the IOC President and a representative of the host country. However, the closure of the Olympics is already announced by the IOC President. This is followed by the singing of the national anthem, the Olympic anthem, while the flags are lowered. A representative of the host country solemnly hands over the Olympic flag to the IOC President, who in turn hands it over to a representative of the Organizing Committee of the next Olympiad. This is followed by a short introduction to the next city hosting the Games. At the end of the ceremony, the Olympic flame slowly goes out to lyrical music.

Since 1932, the host city has been building an “Olympic village” - a complex of residential premises for the participants of the games.

The organizers of the Games are developing the symbols of the Olympics - the official emblem and mascot of the Games. The emblem usually has a unique design, stylized according to the characteristics of the country. The emblem and mascot of the Games are an integral part of the souvenir products produced in large quantities on the eve of the Games. Revenue from sales of souvenirs can make up a significant part of the income from the Olympics, but they do not always cover expenses.

According to the charter, the Games are a competition between individual athletes and not between national teams. However, since 1908 the so-called unofficial team standings - determining the place occupied by teams based on the number of medals received and points scored in competitions (points are awarded for the first 6 places according to the system: 1st place - 7 points, 2nd - 5, 3rd - 4, 4 -e - 3, 5th - 2, 6th - 1). The title of Olympic champion is the most honorable and coveted title in the career of an athlete in those sports in which Olympic tournaments are held. See Olympic sports. The exceptions are football, baseball, and other team sports that take place in open areas, since either youth teams (football - up to 23 years old) take part in them, or due to the busy game schedule, not the strongest players come.