Anglo-Turkish War 1915. Gallipoli Operation

By the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Porte, of course, was no longer the powerful empire that terrified European capitals in the 15th-17th centuries. And yet, thanks to its extremely advantageous strategic position, which allowed it to connect Europe with Asia and block the entrance to the Black Sea, it was a tasty acquisition for the opposing coalitions. In the struggle for Turkey, Germany's chances were much preferable to those of the Entente. It so happened that first Prussia and then the German Empire were the only great powers of that time who did not have any territorial claims to the Porte.

This circumstance played a decisive role and determined sympathy in Istanbul for the Central Powers. Despite the fact that Turkey signed an alliance treaty with Germany on August 2, 1914, at the beginning of the First World War it formally maintained neutrality. However, the neutrality was fragrant. The Turks allowed the German cruisers Goeben and Breslau into the Black Sea.

Neutrality did not last long. Grand Vizier Enver Pasha, the main hawk in the Porte government, declared jihad against the Entente countries, and on October 29-30, the Turkish fleet under the command of the German admiral Wilhelm Souchon bombarded Odessa, Novorossiysk and the Crimean coast.

“I threw the Turks into a powder keg,” Souchon wrote in his diary, “and ignited a war between Russia and Turkey.”

Russia declared war on Turkey on November 2, 1914, and Britain and France a few days later - on November 5 and 6, respectively.

The main events in the Dardanelles unfolded the following year, 15th year. The Allied squadrons entered the strait at 10.30 am on March 18, 1915. The day before, English and French sailors cleared the fairway of mines, so the ships sailed without fear of mines. However, it was the mines laid by the Turks at night, as well as the unexpectedly high professional skill of the Turkish artillerymen, that played a decisive role in the naval battle.

The battleship Suffren received heavy damage from numerous hits from artillery shells, and the ships Gaulois and Bouvet were blown up by mines. Moreover, “Bouvet” sank to the bottom and claimed the lives of approx. 600 sailors and officers.

The second line of attack also suffered heavy losses: "Agamemnon" - from artillery fire, and "Irresistible" and "Ocean" were first blown up by mines, and then came under fire from Turkish coastal batteries and sank.

The Allies suffered a complete defeat. Almost a third of the squadron was put out of action: three ships were sunk and three more received very serious damage. The Turks lost a total of only 8 guns on the shore.

The Allies had to launch a ground operation. The 80,000-strong landing force that landed on the Gallipoli peninsula on April 25 consisted of the British, French, Indians, Australians and New Zealanders. Fierce fighting on the peninsula continued until the end of summer. At the end of August it became clear that the battle for Gallipoli was also lost. The last Allied troops left the peninsula in early 1916. The operation, proposed and developed by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, was a complete fiasco. Allied losses amounted to approx. 44 thousand people killed. 56 thousand Turks died in the battles for Gallipoli.

The Turks owe much of their success in the Battle of Gallipoli to a young officer named Mustafa Kemal Pasha, better known today as Atatürk (father of the Turks). Ataturk, who became the first president of modern Turkey, was distinguished by his extraordinary fortitude and courage.

“I am not ordering you to attack,” he once ordered his soldiers during the Battle of Gallipoli. “I am ordering you to die!”

The victory at Gallipoli brought only moral consolation to the Porte. On most other fronts, poorly trained and armed Turkish troops suffered defeat after defeat. The First World War was the last for the Turkish Empire. On November 1, 1922, the Sultanate was abolished, and on November 17, the last Sultan, Mehmet VI, left Istanbul.

MOSCOW, April 25 - RIA Novosti, Tatyana Kalmykova. The twenty-fifth of April is celebrated in Australia as ANZAC Day, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps formed to participate in the First World War.

This date coincides with the military campaign on the Gallipoli Peninsula: on April 25, 1915, ANZAC forces landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula (Turkey). This year marks the hundredth anniversary of this operation.

The Dardanelles (Gallipoli) operation, which lasted almost a year, was an important episode of the First World War. It did not bring Britain, France and their allies the desired result - the capture of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles - due to the stubborn resistance of Turkish troops. Their success in the Battle of Gallipoli was decisive for the entire operation, which ended with the withdrawal of foreign troops from Turkish territory.

On the eve of the memorable date, a special correspondent for RIA Novosti spoke with the Australian Ambassador to the Russian Federation, Paul Mailer, and Elena Govor, candidate of historical sciences, author of the book “Russian Anzacs in Australian History.”

Thread of history

Not many people know that during the First World War, over a thousand soldiers of the Russian Empire served in the ranks of the Australian Army, and even constituted the largest national group of non-Anglo-Celtic origin.

Naryshkin will represent Russia at the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Gallipoli in TurkeyThe Chairman of the State Duma, Chairman of the national Organizing Committee for the preparation of events related to the 100th anniversary of the outbreak of the First World War, will take part in events dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the Dardanelles operation.

“It’s important that we fought and did it together with Russia, and this is a part of history that has been forgotten. We now want to remind people of this,” says the Australian ambassador to the Russian Federation.

Myler said the work "Russian Anzacs in Australian History" reveals an obscure part of history.

“There was a stereotype that each of the Australians going to war was in one way or another a bearer of British heritage, but now we have found out that people came from all over the world, including from Russia,” the diplomat noted.

“It is this diversity that has largely made the history of modern Australia, and they are responsible for much of what we see as a country today,” Myler explained.

Foundation of the Nation

According to historian Elena Govor, the landing at Gallipoli and subsequent battles became the “foundation of the nation.”

“When they (the Anzacs - ed.) went to war, participated in joint battles, they actually felt that they were part of one nation. The people who left Gallipoli - they were truly brothers, they became a new nation, a new identity was formed. The Battle of Gallipoli was a tragic event, but it was associated with intentions to help Russia,” Govor emphasized.

Myler, in turn, noted that Australia participated in the First World War not because the country was under direct threat from the outside, but because “we believed that this was the right decision in relation to the international community, international law.”

"Peace and human values ​​were in danger, so we tried to break through the Black Sea and prevent Germany from attacking Russian bases," he says.

Russians in Australia

“My book is about people's lives, what happened to Russian migrants living in Australia after the war, and how they assimilated into society,” says Govor.

According to her, there are now several Russian communities in Australia. Pre-revolutionary Russian immigration, the Russians who participated in the ANZACs are one of them.

“Now the children and grandchildren of these immigrants are still interested in their relatives and are trying to restore their connection with Russia. They feel that they have lost this connection and are now trying to restore it,” the historian notes.

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United Kingdom
Australia
British India
Newfoundland
New Zealand

Commanders

Mustafa Kemal Esat Pasha Vehip Pasha Cevat Pasha Fuad Pasha Otto Liman von Sanders

Strengths of the parties Losses Media files on Wikimedia Commons

Dardanelles operation (Battle of Gallipoli ; Battle of Canakkale ; tour. Çanakkale Savaşı; English Gallipoli Campaign) is a large-scale military operation that lasted from February 19 to January 9 and was launched during the First World War on the initiative of Winston Churchill by the Entente countries, mainly the British Empire, with the goal of capturing Constantinople, withdrawing Turkey from the war and opening a sea route to Russia.

Background of the operation

On January 2, 1915, the Russian Commander-in-Chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, asked the Allies to carry out demonstrative actions that could divert part of the Turkish forces from the Caucasus Front. The next day, Kitchener met with Churchill, at which a decision was made to provide assistance to Russia. The Allied squadron was supposed to cross the Dardanelles and break through to Constantinople.

1. The defeat of the outer forts.
2. Sweeping minefields and destroying intermediate fortifications.
3. Destruction of internal forts and fortifications.
4. Exit to the Sea of ​​Marmara.

This plan of Cardin was approved by the top leadership, and an Anglo-French squadron, which consisted of 80 ships and vessels, was sent to the Dardanelles. Among them were 16 battleships, 1 battleship, 1 battle cruiser, 5 light cruisers, 22 destroyers, 9 submarines, 24 minesweepers, 1 air transport and 1 hospital ship. The most modern ships in the squadron were the battleship Queen Elizabeth and the battle cruiser Inflexible, which was supposed to prevent the German Goeben from leaving the Dardanelles. Great hopes were placed on the battleship: it was believed that its 381-mm shells would be able to destroy the Dardanelles forts.

At a meeting of the Military Council on January 28, the final decision was made: the fleet in the Dardanelles will operate independently, without the help of the army.

The Turkish command, through spies, became aware of the preparations for the operation, so it immediately began strengthening the defense of the strait.

Start of operation

On February 19, 1915, the Anglo-French fleet (6 battleships, 1 battlecruiser) began shelling the Ottoman forts, but the allies were unable to cause any significant damage to the Turkish defenses.

On February 25, the Allies suppressed some Turkish coastal batteries and began sweeping mines in the strait. 3 battleships followed the minesweepers. However, fire was soon opened on them from Turkish batteries, as a result of which the British and French had to retreat.

A general attack on the Dardanelles was scheduled for March 18. Cardin was succeeded by another British admiral, De Robeck. The Allies received reinforcements and now reduced all the ships in the theater into 3 divisions. However, the Turkish command also strengthened the forts and increased the number of mines in the strait.

Attack of March 18

March 18 at 10:30 a.m. Allied ships entered the strait. The Turks allowed the enemy closer and opened heavy artillery fire from the dominant heights. The battleships "Suffren" and "Agamemnon" were seriously damaged, and "Gaulois", "Bouvet", "Ocean", "Irresistible" were blown up by mines laid the day before by the Turkish minelayer "Nusret" (the last three ships were sunk). At 6 p.m., British Admiral De Robeck gave the order to stop the operation. The Turks suffered minor losses (only 8 guns on coastal batteries were knocked out).

Continuing the operation

Despite the failure of the operation to cross the Dardanelles, the Allied command did not stop hostilities. The new plan called for an amphibious landing to suppress Turkish coastal batteries. For the landing on Gallipoli, it was decided to involve not only English and French, but also Australian and New Zealand (ANZAC), as well as Senegalese, Indian troops and even the Jewish Legion. The total number of troops reached 81,000 people and 178 guns.

To defend the Dardanelles, the Turks formed the 5th Turkish Army (commanded by German General von Sanders). The entire Turkish defense system was strengthened, the number of Ottoman troops in the straits area was increased.

Landing

On April 25, 1915, the British and their allies began landing troops on the Gallipoli Peninsula in the area of ​​Cape Helles in several directions. Along with the main direction of the attack on the Seddyulbakhir fort, the attackers undertook a series of diversionary maneuvers on the forts of Aryburn and Kumkale. The Turks (Essad Pasha) were expecting an attack and responded with machine-gun fire (the coast was also fortified with barbed wire and minefields), but the British, despite heavy losses, still managed to gain a foothold on the coast.

French troops landed on the Asian coast in the Kumkale area with the active participation of the Russian landing team of the cruiser Askold. The goal was also to divert enemy forces from the main landing site on the Gallipoli Peninsula. On the first day, the French managed to take 2 villages, but units of the 3rd Turkish Division arrived in time and stopped the French advance. The French troops were put back on ships and transported to the European coast. The commander of the Russian landing team, Lieutenant S. Kornilov, was awarded the Order of St. George, as well as the foreign orders of the Legion of Honor and Queen Victoria for his participation in the operation.

After the first day of the landing operation, Allied losses were enormous: about 18,000 people. The Ottoman 5th Army almost completely completed its task. In order to finally throw the enemy landings into the sea, the Ottoman command did not have enough funds. Russian losses consisted of only a few sailors from the landing team. They were all buried in the Gallipoli International Cemetery, in the French section.

The fighting detachment of volunteers from then-neutral Greece was led by Pavlos Giparis. Together with the British units, the “Zion Mule Corps”, formed from Jewish volunteers, landed on the peninsula to jointly fight with the British against the Ottoman Empire.

Battle of Krithia

After the landing, the Anglo-French command decided to move deeper into the peninsula. The main task of the Anglo-French troops was to capture the village of Krithia before the arrival of additional Turkish forces on Gallipoli. On April 28, Anglo-French troops launched an attack on Krithia. Initially, allied units occupied the outskirts of Krithia, but Turkish reinforcements arrived and stopped the advance of the Anglo-French. Fierce fighting for Krithia continued throughout the day. After it became clear that Kritia could not be captured, the commander of the operation, Hamilton, gave the order to end the battle.

In May, the Anglo-French tried to expand their bridgeheads, but the stubborn fighting that continued in May did not bring them results. On May 6, the Allies again attempted to capture Krithia. However, after long and bloody battles, Kritia remained in the hands of the Ottoman troops. On June 4, the Anglo-French again launched an attack on Krithia. The Allies initially managed to make a strong advance, but the Turks soon stopped the Allied advance with field artillery. On June 5, the Turks carried out two major counterattacks, which were repulsed; during these attacks, the head of the French corps, General Gouraud, was seriously wounded. Later, it was decided not to support the operation with naval forces, which were sent to the bases.

Fights in August

After these failures, the allied command decides to increase the number of troops. For this, 5 more divisions were transferred to Gallipoli. The landing at Suvla Bay began on August 6th. The allied troops at Gaba Tepe, in order to ease the situation of the landing units, went on the offensive. By August 8, 10,000 people had been landed. In August, fierce battles broke out on all sectors of the front. However, the British failed to advance. Having suffered heavy losses, they suspended their movement. At the end of August it became clear that the Dardanelles operation was failing.

Evacuation

On December 7, the British government ordered the evacuation of Allied forces from Gallipoli, which ended on January 9, 1916.

Losses

• lost 119.7 thousand people killed, wounded and missing.
• Australia lost 8,709 killed
• New Zealand lost 2,721 people killed
• lost 26.5-47 thousand people killed, wounded, missing and captured
• The Ottoman Empire lost no more than 186,000 people killed, wounded, missing and captured. Previously, according to the most reliable data, it was believed that the Turkish army lost 218 thousand people, of which 66 thousand were killed. But modern Turkish historians Gulci and Aldogan, after long work in the archives with unchanged total losses, increase the number of deaths to 101,279 people. A quarter of irretrievable losses are accounted for by missing persons.

Results

The Ottoman victory at Gallipoli was of great political and moral significance, as it dispelled the myth of both Turkish inferiority and the superiority of their European opponents. For the Turks, in historical memory, the Battle of Gallipoli is of particular significance also because one of the organizers of the defense of the Dardanelles was Mustafa Kemal, the future founder and president of the Turkish Republic (Ataturk). Largely thanks to the success of Turkey and Germany, Bulgaria entered the war on their side. Churchill, as the initiator of the operation, was forced to resign and was able to return to British politics only much later than the end of the war. But even after that, the severity of the defeat at Gallipoli continued to weigh heavily on Churchill. Undoubtedly, this restrained him in making the decision to open a second front in Europe in 1941-44.

Memory

Memory in Turkey

Ceremony to mark the 100th anniversary of the victory

On April 24, 2015, a ceremony was held in Turkey to mark the 100th anniversary of the victory in Battle of Canakkale . The ceremony was attended by heads of state from 21 countries, as well as dignitaries from more than 70 countries. Among them were Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev, and heir to the British throne Prince of Wales Charles, who gave a speech.

Memory in Australia and New Zealand

Dardanelles operation became baptism of fire

Let's expose! Did the bullet penetrate the bullet? May 1st, 2015

Here's a photo starts surfing the internet. By the way, one inquisitive blog reader sent it to me. It is usually written that these are two colliding bullets from the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915-16. A very unusual exhibit!

But can such a case happen in reality? Let's try to figure it out...

Many have already seen on the Internet two bullets colliding in flight.

Reportedly, these are bullets from the Crimean War - French and Russian - found during excavations.

This option checked by MYTHBUSERS and they succeeded.

What about our case? Let's first remember what the Battle of Gallipoli is.

The Battle of Gallipoli, also known as the Dardanelles, was one of the bloodiest in the First World War.

By February 1915, fighting was taking place on all fronts of the First World War. The Ottoman Empire, which was called the “sick man of Europe,” continued to resist the Entente countries. Sometimes it was quite bitter - it was reflected in resentment towards the European powers, which by the beginning of the 20th century turned out to be the catalyst for the final stagnation of the once mighty empire. The last straw was Great Britain's refusal to transfer dreadnoughts to the Ottomans“Reshadiye” and “Sultan Osman I”, for the purchase and equipment of which the Turks spent literally their last money.

The strategic decision not to give up the ships was made by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. In February 1915, he decided that it was time for the Europeans to recapture Istanbul.

Although no one needed Istanbul itself. Over the centuries, first Constantinople and then its renamed reincarnation, many have tried or dreamed of taking possession from across the straits. The Bosphorus and Dardanelles connect the Aegean Sea with the Sea of ​​Marmara, and it with the Black Sea.

All this might not have happened, but Churchill was finally convinced of the need to capture the straits after the Russians asked for it. And they did this because the military operations against Turkey on the Caucasian front became more complicated: the Ottomans tried to involve Persia and Afghanistan in the war against the Russian Empire.

In simple terms, taking advantage of the fact that the Ottoman sultan was also the caliph, the Turks tried to declare jihad on Russia and call on these countries to fight it.

The Allies saw this and decided not to hesitate. The operation began on February 19, when ships of the Anglo-French fleet entered the strait and began shelling the Ottoman forts. By that time, the forts were significantly fortified, and mines were placed on the water around them.

The shelling continued for several hours, but did not cause significant damage to the Turkish fortifications. The operation stopped for almost a week, but now the landing was prevented by mines. After several meetings, it was decided to carry out a general attack.

However, the Entente failed again - first the ships hit mines that the Ottomans had laid in the dead of night. And then a massive shelling began.

It was decided to act differently - to land a ground assault on the Gallipoli Peninsula, which would capture the forts and open the way to Istanbul. Since there were not enough forces, Great Britain sent Australians and New Zealanders to fight. The Dardanelles operation became both a baptism of fire and one of the main tragedies for them. In total, 81 thousand people took part in the ground operation from the Entente. True, it was decided to resume the operation only on April 25.

The landing in all directions quickly turned into a bloodbath. Even the support of the Russian landing cruiser Askold, which came to their aid, did not save the British and French. It is symbolic that after the revolution, the British will requisition this ship, rename it “Glory IV”, and then sell it in deplorable condition to Soviet Russia, which will have to pay Germany in order to dispose of the once excellent ship.

On April 25 alone, more than 18 thousand soldiers from the Entente were killed. Turkish losses were several times smaller.

Surprisingly, the fighting continued until August 1915. Moreover, it was not the British and French themselves who took part in them. In addition to the mentioned Australians and New Zealanders, Senegalese, Algerians, and Indians fought. Either flaring up or fading, the operation was completed in January 1916. According to rough estimates, 250 thousand people were killed by the Entente. There were approximately the same number of deaths on the part of the Ottoman Empire.

Churchill resigned and, after some deliberation, went to the Western Front. And Russia continued to hope that it would still get the Bosporus and Dardanelles. But looking at what happened with the allies, I was in no particular hurry to implement these plans.

In such a bloody battle, could such a structure arise from bullets colliding in flight? Definitely not. Or rather, the design could have arisen, but not from flying bullets. And here's why.

The bullet that was pierced has no marks from the barrel, therefore it was not fired. Most likely it was a whole cartridge (in a machine gun belt, in a rifle, a box of cartridges) that was hit by a bullet. The sleeve was removed and the composition was put on display in a museum.

What do you think? Correct conclusion?

And I’ll remind you of some more interesting revelations in my opinion: here, for example, but for example, many are sure that and. Few people know about and what The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy was made -

England and France sought to forestall Russia in taking control of the strategically important straits. The initiator of the Dardanelles operation was British Navy Minister W. Churchill. The initial plan provided for the sequential destruction of Turkish coastal batteries and forts by naval artillery fire, clearing the strait of mines and the breakthrough of the Anglo-French fleet into the Sea of ​​Marmara to capture Constantinople. Having learned about the preparations for the Dardanelles operation, the German-Turkish command redeployed parts of the 1st and 2nd Turkish armies from the Bosporus region to the Dardanelles and strengthened the coastal defense of the straits, increasing the number of artillery forts and batteries to 199 guns (including 175 150-355 guns -mm caliber), minefields up to 10 lines (375 min). At the entrance to the Dardanelles on both banks there were external batteries (26 guns), then intermediate (85 guns) and in the Canakkale area - internal (88 guns).

The troops of the 3rd Corps were located on the fortified positions of the northern coast of the Dardanelles, and to the south - the 15th Corps of the 1st Army (commanded by German General Liman von Sanders). By mid-February 1915, the Anglo-French fleet (commanded by the English Admiral Carden) concentrated in Mudroye Bay on the island of Lemnos (11 battleships, 1 battle cruiser, 4 light cruisers, 16 destroyers, 7 submarines, 1 air transport). The fleet, having a great superiority over the Turkish coastal defense in large-caliber artillery (92 guns of 234-380 mm caliber and 190 guns of 102-191 mm caliber), began bombarding external batteries on February 19. Due to strong fire resistance from the Turks and firing across areas, the results of the 6-hour shooting turned out to be insignificant. Subsequent artillery strikes were also unsuccessful. To achieve this goal, the Allies attracted all naval forces concentrated in the Dardanelles region (17 battleships, 1 battle cruiser, 16 destroyers, 1 air transport) to participate in the operation. On March 18, the allied fleet under the command of Admiral de Robeck (replaced by Admiral Cardin) made a new attempt to break through to the Dardanelles. But she also failed.

Then it was decided to abandon a purely naval operation and carry out a combined (land-sea) operation: to seize the Gallipoli Peninsula and fortifications in the Dardanelles with landing forces in order to ensure a breakthrough of the fleet into the Sea of ​​Marmara, and then to capture Constantinople with a strike from land and sea. Preparations for the Anglo-French expeditionary force to be sent to the landing area were carried out openly and slowly in Alexandria (North Africa). This allowed the enemy to unravel the plan of the operation and take measures to strengthen the defense of the Dardanelles. The Turkish command formed a new 5th Army (6 divisions, commander General Liman von Sanders), including in its composition the formations of the 1st Army that occupied the defense in the Dardanelles region. On April 25, the allied landing (81 thousand people and 178 guns) under the command of the English General J. Hamilton began to land on the southern tip of the Gallipoli Peninsula at Seddulbahir (main forces), at Cape Kabatepe (auxiliary forces), at Cape Kumkale and in Saros Bay ( demonstrative forces). The enemy put up stubborn resistance, but the main and auxiliary landing forces managed to capture small bridgeheads (up to 1-1.5 km in depth), losing up to 18 thousand people in the first two days. To expand the bridgehead, the British command decided to launch a second landing. About 127 thousand additional people were sent from England to the Gallipoli Peninsula. Having brought the composition of the troops to 12 divisions in early August and landing a new landing force in Suvla Bay (10 thousand people) on the night of August 7, the Anglo-French troops went on the offensive. By August 10, Turkish troops (14 divisions) repelled the offensive.

In these battles, the British and French lost about 45 thousand people, and the Turks lost about the same amount. The failure of the Anglo-French forces in August greatly contributed to Bulgaria's decision to enter the war on the side of Germany and served as the reason for Churchill's resignation as Minister of Navy. At the end of 1915, due to the successful offensive of the Austro-German and Bulgarian troops in the Balkan theater of operations, the defeat of the Serbian army and the threat of Greece acting on the side of Germany, the Allies stopped the Dardanelles operation and evacuated troops (145 thousand people, 15 thousand horses and 400 guns ) to Greece to strengthen the Thessaloniki Expeditionary Force. In total, the struggle for the Dardanelles lasted 259 days. It was attended by 490 thousand people from England, 80 thousand people from France, and 700 thousand people from Turkey. During it, England lost 119.7 thousand killed, wounded and missing, France - 26.5 thousand, Turkey - 186 thousand. Human; The Anglo-French fleet lost 6 battleships, the Turkish - 1 battleship.

The failure of the Dardanelles operation was due to the mistakes of the Anglo-French command. It sought to seize the straits and the capital of Turkey without proper interaction with the Russian army and navy (there were acute contradictions between the Entente countries). The initial plan of the operation was also flawed - to capture the Dardanelles and Constantinople with the forces of one fleet. The Anglo-French command underestimated the enemy's defenses, the secrecy of the operation's preparations and the surprise of the first landing; the landing of the second landing turned out to be late, because by that time the enemy had created a strong defense. Serious reasons for the failure of the Dardanelles operation were also the skillful use of ground forces, coastal artillery and anti-landing minefields by the German-Turkish command, as well as the effective actions of the German fleet on communications. The experience of the Dardanelles operation forced us to reconsider our views on the methods of preparing and conducting the fight for the capture of a fortified sea area and required the development of new methods for preparing and conducting amphibious landing operations.

Development of the Dardanelles Operation